What are defense mechanisms?

Introduction

The concept of defense mechanisms was originally proposed in the early twentieth century by Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, who described them as ways to protect a person from experiencing overwhelming anxiety by keeping unacceptable impulses and thoughts from coming into conscious awareness. Anxiety is an unpleasant state of emotional distress signaling impending danger and is quite difficult to tolerate. According to Freud, anxiety is experienced when there is internal conflict or conflict between the self and external reality. Defense mechanisms distort reality, allowing people to feel less anxious.

Repression
was considered by Freud to be the primary defense mechanism, operating unconsciously by pushing down anxiety-provoking ideas and wishes, thus blocking them from awareness. This process, which requires a constant use of psychic energy to prohibit these dangerous ideas from reaching the conscious level, is normal except when used to an extreme degree.

Common Defense Mechanisms

In 1946, Anna Freud expanded on her father’s work in this area and elaborated on specific defense mechanisms that may be used by the ego to minimize anxiety. In addition to repression, the ego may use other defense mechanisms, such as denial, reaction formation, projection, introjection, displacement, or sublimation.

Denial
is characterized by a refusal to believe in the reality of an event as an attempt to cope with an external threat. For example, a person may deny a spouse’s illicit affair despite clear evidence or signs of its occurrence. Denial also operates when someone refuses to acknowledge addiction or a serious medical condition. This defense can be used adaptively when it helps a person remain positive in a situation in which there is no possibility of remedy, such as having a terminal illness.

Reaction formation is used when a person deals with anxiety-laden feelings by repressing those feelings and consciously emphasizing the opposite. It can often be detected when a response or behavior is overdone and disproportionate to the context. For example, an individual may display exaggerated love and affection to conceal feelings of intense hatred or dislike.

Another important defense mechanism is
projection, in which unacceptable anxiety-provoking feelings, impulses, and desires are conveniently attributed to someone else. Often, projection allows a person to not acknowledge an undesirable aspect of the self, yet see this characteristic and even vehemently dislike it in another person. Paranoid people, for example, may project unacceptable feelings of dislike or hatred onto others, thus believing that others hate them and are untrustworthy and dangerous. In so doing, paranoid people do not have to acknowledge their own hateful feelings, which cause anxiety and perhaps guilt. Introjection works in the opposite way by taking in or incorporating desirable aspects of another person, which can help minimize anxiety and feelings of inadequacy.

The defense mechanism of displacement redirects unacceptable sexual and aggressive impulses to a substitute target that is much less threatening. A classic example is when a man frustrated with his supervisor comes home and kicks the dog in anger. Dangerous impulses are thus directed toward a person or object considered safe, and anxiety is reduced.

Sublimation, often considered to be a more mature defense mechanism, transforms the direct expression of the instinct into a higher, more socially acceptable and useful form. Whereas the other defense mechanisms benefit only the individual, sublimation has the potential to benefit both the individual and society. For example, artists may redirect sexual energy into creative outlets that provide personal pleasure and societal edification.

Defenses and Object Relations Theory

Object relations theory further develops Freud’s ideas, emphasizing the importance of the inner world and its impact on relationships with objects (others). Melanie Klein, considered by many to be the most influential object relations theorist, expanded on Freud’s instinct theory and stressed the importance of human contact and the relational aspect of early infantile development. Patterns of relating to others are developed in childhood and recur throughout life.

Based on her observations of young children, Klein proposed that defense mechanisms start in infancy, helping the infant cope with feelings of anxiety associated with this period of extreme vulnerability and helplessness. Introjection is the process of incorporating or taking in good and bad external objects. Good (gratifying) objects are introjected to protect against anxiety by providing a good aspect of the self. Bad (frustrating) objects are taken in as a way to gain control and to maintain the positive perception of the needed other. Projection refers to the process of getting rid of good and bad internal objects. Destructive impulses are projected outside, allowing the infant to seemingly get rid of persecutory bad feelings and maintain a sense of inner goodness. Good internal feelings can also be projected, allowing the infant to attribute goodness to others. Splitting keeps the bad and the good apart and initially helps the infant to develop without unbearable anxiety. With maturity, one is able to experience others with ambivalence, having both good and bad qualities, rather than as all good (idealized) or all bad (devalued).

Bibliography

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