How would you structure an essay around the premise that Frankenstein is "a novel about outsiders"?

Well, the first thing your essay should do is explain what you mean by "outsider." One thing you could discuss is the idea of an "outsider" as someone who is excluded from mainstream society, for whatever reason. Dr. Frankenstein, and his "child," the monster, could be compared using this theme.

The monster is most definitely an outsider -- not only is he shunned by his "parent," the Doctor, but his "monstrosity" makes him unfit for any sort of human company. We can see this at work in the part of the book where the monster hides and observes for many days the lives of the De Lacey family. The monster is moved by the loving example of the family, but when he makes himself known to them, they are horrified.

Dr. Frankenstein himself is an outsider as well -- but in a different way. His single-minded quest to understand the limits of mortality and master the secret of creating life alienates him from everyone else and leads to the death of his friend, Clerval, and his new wife. 

In both cases, the relationship of individual to society (their "outsiderness") is a function, in part, of the parent-child bond Frankenstein shares with the monster. The idea is that in forsaking his child, Frankenstein has ignored a basic rule of social responsibility -- raising your children. In a sense, it is because he repudiated the monster that they are both consigned to being outsiders. 

What is the theme and evidence of the theme in Gary Schmidt's Okay for Now?

The central theme in Gary Schmidt's Okay for Now concerns the extraordinary human ability to remain optimistic and rise above adversity. Schmidt paints this extraordinary ability through Doug's coming-of-age story. Doug faces a lot of abuse, both at home and at school. Doug starts out behaving the way many people would behave in his situation—like a withdrawn, insolent jerk. The more he decides he doesn't want to behave that way and embraces the world around him, though, the more he develops into a caring and courageous person, ready to embrace the wonderful adventures the future holds in store for him.

The theme of the book is first and best reflected in the title, Okay for Now. Despite his tribulations, Doug frequently, optimistically sees himself as being okay—for now. The meaning of the title and corresponding theme is reflected throughout the book each time Doug the narrator uses the word okay. For example, at one point he informs his reader he feels humiliated to be seen without his shirt on because, the night of his 12th birthday, his father came home drunk and took him out to get his birthday present—a tattoo with scrolls and flowers that reads "Mama's Baby" (Chapter 4). Not only does he have the tattoo to humiliate him, he is frequently bruised. At one point, Doug's gym teacher, Mr. Reed, learns about the tattoo and tries to incite an aggressive wrestling match by whispering to Doug's opponent to call Doug "Mama's Baby." The opponent refuses, however, and the entire wrestling class rebels against Mr. Reed. By the end of the day, Doug no longer fears being harassed because of the tattoo. He compares himself to Audubon's drawing titled Snowy Heron and notes that the heron still stands "proud and beautiful" (Chapter 6). Doug further describes the heron in the following narration:

His head is high, and he's got this sharp beak that's facing out to the world (Chapter 6).

Most importantly, just like Doug, the heron is "okay for now" (Chapter 6). It's moments like these in the story that tell us Schmidt's theme concerns the amazing human ability to face and overcome tribulations with a sense of optimism.

What are some examples of denial in Night by Elie Wiesel?

Two examples of denial in Night take place early in the narrative with Moshe the Beadle and Madame Schachter.

The townspeople of Sighet show denial to Moshe the Beadle.  When Moshe the Beadle was expelled from Sighet with other foreigners, he experienced Nazi cruelty.  He saw infants thrown in the air for target practice, and saw what the Nazis were doing with his own eyes.  He returned to Sighet to warn the townspeople of what was going to happen to them if they did not leave.  He was dismayed to see their reaction:

He spoke only of what he had seen. But people not only refused to believe his tales, they refused to listen. Some even insinuated that he only wanted their pity, that he was imagining things. Others flatly said that he had gone mad.

The townspeople of Sighet showed denial in rejecting Moshe the Beadle's warnings about the Nazis.

Another instance of denial can be seen on the train to Auschwitz.  An old woman, Madame Schachter, started to yell that she saw flames and fire. Rather than respect her warnings or even leave her alone, the people on the train began to beat her up, silencing her voice.  They "bound and gagged her" and then began to rain blows upon her that "could have been lethal."  No one came to her defense, not even her son.  The reaction to Madame Schachter represents one of the most painful instances of denial because she foreshadowed the crematorium of Auschwitz.

In 2014 it was reported that 72% of Australians supported marriage equality. Find the probability that more than 12 out of a randomly selected...

Whenever we need to determine the probability of multiple true/false outcomes (support marriage equality or don't support marriage equality) out of some predetermined number of Bernoulli trials, we are dealing with binomial distribution. 

Probability mass function of binomial random variable is given by

`((n),(k))p^k(1-p)^(n-k)`

where `n` is the number of Bernoulli trials, `k` is number of successful (true) trials and `p` is the probability of success.

In this case

`n=20`

`k>12`

`p=72%=0.72`

Therefore, the probability that more than 12 Australians out of 20 support marriage equality will be the sum of the mass function for each `k` between 13 and 20 i.e.

`sum_(k=13)^20 ((20),(k))0.72^k0.28^(20-k)`

For `k=13` we get

`((20),(13))0.72^13 0.28^7=(20cdot19cdot18cdot17cdot16cdot15cdot14cdot)/(1cdot2cdot3cdot4cdot5cdot6cdot7)cdot0.72^13 0.28^7approx0.146165`            

In the line above we have used the fact that `((n),(k))=((n),(n-k))` which can be useful in calculating binomial coefficients.

We proceed by calculating the terms of the sum for all `k=13,14,ldots,20` and then summing all the terms.

Finally we get

`sum_(k=13)^20 ((20),(k))0.72^k0.28^(20-k)\approx0.829272=82.9272%`

Therefore, we can conclude that there is `82.9272%` probability that more than 12 randomly selected Australians in 2014 supported marriage equality. 

If you want to know more about binomial distribution check the links below.        ` <br> `

` `

What were the shortcomings of Reconstruction policies and legislation?

During Reconstruction (1865-1877), the period after the Civil War when the states that had been in the Confederacy were reabsorbed into the Union, several amendments to the Constitution were ratified. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery; the 14th Amendment gave everyone who was born in the United States, including freed slaves, citizenship; and the 15th Amendment gave all men the right to vote.

However, Reconstruction policies failed to really reconstruct the economy of the south, which remained tied to cotton and to sharecropping. In addition, federal policies tried but ultimately failed to derail the development of Jim Crow legislation in the south. Jim Crow laws tied former slaves to plantations as sharecroppers, prevented the free movement of African-Americans in the south as free agents in the economy; and ultimately brought about a system of "separate but equal" segregated public facilities. As a result, schools and public spaces were segregated in the south until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Reconstruction also failed to distribute land to African-Americans, despite promises to do so. The promise of the federal government to distribute "forty acres and a mule" to former slaves was not fulfilled. 

In Tim O'Brien's short story "The Things They Carried," what recurring motif reminds Lieutenant Jimmy Cross of home?

I'm assuming that you're talking about Tim O'Brien's short story "The Things They Carried," as opposed to the full length novel of the same name. 
 
In this case, the answer to your question would be Martha. 

The title of the story refers not only to the actual equipment that soldiers carry, but also to the memories, hardships, and trauma they must hypothetically "carry" with them for the rest of their lives. 

While Lieutenant Cross carries both a rucksack and gear, these objects are not recurring motifs. They don't represent anything other than what they are.

Martha is a girl from back home for whom Cross has feelings. Martha and Cross are not in a relationship, but Cross thinks about Martha both romantically and sexually, and the idea of her is what keeps him going while in Vietnam. 

In fact, the story's opening is dedicated to introducing Martha. It reads,

"First Lieutenant Jimmy Cross carried letters from a girl named Martha, a junior at Mount Sebastian College in New Jersey. They were not love letters, but Lieutenant Cross was hoping, so he kept them folded in plastic at the bottom of his rucksack" (O'Brien). 

Throughout the story, Martha comes up time and time again. The narrator even explains that Cross humped (military slang for "carried") his love for Martha with him wherever he went. 

At one point, the narrator says, "Almost everyone humped photographs. In his wallet, Lieutenant Cross carried two photographs of Martha" (O'Brien).
 
Basically, Martha, and everything she encompasses (home, civilian life, love), is a recurring motif in the story. In fact, Cross becomes so distracted while thinking about Martha that, at one point in the story, one of his men is shot and killed because he was thinking about Martha instead of looking out for him. 

After that, Cross burns the letters from and photographs of Martha. He then decides to give up all the fantasies he has about the two of them ending up together.
 
The narrator goes on to say, "This was not Mount Sebastian, it was another world, where there were no pretty poems or midterm exams, a place where men died because of carelessness and gross stupidity" (O'Brien). 
 
So, yeah; if there's one, main recurring motif in the story, it's definitely Martha and all she represents.

`int_0^(pi/2) sin^5(x) dx` Evaluate the integral

`int_0^(pi/2)sin^5(x)dx`

Let's first evaluate the definite integral,by rewriting the integrand as,

`=intsin^4(x)sin(x)dx`

Now use the identity: `sin^2(x)=1-cos^2(x)`

`=int(1-cos^2(x))^2sin(x)dx`

Now apply the integral substitution,

Let `u=cos(x)`

`=>du=-sin(x)dx`

`=int-(1-u^2)^2du`

`=-int(1-2u^2+u^4)du`

`=-int1du+2intu^2du-intu^4du`

`=-u+2(u^3/3)-u^5/5`

Substitute back `u=cos(x)`

and adding a constant C to the solution,

`intsin^5(x)dx=-cos(x)+2/3cos^3(x)-1/5cos^5(x)+C`

Now let's evaluate the definite integral,

`int_0^(pi/2)sin^5(x)dx=[-cos(x)+2/3cos^3(x)-1/5cos^5(x)]_0^(pi/2)`

`=[-cos(pi/2)+2/3cos^3(pi/2)-1/5cos^5(pi/2)]-[-cos(0)+2/3cos^3(0)-1/5cos^5(0)]`

`=[0]-[-1+2/3-1/5]`

`=-[(-15+10-3)/15]`

`=-(-8/15)`

`=8/15`

What are steroid hormones?

Steroid Hormone Characteristics and Function

Steroid hormones represent a group of hormones that all contain a characteristic “steroid” ring structure. This steroid ring is derived from cholesterol, and cholesterol is the starting material for the production of different steroid hormones. Steroid hormones, like other types of hormones, are secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body before having an effect. All steroid hormones, although specific for the regulation of certain genes, function in a similar manner. Because steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol, they have the unique ability to diffuse through a cell’s outer plasma membrane. Inside the cell, the steroid hormone binds to its specific receptor in the cytoplasm. Upon binding, the newly formed hormone-receptor complex relocates to the nucleus. In the nucleus, the hormone-receptor complex binds to the DNA in the promoter region of certain genes at specific nucleotide sequences termed hormone-responsive elements. The binding of the hormone-receptor
complex to hormone-responsive elements causes the increased production of transcription and protein production in most cases. In some instances, binding to a specific hormone-responsive element will stop the production of proteins that are usually made in the absence of the hormone.

There are two types (sex steroid and adrenal steroid) and five classes of steroid hormones. The sex steroid hormones include the androgens, estrogens, and progestins and are produced by the male testes (androgens) and female ovaries. Adrenal steroid hormones include glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids and are produced by the adrenal glands.

Sex Steroid Hormones

Sex steroid hormone genes are responsible for determining the sex and development of males and females. Androgens are a group of steroid hormones that cause masculinization. The principal androgen is testosterone, which is produced by the testes and is responsible for male secondary sexual characteristics (growth of facial and pubic hair, deepening of voice, sperm production). Estrogens are sex steroid hormones produced in the ovaries and cause femininization. In addition, estrogens control calcium content in the bones, modulate other hormones produced in the ovary, modify sexual behavior, regulate secondary sex characteristics (menstrual periods, breast development, growth of pubic hair), and are essential for pregnancy to occur. The most potent estrogen is 17-beta estradiol. Progestins, including progesterone, are also sex steroid hormones. Progesterone is important for proper breast development and normal and healthy pregnancies; it functions in the mother to alter endometrial cells so the embryo can implant. The loss of progesterone at the end of a pregnancy aids in the beginning of uterine contractions.

Anabolic steroids are drugs derived from the male steroid hormone testosterone and were developed in the late 1930s to treat hypogonadism in men, a condition that results in insufficient testosterone production by the testes. During this same period, scientists discovered that anabolic steroids also increased the muscle mass in animals. These findings led to the use of anabolic steroids by bodybuilders, weightlifters, and other athletes to increase muscle mass and enhance performance. Anabolic steroid use can seriously affect the long-term health of an individual and in women results in masculinization.

Adrenal Steroid Hormones

Adrenal steroid hormones are secreted from the adrenal cortex and are important for many bodily functions, including response to stress and maintenance of blood sugar levels, fluid balance, and electrolytes. The glucocorticoids represent one class of adrenal steroid hormone. The most important, cortisol, performs critically important functions; it helps to maintain blood pressure and can decrease the response of the body’s immune system. Cortisol can also elevate blood sugar levels and helps to control the amount of water in the body. Elevated cortisol helps the body respond to stress. The glucocorticoids cortisone and hydrocortisone are used as anti-inflammatory drugs
to control itching, swelling, pain, and other inflammatory reactions. Prednisone and prednisolone, also members of the glucocorticoid class of hormones, are the broadest anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive medications available.

The second class of adrenal steroid hormones is the mineralocorticoids, including aldosterone, which helps maintain salt and water balance and increases blood pressure. Aldosterone is crucial for retaining sodium in the kidney, salivary glands, sweat glands, and colon.

Genetic Defects Affecting Sex Steroid Hormones

Defects in the genes involved in the production of sex steroid hormones can have serious consequences. Mutations in the androgen receptor, the receptor for testosterone, result in androgen insensitivity syndrome. In this syndrome, the individual has the genes of a male (XY) but develops, behaves, and appears female. Other gene defects in androgen biosynthesis often result in sterility. Genetic defects in estrogen receptors or estradiol biosynthesis lead to infertility. Reduced levels of estradiol have also been linked to bone loss (osteoporosis) and infertility, whereas excessive levels are associated with an increased risk of breast and uterine cancer. Similarly, genetic mutations in the progesterone production pathway or the progesterone receptor are associated with infertility. In addition, bone loss is one of the most serious results of progesterone deficiency, made worse by inappropriate diet and lack of exercise.

Genetic Defects Affecting Adrenal Steroid Hormones

Genetic abnormalities in adrenal steroid hormone biosynthesis are known to cause hypertension in some cases of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). In people with this condition, hypertension usually accompanies a characteristic phenotype with abnormal sexual differentiation. CAH is a family of autosomal recessive disorders of adrenal steroidogenesis. Each disorder has a specific pattern of hormonal abnormalities resulting from a deficiency of one of the enzymes necessary for cortisol synthesis. The most common form of CAH is 21-hydroxylase deficiency; however, in all forms, cortisol production is impaired, which results in an increase in adrenocorticotropin and the overproduction of androgen steroids.

There are two major forms of 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Classic CAH deficiency results in masculinized girls who are born with genital ambiguity and may possess both female and male genitalia. Nonclassic 21-hydroxylase deficiency does not produce ambiguous genitalia in female infants but may result in premature puberty, short stature, menstrual irregularities or lack of a menstrual cycle, and infertility. Familial glucocorticoid deficiency (FGD) is an extremely rare, genetic autosomal recessive condition in which a part of the adrenal glands is destroyed. These changes result in very low levels of cortisol. Although this disease is easily treatable if recognized, when left untreated it is often fatal or can lead to severe mental disability.

The genetic basis of four forms of severe hypertension
transmitted on an autosomal basis has also been determined. All of these conditions are characterized by salt-sensitive increases in blood pressure, indicating an increased mineralocorticoid effect. The four disorders—aldosteronism, mineralocorticoid excess syndrome, activating mutation of the mineralocorticoid receptor, and Liddle syndrome—are a consequence of either abnormal biosynthesis, abnormal metabolism, or abnormal action of steroid hormones and the development of hypertension. Adrenal insufficiency is known as Addison’s disease and causes death within two weeks unless treated. Classical Addison’s disease results from a loss of both cortisol and aldosterone secretion as a result of the near total or total destruction of both adrenal glands.

Key terms




anabolic steroids


:

drugs derived from androgens and used to enhance performance in sports





androgens


:

steroid hormones that cause masculinization




estrogens

:

steroid hormones that produce female characteristics




glucocorticoids

:

steroid hormones that respond to stress and maintain sugar, salt, and body fluid levels





hormones


:

chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and secreted into the blood




mineralocorticoids

:

a group of steroid hormones important for maintenance of salt and water balance




progestins

:

steroid hormones important for pregnancy and breast development





testosterone


:

the principal androgen, produced by the testes and responsible for male secondary sexual characteristics





Bibliography

Burnstein, Kerry L., ed. Steroid Hormones and Cell Cycle Regulation. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2002. Print.

Ethier, Stephen P., ed. Endocrine Oncology. Humana, 2000. Print.

Freedman, Leonard P., and M. Karin, eds. Molecular Biology of Steroid and Nuclear Hormone Receptors. Boston: Birkhauser, 1999. Print.

Jameson, J. Larry, ed. Harrison’s Endocrinology. New York: McGraw, 2006. Print.

Khan, Sohaib A., and George M. Stancel, eds. Protooncogenes and Growth Factors in Steroid Hormone Induced Growth and Differentiation. Boca Raton: CRC, 1994. Print.

Moudgil, V. K., ed. Steroid Hormone Receptors: Basic and Clinical Aspects. Boston: Birkhauser, 1994. Print.

National Institutes of Health. Steroid Abuse and Addiction. NIH 00-3721. Bethesda: Author, 2000. Print.

New, Maria I., et al. Genetic Steroid Disorders. Philadelphia: Academic: 2013. Print.

Newton, David E. Steroids and Doping in Sports: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2014.

Salway, Jack G. “Steroid Hormones: Aldosterone, Cortisol, Androgens, and Oestrogens.” Medical Biochemistry at a Glance. 3rd ed. Chichester: Wiley, 2012. Print.

Strauss, Jerome F., III, and Robert L. Barbieri, eds. Yen and Jaffe’s Reproductive Endocrinology: Physiology, Pathophysiology, and Clinical Management. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2014. Digital file.

Tilly, J., J. F. Strauss III, and M. Tenniswood, eds. Cell Death in Reproductive Physiology. New York: Springer, 1997. Print.

Wynn, Ralph M., and W. Jollie, eds. Biology of the Uterus. 2nd rev. ed. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 1989. Print.

Zorea, Aharon W. Steroids. Santa Barbara: Greenwood, 2014. Print.

What is a hordeola?

Definition

A hordeolum is a small infection of the glands in the eye,
located in the eyelids. The infection causes a red bump on the eyelid that may
look like a pimple. This type of infection, also known as a sty, is
usually quite painful. There are two types of hordeola: external, which occurs
when the infection is external to the eyelash line, and internal, which occurs
when the infection is inside the eyelash line. Hordeola are often easily
diagnosed, and prompt treatment often prevents progression of the infection.

Causes

A hordeolum is caused by a blockage in the small glands located along the eyelid margin. These glands produce oil, and the blockage prevents normal drainage of the gland. If bacteria are trapped in the gland, an infection can develop. Fluid and pus cause the area to become red and inflamed. In 90 to 95 percent of cases, the resulting infection is caused by the bacterium
Staphylococcus aureus (also known as staph). It is possible to have more than one hordeolum at a time, and it is common for them to recur.

Risk Factors

Hordeolum infection is a common condition, although the exact incidence in the United States is not known. Some conditions may increase the risk of developing a hordeolum; these conditions include poor eyelid hygiene, chronic illness, and a previous hordeolum (hordeola often recur in the same eyelid).

Symptoms

A hordeolum usually begins as a red and swollen area on or in the eyelid. Often, the area is tender and painful. In addition to the red, painful bump, other symptoms include tearing of the eye and blurred vision or a sensation of a foreign body or scratchiness in the eye. Sometimes the swollen area has a point or yellowish spot. This area is where the discharge of pus will occur when the hordeolum drains.

Internal hordeola are usually more painful and are less likely to come to a point without the assistance of a doctor. If a person experiences redness and painful swelling in the eye, or any change in vision, he or she should consult an eye doctor immediately because these symptoms may be caused by other health conditions.

Screening and Diagnosis

In most cases, a simple eye exam is all that is necessary to confirm the diagnosis of a hordeolum. Other than looking at the person’s eye, special tests are not usually necessary for diagnosis.

Treatment and Therapy

Often, hordeola resolve spontaneously on their own. In these cases, only hot
compresses to assist the drainage are needed. Warm compresses can be applied four
to six times a day for several minutes a session. However, if they do not drain on
their own, hordeola often respond quickly to simple treatment from a doctor. If
left untreated, the infection may continue to grow or may lead to other
conditions. Chalazia occurs when the gland is blocked but no infection is present.
Cellulitis occurs when the infection spreads to the tissue
of the eyelid or beyond.

Drainage of the lesion is the first step in treating the hordeolum. If the hordeolum does not drain on its own, a doctor may assist by lancing the hordeolum. The pus and contents of the swollen area can then be drained. One should not lance the hordeolum without the assistance of a doctor; permanent damage to the eye or eyelid can occur.

In some cases, antibiotics are also given to ensure that the entire
infection is eliminated. Antibiotics may be given in oral form, or as eye drops or
eye ointment. In many cases, antibiotics alone are ineffective.

Prevention and Outcomes

The best prevention against developing a hordeolum is to keep the area around the eye as clean as possible. One should always wash his or her hands thoroughly before touching one’s eyes and should refrain from rubbing the eyes.

Although it may not be possible to prevent the development of every hordeolum, obtaining prompt treatment when one occurs is the best way to prevent recurrences. One should not attempt to drain the hordeolum. Any squeezing or poking at the hordeolum may cause more damage. The infection may be spread inadvertently, or damage to the eye could result.

Finally, one should contact a doctor immediately if experiencing vision problems, if there is a blister or crusting on the eyelid, if the white of the eye becomes red, if the hordeolum bleeds, or if experiencing pain.

Bibliography

Cassel, Gary H., Michael D. Billig, and Harry G. Randall. The Eye Book: A Complete Guide to Eye Disorders and Health. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.

“Chalazion/Hordeolum.” In The Wills Eye Manual: Office and Emergency Room Diagnosis and Treatment of Eye Disease, edited by J. P. Ehler et al. 5th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008.

Fort, G. G., et al. “Hordeolum (Stye).” In Ferri’s Clinical Advisor 2011: Instant Diagnosis and Treatment, edited by Fred F. Ferri. Philadelphia: Mosby/Elsevier, 2011.

Mueller, J. B., et al. “Ocular Infection and Inflammation.” Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America 26 (2008): 57.

Pasternak, A., and B. Irish. “Ophthalmologic Infections in Primary Care.” Clinics in Family Practice 6 (2004): 19-33.

Riordan-Eva, Paul, and John P. Whitcher. Vaughan and Asbury’s General Ophthalmology. 17th ed. New York: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill, 2007.

Sutton, Amy L., ed. Eye Care Sourcebook: Basic Consumer Health Information About Eye Care and Eye Disorders. 3d ed. Detroit: Omnigraphics, 2008.

What are the sizes of all the planets in km?

The size of planets is usually indicated in terms of their diameter. The diameter of a planet is defined as the "distance through the center of the planet from one point on the equator to the opposite side". The diameter of a planet is usually measured in kilometers (km) or miles.

Density is an indication of the amount of mass per volume in a planet. This does not include the atmosphere of a planet. Density is usually measured in kg/`~m^3` or lbs/`~ft^3`.

The diameter of Mercury is 4879 km. Its density is 5427 kg/`~m^3` .

The diameter of Venus is 12,104 km. Its density is 5243 kg/`~m^3` . 

The diameter of Earth is 12,756 km. Its density is 5514 kg/`~m^3` .

The diameter of Mars is 6792 km. Its density is 3933 kg/`~m^3` .

The diameter of Jupiter is 142,984 km. Its density is 1326 kg/`~m^3` .

The diameter of Saturn is 120,536 km. Its density is 687 kg/`~m^3` .

The diameter of Uranus is 51,118 km. Its density is 1271 kg/`~m^3` .

The diameter of Neptune is 49,528 km. Its density is 1638 lbs/`~m^3` .

The diameter of Pluto (technically not considered a planet anymore) is 2370 km. Its density is 2095 lbs/`~m^3` .

How did the effects of World War I help Hitler come into power?

The Versailles Treaty ended World War I. This treaty was very harsh on Germany. Germany had to pay $33 billion in reparations to the Allies. Germany had to accept responsibility for World War I. Germany had to give up land and could only have a military capable of defending itself. Germany was very unhappy with the terms of the Versailles Treaty.

After World War I ended, Germany experienced difficult economic times. The economy went into a depression. Hitler suggested that if he was given political power, he would avenge the mistreatment from the Versailles Treaty. He said that the German people should not accept being treaty so poorly. He also promised to put the people of Germany back to work.

Since there were difficult economic times and since the German people were angry, they were willing to listen to Adolf Hitler and eventually support him as the leader of Germany.

What are some of the areas on which government spends money?

The federal government spends its money in three main categories. These categories are discretionary spending, mandatory spending, and paying the interest on our debt.

Congress decides discretionary spending. This is done each year through the appropriations process. Some areas of discretionary spending include spending on education, Medicare, international affairs, the military, energy and the environment, and agriculture. The largest portion of discretionary spending is on the military. The Head Start program and research through the National Institute of Health are some programs that receive discretionary funding.

Mandatory spending is not a part of the appropriations process. Popular programs that are a part of mandatory spending include Social Security and Medicare. Eligibility rules determine who may receive the funding and how much the program will cost. Mandatory spending makes up about 67% of the federal government’s spending.

The third area of expense is paying the interest on our national debt. Since we owe money to other countries, we must pay interest on the amount we owe.

The government spends its money on mandatory and discretionary programs as well as on paying the interest on the national debt.

How did Mayella Ewell ruin Tom Robinson's life and harm his family in To Kill a Mockingbird?

When Scout and Jem go to church with Calpurnia in Chapter 12, they learn that the Robinsons are struggling financially. 

Tom Robinson is a family man.  He has a wife and children.  When he is accused of rape by Mayella Ewell, obviously this ruins his life because he loses his liberty and is falsely accused of a terrible crime.  His life is also in danger because there are people in town who want to skip the trial in favor of lynching because he is black and Mayella is white.

When the children go to church with Calpurnia, they get another perspective on how Tom’s arrest has affected his family, especially his wife.  Reverend Sikes asks for the congregation to take up a collection to help Tom’s wife, Helen. 

“You all know of Brother Tom Robinson’s trouble.  He has been a faithful member of First Purchase since he was a boy. The collection taken up today and for the next three Sundays will go to Helen—his wife, to help her out at home.” (Ch. 12) 

Mr. Sykes says that Helen can’t leave her children to go work.  When Scout asks him why Helen doesn’t just take the children with her, as is customary for field workers, he tells her that there is actually more to the story. 

Reverend Sykes hesitated. “To tell you the truth, Miss Jean Louise, Helen’s finding it hard to get work these days… when it’s picking time, I think Mr. Link Deas’ll take her.” (Ch. 12) 

The ostracizing of Tom Robinson’s family is not unexpected, given how Atticus is being treated for just defending Tom Robinson. Calpurnia tells Scout that folks “aren’t anxious to—to have anything to do with any of his family” because Tom Robinson was accused of rape.

What are the methods by which characters in John Osborne's Look Back in Anger "break the fourth wall," and what is the effect of doing so?

In theater, the concept of a "fourth wall" is integral to most playwrights' concepts of story and production. Simply, it refers to an imaginary wall separating the audience from the stage and is intended to emphasize, for the actors, the need to separate themselves from the world beyond that which the playwright, producer, and director have created. The audience is not acknowledged or addressed; the action occurs within its own self-contained universe. To "break the fourth wall," then, is to have the actors acknowledge or interact with, in some manner, the viewers in the audience, thereby acknowledging the artificial nature of that universe.

In John Osborne's play Look Back in Anger, the so-called "fourth wall" is very much in existence. The setting of Look Back in Anger is noticeably claustrophobic—a small apartment (Osborne's set direction specifies "a fairly large attic room, at the top of a large Victorian house") in which reside Jimmy and Alison Porter, the former the play's main "protagonist"—so the very real first three walls are easy to conceptualize and construct. The "fourth wall," however, exists by virtue of the play's focus on the dynamics between the small group of actors and Jimmy's vitriolic tirades against the world in which he finds himself and in his insulting comments toward others. To the extent the "fourth wall" is broken, therefore, it is a deliberate decision on the part of the director of a particular production of Osborne's play. In a 2012 interview, one such theater director, Sam Gold, explained his vision of the separation of actors from audience:

My first instinct was to play the play really close to the audience, to make it intimate. I wanted it to feel like the audience and the actors were in the same room. I didn’t want it to feel like the lights were going down on them and here was the fourth wall and that this was happening in another time and place. This isn’t a play you can look at as a museum piece. I felt like one of the things that was so exciting about the play originally was that it alienated people, it made people uncomfortable and it woke people up to new ways of seeing drama on stage.

This was how one director conceptualized the production. More conservative or "traditional" productions would preserve that invisible barrier between audience and action. There is a certain intimacy inherent in any play that takes place completely within one setting and involves a small number of actors. Osborne's protagonist, Jimmy is venting his anger about the absence of viable causes in which to believe in the post-World War II world, the Nazis having been vanquished in "the last good fight" and the threat of communism a more tenuous proposition among much of the intelligentsia, including the average playwright. The goal of most playwrights is to engage the audience emotionally and/ or intellectually, though, so the "fourth wall" exists only to a limited degree. The actors might not be addressing or acknowledging the audience, but they are seeking the latter's reactions nonetheless. That, then, is the main way Osborne, as a writer, "broke the fourth wall."

What is a quote that indicates compassion on the part of Miss Maudie in To Kill a Mockingbird?

Miss Maudie truly embodies compassion as she always finds kind words for people who are deserving of them.

---In Chapter 5, for instance, when Scout inquires about Boo Radley, Miss Maudie demands that Scout refer to the unusual inhabitant of the house across the street as Arthur, for this is his name. Then, after Scout's inquisitive questions about Arthur Radley, Miss Maudie tells Scout that the Radley house is a "sad house," adding compassionately, 

"...I remember Arthur Radley when he was a boy. He always spoke nicely to me, no matter what folks said he did. Spoke as nicely as he knew how."
"You reckon he's crazy?" Scout innocently asks.
"If he's not he should be by now. The things that happen to people we never really know. What happens in houses behind closed doors, what secrets--"

---Another example of Miss Maudie's compassion is found in the second part of the novel, and this time Miss Maudie exercises her empathy with regard to Alexandra, the sister of Atticus Finch, who has become offended by the remarks of the sanctimonious hypocrite Mrs. Merriweather. For, not too subtly, Mrs. Merriweather derogates those who are "misguided" as they think they are doing the right thing by defending Tom Robinson, "but all they did was stir 'em up." She adds that now her maid Sophy acts sultry and "dissatisfied."

While Mrs. Merriweather pauses for a moment, Miss Maudie asks her, "His food doesn't stick going down, does it?"

"Maudie, I'm sure I don't know what you mean," said Mrs. Merriweather.
"I'm sure you do," Miss Maudie said shortly.

Hearing this exchange, Aunt Alexandra gives Miss Maudie a look of pure gratitude for her compassion and respect for Atticus.

Later, Miss Maudie commiserates with Alexandra, who becomes distraught when she learns that Tom Robinson has been shot for his desperate attempt to escape from prison. Further, Alexandra complains that the citizens are tearing her brother Atticus to pieces, and they are willing to let him "do what they're too afraid to do themselves," adding that they are ruining Atticus's health over the current issues.

Miss Maudie again consoles Alexandra:

"Whether Maycomb knows it or not we're paying the highest tribute we can pay a man. We trust him to do right. It's that simple."

What are the advantages and disadvantages of genetic profiling and DNA analysis?

Genetic profiling and DNA analysis refers to the processes used to test an individual’s genetic material in an effort to determine their identity as well as disease susceptibility. It is common in the fields of medicine and criminal justice where it is utilized as a forensic technique.

Advantages include:

• Genetic profiling and DNA analysis can be used in the identification of criminal suspects during investigations.


• Genetic profiling and DNA analysis can be used to screen for certain risk factors or genetic diseases.


• Genetic profiling and DNA analysis can be easily applied to any individual’s sample provided it contains cells with nuclei. Such human samples include urine, hair, semen and saliva.


• Genetic profiling and DNA analysis are extremely sensitive serological tests that can be carried out by use of samples that may be too small when carrying out other serological tests.

Disadvantages include:

• Genetic profiling and DNA analysis only offer the probability in terms of statistics rather than the absolute certainty.


• The DNA results stored as data on computers are vulnerable and can be easily exploited. This may lead to an invasion of privacy.

How do I write an analytical or personal response to 'What is the role self-preservation plays in a difficult situation?'?

The first issue here is choosing an appropriate text to which to respond. The assignment sheet does not specify any specific texts, and so the focus of this answer will be on a text that might work well for you. 

The first text I would choose for this is the short story "Shooting an Elephant" by George Orwell. In this story, the protagonist faces a moral dilemma. He really doesn't want to kill the elephant, but fears causing a riot or looking bad from a career point of view if he doesn't. There is some real tension here between his own moral beliefs and his need not to show weakness, which is necessary to succeed in his work and build a relationship with the native populace as a member of the British police force. 

For a hybrid analytical/personal essay, you should focus not on the specific events of the narrative, but on the moral issues it raises. Next, to turn this into a personal/analytical hybrid, you should compare this to some sort of dilemma you have experienced in your job or your studies. Think of a situation in which you have felt one course of action is right, but didn't take that action because it might have been risky, such as not standing up to a school bully or carrying out what you thought was a bad order from a boss. 

1. Who has been more successful Bob or Jimmy? 2. How does Bob describe Jimmy--strengths and weakness? 3. Based on his actions, describes Bob...

Bob has only been superficially more successful than Jimmy. Bob has some flashy clothes and accessories, but he has no home, no family, no friends (except Jimmy), no roots, and he is continually on the lam. He is wanted by the Chicago police and may be facing a long term in jail. Jimmy does not make a lot of money, but he has a secure job with the New York police and will get a pension when he retires. Jimmy undoubtedly is married and has a home and family. He obviously likes his work. He is proud of his uniform. He is respected. He probably has a wide circle of friends. He has no serious worries, unlike Bob who is always looking over his shoulder for fear that the law is catching up with him. Bob brags and shows off the symbols of his monetary success, but he is not a happy man. He travels a thousand miles just to see his only friend--and finds out that his friend can no longer be his friend because he has become a cop who turns him over to the Chicago police. For twenty years the two men have traveled down two different roads.

Bob describes Jimmy with these phrases--not knowing he is talking to Jimmy in person:

"...for he always was the truest, staunchest old chap in the world."

"He was a kind of plodder, though, good fellow as he was."

Based on Bob's actions, the reader pictures him as a flamboyant, materialistic, ambitious, loquacious, superficial, and dishonest con artist who has cultivated a friendly persona he uses to beguile and manipulate people. He starts off trying to manipulate Jimmy the moment he appears, never giving him a chance to introduce himself as the old friend Bob has been waiting for. Bob might be described in the vernacular as "a cheap crook."

How does "After Apple-Picking" by Robert Frost make you feel emotionally?

This poem by Robert Frost calls to mind someone who has been writing poetry for a very long time, since it seems to compare a season of apple-picking to an entire career of writing poems. And yet Frost wrote this poem rather early on in his career. So, in terms of the way the poem makes me feel on an emotional level, that knowledge that Frost is looking ahead towards how he might feel after many years of being a poet fills me with awe and a sense of wonder. That depth of thought and consideration of the future is remarkable in a relatively young writer.

I also feel a variety of emotions when reading the lovely imagery of this poem, because it depicts a rich sensory experience in very detailed terms. The descriptions of the sights, sounds and actions of apple-picking are offered in a straightforward way, but also in a way that inspires a sense of longing or nostalgia. The various senses (sight, sound, smell) are engaged in ways that allow the reader to really engage on a sensual level with the experience being described, and I think this appeal to the senses helps to underscore the emotions felt as well. In other words, by appealing to a reader's senses, Frost primes them for reception of his other, more subtle ideas about aging, regret, loss, death, etc.

This passage in particular is rich with sensory detail: the scent of apples and the sight and texture of frozen water compared to glass:

Essence of winter sleep is on the night, 

The scent of apples: I am drowsing off. 

I cannot rub the strangeness from my sight 

I got from looking through a pane of glass 

I skimmed this morning from the drinking trough 

And held against the world of hoary grass.

This passage also conjures an image of a mirror (or "glass"), and the "strangeness" the poet describes here may indeed refer to his imagining his own feelings about aging and the legacy of his work, years into the future. Nature functions here as a mirror and the idea of a looking glass as a portal into the past or future is also at work. The poem has a sense of sadness, but also a sense of hope, because the ritual of apple-picking is one that repeats each year.

What characteristics of the baobab tree allow it to live in a dry environment?

Baobab is the common name used for trees that belong to the genus Adansonia. There are nine different species of this type of tree, which are found around the world in dry, arid environments. Many people think they are strange looking trees, but it is these unusual characteristics that allow the trees to survive in these climates.

The trunks of the baobab trees are extremely wide and can measure up to 30 feet in diameter. Some older trees have trunks that are close to 50 feet in diameter, and it is thought that these trees are thousands of years old. The reason for the width of the trunks is to allow the tree to store tens of thousands of gallons of water within them, sometimes as much as 32,000 gallons. This water store is also used by animals and humans who live near the trees.

Baobab trees are deciduous trees, which means they drop their leaves for part of the year. Unlike deciduous trees in cooler climates, baobab trees drop their leaves during the warm dry season and not the colder winter season. They do this to conserve energy during this time, which means that the trees often do not have leaves for about nine months of the year.

The final adaptation of the baobab trees to survive is how they reproduce. The trees produce white flowers once a year. The flowers open at dusk for one night. They stay open the entire night and have a very strong odor. This smell attracts bats and insects to fertilize the flowers. The fruit that is produced is called monkey bread, which is eaten by animals and birds when it falls to the ground. It contains seeds with hard coats strong enough to survive the digestive process of the animal. The seeds are then dispersed in the animal's waste products.

In the book Chains by Laurie Halse Anderson, who lived on a big plantation? Who lived on a small farm? And who lived in the city?

Isabel and Ruth lived in all three of those locations.  The large plantation, small farm, and city house all coincide with specific slave owners that Isabel and Ruth worked for.  

Miss Mary Finch owned the small farm.  The reader never gets to meet Miss Mary Finch.  She is already dead by the time the book begins.  Readers do get a sense that she was a decent slave owner though.  Isabel wishes that she could go back and work for Miss Mary Finch, and readers know that she had given Isabel and Ruth their freedom as well.  

Mr. Malbone is the owner of the large plantation.  He is mentioned exactly twice in the novel.  He was Isabel's and Ruth's first owner, and he was forced to sell Isabel and her family because he had too many debts.

They sold all of us from the plantation when old Mister Malbone run up his debts too high.  His bankers wanted their pounds of flesh.  Our flesh. 

The Locktons live in the city.  They are horrible to Isabel and Ruth.  Madam Lockton even goes so far as to brand Isabel's face.  Lady Seymour also lives in the city, and she treats Isabel with decency.  

What are we to make of Clarke's characterization of Paris as a "feminine" city? Despite the fact that we know Paris to be as much a masculine as a...

Notions of femininity and masculinity are always relative. Perceptions of masculinity and femininity are usually developed from one's interactions with people. Individuals examine others' fashions, mannerisms, the ways in which men and women relate to one another, and how social roles are prescribed according to gender.

For Stephen Clarke's roman à clef, let's begin to answer this question by using the example of fashion, which is far more important to the French than it is to the English.

In the chapter "Février," or February, Paul and his friends Bob, Ian, and Dave go out to a bar. They meet three Parisian women and begin talking about the differences between Englishmen and Frenchmen. Bob asserts that "all French men are a bit effeminate," which he chalks up to their fondness for "handbags." Marie corrects him: the bags are, in fact, "sacs à main," which literally translates to English as "handbag," though they are more like briefcases with a handle and a shoulder strap. This interest in fashion, a decidedly feminine pursuit, is one reason why Bob diminishes the masculinity of French men.

In this exchange between the men and women, Clarke presents interesting contrasts that buoy the nature of the conversation. Firstly, Bob and "the boys" have beer, while Florence has wine, Viviane a gin and tonic, and Marie "scarily" has "a double rum." Marie's ability to drink straight alcohol is more "masculine" than feminine, as is her overt sexuality. Her sexual boldness is compared to that of Frenchmen who "zey see a woman, she smile at him, he want to fock you direct, allez hop!" Lastly, Ian contrasts French women's laissez-faire attitude to "compliments" from men with that of British women who, he thinks, are more likely to perceive such speech as sexual harassment. In this sense, according to Ian, "French women are feminine without being too feminist." He misunderstands the meaning of feminism hear, which partly exists to question notions of masculinity and femininity and to dismantle prescribed gender roles.

Another instance in the book in which Anglo-French relations could be considered through the prism of masculinity and femininity is in their "Mars," or March, discussion of the impending Iraq War. The French, as we know, were decidedly against it. Stéphanie, Paul's co-worker, is certain that "France's experienced diplomats [will] gain the upper hand at the UN over the 'unsubtle Anglo-Saxon barbarians.'" Paul responds with an attempt at irony that falls flat due to his limited French. Stéphanie's comment not only drudges up the old Anglo-French feud based on the 1066 Norman Conquest—in which the French assumed power over the Anglo-Saxon tribes that populated England and reformed English civilization—but it also addresses a decided lack of refinement in the English. Notions of refinement, particularly the abstention from war and aggression, would be deemed feminine in England.

I do not agree that Clarke emphasizes Paris as a "feminine" city or presents French culture as decidedly "feminine." However, he does show the ways in which English expressions of masculinity and power are different from those of the French. Paul and some of the other male characters in the novel contrast their presentations of masculinity with those of the French and perceive their own masculinity as superior, and more heterosexual. The difference in values between the cultures, particularly the act of going to war, can also be viewed from the gender binary: war is associated with "tough" masculinity, while abstention makes one appear "weak," or more effeminate.

In her novel To Kill a Mockingbird, why does Harper Lee present the theme of growing up?

One conclusion that can be drawn is Harper Lee saw a parallel between a child coming of age and the South growing and changing. Therefore, Lee decided to present the need for the South to grow and develop by capturing Jem's and Scout's development as they matured as children. In paralleling the children's growth with the South's growth, Lee presents the theme of the need to mature in To Kill a Mockingbird.

Just as the children undergo many changes as the book progresses, the town of Maycomb, representative of all small Southern towns, also undergoes many changes even though these changes are just baby changes. At the opening of the book, Scout describes Maycomb as a "tired old town." It is tired for several reasons: (1) it is in the midst of the Great Depression; therefore, there is no money to produce a great deal of activity within the town; (2) being rural, the town looks a bit worn out and run-down with its grass growing on the sidewalks and its courthouse sagging; and (3) its people are very stuck in their ways. Scout characterizes Maycomb's people as being stuck in their ways when she describes the men as, despite the heat, persisting in wearing stiff collars that were "wilted by nine in the morning" and ladies persisting in bathing and napping traditions.

Author Lee also uses several characters to describe Maycomb as being stuck in its ways such as Aunt Alexandra, who persists in holding the racist and sexist views of a Southern Belle, and
Mrs. Henry Lafayette Dubose, who is as equally racist as Aunt Alexandra and holds equally strict views about how children should behave. Interestingly, many of Aunt Alexandra's notions are rejected by Atticus, such as her view that Calpurnia should be dismissed because Finch children should not be being raised by an African-American woman, and Mrs. Dubose passes away. Aunt Alexandra's rejected notions and Mrs. Dubose's passing both symbolize the ensuing death of old Southern ways and beliefs. Hence, as the story progresses, the tired old town that is stuck in its ways begins to be challenged and to change a tiny bit.

The town's change is further symbolized by the children's success in disbursing the lynch mob and in the fact that Robinson's jury was out for so long before returning with the guilty verdict. Miss Maudie reflects on the subtle changes of the town after the trial when she says the following to the children:

[A]s I waited I thought, Atticus Finch won't win, he can't win, but he's the only man in these parts who can keep a jury out so long in a case like that. And I thought to myself, well, we're making a step--it's just a baby-step, but it's a step. (Ch. 22)

Hence, just as Scout and Jem mature a great deal as a result of what they experience due to Robinson's arrest and trial, Maycomb also matures just a tiny bit. Therefore, it can be said that Lee uses the parallel of the children's growth with the town's growth to point to the South's need to continue to grow and develop.

In Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, how does Antonio describe his sad mood in Act 1, Scene 1?

The Merchant of Venice opens by describing Antonio's sadness, and indeed, his melancholic state becomes a recurrence throughout the rest of the play. Antonio describes his sadness as a mystery - he claims not to know why he is sad - but close examination of the play's language and Antonio's motivations throughout the play may reveal the source of his melancholy.

To illustrate, consider the opening lines of the play, in which Antonio states,

"In sooth I know not why I am so sad.It wearies me, you say it wearies you;
But how I caught it, found it, or came by it,
What stuff 'tis made of, whereof it is born,
I am to learn..." (1.1.1-5)

In these first lines of the play, Antonio states that he is sad and does not know why. It is important that Shakespeare inserts these lines as the first in Act 1, Scene 1, as they establish that Antonio is a melancholy character and that his sadness will come to define much of his character as the play continues. Furthermore, although Antonio does not know why he is sad, his friends think they have an answer: Solanio thinks his "affections" are with his "hopes abroad," (1.1.16-17) or in other words, that Antonio is worried about his mercantile ventures. As Antonio is the play's titular "Merchant of Venice," it might make sense that he is worried about his monetary ventures, and indeed, his friend Salerio agrees that "Antonio / Is sad to think upon his merchandise" (1.1.39-40).

However, Antonio denies that he is worried about his money, as his "ventures are not in one bottom trusted" (1.1.42); in other words, he has many ships abroad and does not need to worry about the fate of any one particular ship. To this rebuttal, Solanio responds that the only other explanation is that Antonio is in love, to which Antonio replies "Fie, fie!" (an expression of disgust or outrage, here meant to imply denial) (1.1.47).

Of course, as with many of the characters' statements in the play, we must take Antonio's statements with a grain of salt. His denial of being in love is immediately contrasted with his avowals of love for his friend Bassanio later in the scene, when Bassanio seeks a loan from Antonio in order to court a woman, Portia. To Bassanio's request, he says, "My purse, my person, my extremest means / Lie unlocked to your occasions" (1.1.138-139). In other words, Antonio "loves" Bassanio, and is willing to do anything for him; and in this case, Antonio is willing to help Bassanio acquire a large loan to court Portia, even if it means losing his best friend to marriage. Indeed, many critics have identified this loss of Bassanio's love as the source of Antonio's sadness.

So in summary, Antonio opens the play by saying he is sad, but does not know why. This fact is important for Antonio's characterization, as he remains a melancholic character in the play. Furthermore, Solanio and Solerio suggest Antonio is sad about his ships, or that he is in love, but Antonio denies both accusations. However, it is likely that the true source of his sadness is that Bassanio is seeking a wife, and Bassanio's eventual marriage will erode the close friendship between the two men.

What did Robert the Bruce Do?

Robert I, the Bruce (1274-1329), was the King of Scotland who defeated the larger and more powerful English forces under King Edward II at Bannockburn in 1314. His victory ensured the freedom of the Scots. The English had begun to try to establish dominance over Scotland under Edward I. In the 1290s, the throne of Scotland was contested between John Balliol, the English choice, and Robert Bruce. In exchange for supporting Balliol, Edward I demanded that he, Edward, have judicial superiority over the King of Scotland and that Scotland help him pay the costs of defending their land. Balliol refused, and Edward launched attacks against Scotland in retaliation. The Scots were defeated by the English in 1296. William Wallace, a Scottish knight, fought back, but in the wake of his early victories, the English became more determined to control Scotland. In 1306, Robert the Bruce declared himself King of Scotland, and he went on to win a number of military victories, including his important victory at Bannockburn in which he defeated the better defended English troops. This victory wrested Scotland from English control, and in 1328, a peace treaty with the English recognized Scotland as an independent nation. 

What are bacteria and bacterial spores?

Bacteria are unicellular microorganisms. These are prokaryotes or prokaryotic microorganisms, as compared to more complex life forms (such as human beings), which are eukaryotes. Bacteria are very small in size. In fact, they are so small that we cannot see them with our naked eye. They are typically a few micron in size and can have spherical, rod or spiral shapes. Although some of these microbes can be pathogenic in nature and cause diseases, a number of them are also useful. Environmental engineers often use a mixed bacterial culture (although some other microbes may also be there) in wastewater treatment.

Under adverse conditions, some bacteria may develop specialized coverings/structures to protect themselves. Such protective structures are known as bacterial spores and can protect the bacteria from a number of adverse environmental factors such as heat, dryness, toxic chemicals, etc. Spores ensure the survival of bacteria in harsh conditions.

Hope this helps.  

What are two main external and internal conflicts Romeo faces in Act I?

One of Romeo's main external conflicts is of course between his powerful family, the Montagues, and their chief rivals, the Capulets. While Romeo is in no way disloyal to his family, he is disenchanted by the constant battles that break out so predictably between the two families, battles that often end with grave injuries to both sides.

Another external conflict is between Romeo's family and the Prince of Verona, who has commanded both families to desist from further skirmishes "upon pain of death." The bloodletting between the two families naturally disturbs the peace of the city, disrupting commerce and at times harming innocent citizens, while also blemishing the reputation of Verona. When his family is once again battling the Capulets, Romeo is well aware of the Prince's proscription against fighting, and fears both the wrath of the Prince and the safety of his family.

Internally, Romeo battles to maintain his romantic, passionate character in the face of the obligation exerted by his family to carry on the grudge with the Capulets. There is part of his character that desires peace with the young men loyal to the Capulets, sensing that the feud between the two families has devolved into senseless violence that forever threatens to poison each new generation of each family.

What are natural treatments for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?

Introduction

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a psychological
condition that involves recurrent and persistent thoughts or images known as
obsessions that are experienced as intrusive and that cause distress. These
obsessions are not simply excessive worries about real-life problems; they take on
an unrealistic quality. In order to combat their obsessions, people with OCD
engage in repetitive behaviors known as compulsions, and they often do so
following rigid and self-imposed rules.

The cause of OCD is not known. Antidepressant drugs that affect
serotonin levels, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
(SSRIs), often relieve symptoms significantly, but the
reasons for this effect are not clear. Psychotherapeutic and behavioral methods
may also help to treat OCD.

Proposed Natural Treatments

The supplement inositol is thought to increase the body’s sensitivity to
serotonin. On this basis, inositol has been studied for use in a number of
psychological conditions, including OCD.

In a small double-blind trial, the use of inositol at a dose of 18 grams (g) daily for six weeks significantly improved symptoms of OCD compared with placebo. However, some evidence suggests that inositol does not increase the effectiveness of standard drugs for OCD.

One study found that people with OCD have lower than normal levels of vitamin B12. This suggests, but absolutely does not prove, that vitamin B12 supplements might be helpful for the condition.

The herb St.
John’s wort has antidepressant properties and is thought to
affect serotonin levels. On this basis, it has been tried for OCD, but there is no
reliable evidence that it is effective for the disorder. On a similar basis, the
supplement 5-hydroxytryptophan has been suggested as a treatment for
OCD, but again there is no meaningful evidence that the supplement works.

A form of magnet
therapy called repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation
(rTMS) has shown promise for the treatment of depression. However, a double-blind,
placebo-controlled study of eighteen people with OCD found no evidence of benefit
through the use of rTMS.

In a small randomized trial, a yoga meditation technique called kundalini was more effective for OCD than a relaxation therapy involving mindfulness meditation after three months. However, another small study found mindfulness meditation more helpful than no intervention for OCD symptoms.

Herbs and Supplements to Use with Caution

Various herbs and supplements may interact with drugs used to treat OCD, so persons with OCD who are considering the use of herbs and supplements should first consult a doctor to discuss safe treatment options.

Bibliography

Alonso, P., et al. “Right Prefrontal Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Obsessive-compulsive Disorder.” American Journal of Psychiatry 158 (2001): 1143–45. Print.

Fux, M., J. Benjamin, and R. H. Belmaker. “Inositol Versus Placebo Augmentation of Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors in the Treatment of Obsessive-compulsive Disorder.” International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2 (1999): 193–95. Print.

Hanstede, M., Y. Gidron, and I. Nyklicek. “The Effects of a Mindfulness Intervention on Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms in a Non-clinical Student Population.” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 196 (2008): 776–79. Print.

Seedat, S., and D. J. Stein. “Inositol Augmentation of Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors in Treatment-Refractory Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.” International Clinical Psychopharmacology 14 (1999): 353–56. Print.

Shannahoff-Khalsa, D. S., et al. “Randomized Controlled Trial of Yogic Meditation Techniques for Patients with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.” CNS Spectrums 4 (1999): 34–47. Print.

Taylor, L. H., and K. A. Kobak. “An Open-Label Trial of St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 61 (2000): 575–78. Print.

A quiz consists of 10 multiple-choice questions, each with 4 possible answers. For someone who makes random guesses for all of the answers, find...

This is a great question, and one that you will probably see several times in a Probability and Statistics class.

The main thing you will need is the Binomial Probability formula, shown below:

`P(k)=nCk*p^k*(1-p)^(n-k)`

The first part is “n choose k”, where n is the total number of questions and k is the number of questions you want to consider.  So you are starting by finding all the possible combinations of choosing 7 random questions out of the 10.  That is then multiplied by the probability of getting a question right 7 times and by the probability of getting a question wrong 3 times.

So, to start, let’s consider the probability you need to find.  You want to find the probability of all possibilities of passing the quiz, which includes scores of 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100% totaled.  This is where you will need the Binomial Probability formula.

For our problem, n is the number of questions, 10, and k is the number of correct answers, 7 through 10.  The probability p of getting a question right is  and the probability of getting a question wrong is  or  . 

So, the probability of getting a score of exactly 70% is `10C7*(1/4)^7*(3/4)^(3)`

The probability of getting a score of exactly 80% is `10C8*(1/4)^8*(3/4)^(2)`

The probability of getting a score of exactly 90% is `10C9*(1/4)^9*(3/4)^(1)`

The probability of getting a score of exactly 100% is `10C10*(1/4)^10*(3/4)^(0)`

We now just add up all these probabilities for our answer:

`P(>= 70%) = 10C7*(1/4)^7*(3/4)^(3) + 10C8*(1/4)^8*(3/4)^(2) +10C9*(1/4)^9*(3/4)^(1) + 10C10*(1/4)^10*(3/4)^(0)`

``If you type this CAREFULLY into your graphing calculator, your final answer is:

`919/262144~~0.0035057`

` `

Was George Orwell justified in shooting an elephant?

As I recall the story, George Orwell started out as a minor colonial official in Burma before World War II.   The story begins with the report of an elephant in "must."  Now precisely what that term means is beyond my memory, but we can assume the elephant was dangerously beyond human control.  It had already killed an unfortunate man.  Shooting a dangerous animal, however, is not the point of the story.

Orwell was a very minor, under-paid representative of the British  Empire in some forsaken, steaming  corner of Burma surrounded a resentful population who would miss no opportunity to  subtly mock and humiliate a particularly vulnerable representative of the "Raj."  At times, Orwell confessed, he would have liked nothing better than sinking a bayonet in the gut of some insulting Burmese monk.

Ironically, Orwell was sympathetic to their goal of independence, and he had little liking for the boorish, racist British colonial types who gathered at the club for "Whites Only."  However, in his assigned post as keeper of law and order, he had to act out the colonial role that the native Burmese expected of him. Here, Orwell tell us, is the trap of colonialism;the representative of an all powerful empire had not other option than follow the expectations a despised subject people.  Orwell follows this theme more completely in his novel "Burmese Days" which I read and enjoyed as a teenager.

What are calisthenics?

Calisthenics, also known as bodyweight training, are a form of exercise that utilize a person’s weight as resistance to build muscle, improve coordination and agility, and increase cardiovascular fitness. This form of exercise has remained popular for centuries for its simplicity, as it generally does not require a gym membership or equipment. The exercises provide benefits for muscular and cardiovascular fitness and are often incorporated into workouts and used for physical evaluations by military personnel, law enforcement, and sports teams. They are also traditionally performed as part of physical education in schools. Since no equipment is needed, calisthenics are also a popular form of exercise in prisons, where inmates can perform the exercises in their cells. Common calisthenic exercises include push-ups, jumping jacks, and pull-ups.

Brief History

The word "calisthenics" comes from the Greek "kallos" (beauty) and "sthenos" (strength). An early mention of the term is found in the writings of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus from between 450 BCE and 420 BCE. In his chronicle, a spy of the king Xerxes witnesses a Spartan army practicing calisthenics in the nude before the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BCE. Another account, by the Greek geographer Pausanias, reports athletes performing calisthenics to train for the first Olympic Games.

Calisthenics have been employed in many cultures throughout the world. In India, wrestlers trained extensively for thousands of years with the Hindu push-up (dand) and the Hindu squat (baithak). The principles and techniques of yoga, which was initially practiced thousands of years ago by Indian warriors, used many bodyweight exercises to increase a person’s flexibility, balance, agility, and strength.

The Shaolin monks of China practiced calisthenics as far back as 527 BCE to increase their mental and physical prowess. Around the same time, the warriors of the Persian Empire used a training system known as "zurkhaneh" ("house of strength"), where the main part of training was dedicated to weight training and calisthenics.

In the second half of the nineteenth century, calisthenics became very popular in Australia, where public classes were held starting in the 1880s. The Royal South Street Society social club introduced calisthenics as a competitive sport into its eisteddfod festival by 1903, and it was incorporated into state schools in the 1930s. It became distinct from calisthenics elsewhere around the world, as a more organized, theatrical sport, with competitions held throughout Australia.

The Industrial Revolution saw the invention of plate-loading dumbbells and barbells, which gradually brought about a decline in the mass popularity of calisthenics as weight training became preferred. Despite the decline, the tradition of calisthenics continued thanks to its implementation by the military, school physical education programs, and even prisoners. The fitness movements of the 1970s and into the twenty-first century brought renewed interest in calisthenics.

Common Types of Calisthenics and Their Uses

There are several common types of calisthenic exercises that all use body weight as resistance, including plyometric exercises, aerobics, strength-building exercises, and muscle-toning exercises. Since calisthenics require different muscle groups to work together, the body burns more calories than other exercises that only utilize isolated muscle groups. Because of this, calisthenics are frequently used to help people lose weight.

Plyometrics help develop strength, agility, and speed. They typically involve high-intensity muscular contractions. These are popular exercises with athletes that engage in sports such as basketball, football, and soccer. Some common forms of plyometric exercises include shadow boxing, jumping jacks, squat jumps, and sprinting.

Aerobics are designed to increase a person’s heart rate and lung capacity. These are commonly simple exercises such as walking, jogging, running, swimming, and even dancing. Nearly every calisthenic exercise that increases a person’s heart rate is considered an aerobic activity.

Strength building is a major category of calisthenics. Calisthenics are excellent for building strength because multiple muscle groups are used to create resistance and help balance the body. These activities are designed to increase a person’s overall strength by targeting areas like arms, legs, and abdominal muscles. Common strength-building exercises include pull-ups, push-ups, squats, and sit-ups.

There are many variations of these different exercises, such as inclined push-ups, one-armed pull-ups, and one-legged squats. Although the concept of calisthenics is based on only using one’s body weight for resistance, wearing accessories like ankle weights for added resistance can enhance these strength-building activities.

Muscle-toning exercises help people sculpt various muscles. Some of these exercises are similar to strength-building ones. Push-ups tone a person’s chest and arms, scissor kicks and leg raises help tone the legs, and squat jumps help define thighs and buttocks. As with any form of exercise, all of the aforementioned calisthenics should be accompanied by appropriate stretching, rest, and diet.

Calisthenics to Fight Obesity

Obesity in both children and adults has been increasing in many countries since the 1980s. A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in 2014 found that more than one-third of US adults are obese. Since calisthenics are known to help people lose weight, it is often recommended by physicians and professional trainers. Calisthenics use different muscle groups simultaneously, which helps burn more calories. Performing cardiovascular exercises boosts heart rate, in turn increasing metabolism. Also, calisthenics can be performed at home, offering a convenient alternative to those who are uncomfortable with or cannot afford gyms.

Bibliography

Barrett, Patrick. Natural Exercise: Basic Bodyweight Training and Calisthenics for Strength and Weight-Loss. North Charleston: Createspace, 2012. Print.

Bruen, Judy. "Calisthenics & Weight Loss." Livestrong.com. Demand Media, 28 Jan. 2015. Web. 15 May 2015.

Kalym, Ashley. Complete Calisthenics: The Ultimate Guide to Bodyweight Exercise. Chichester: Lotus, 2014. Print.

Kavadlo, Al. Zen Mind, Strong Body: How to Cultivate Advanced Calisthenic Strength—Using the Power of "Beginner’s Mind." Little Canada: Dragon Door, 2015. Print.

Mallari, Perry Gil S. "The Long and Honorable History of Bodyweight Calisthenics." Manila Times. Manila Times, 6 July 2013. Web. 15 May 2015.

Ozer, Kaya D., et al. "Effects of Calisthenics and Pilates Exercises on Coordination and Proprioception in Adult Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial." Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 21.3 (2012): 235–43. Print.

Samuels, Mike. "What Is Calisthenic Training?" Livestrong.com. Demand Media, 15 Jan. 2014. Web. 16 May 2015.

Sarao, Carol. "Types of Calisthenic Exercises." Livestrong.com. Demand Media, 13 Mar. 2014. Web. 16 May 2015.

`int_(pi/6)^(pi/2) cot^2(x) dx` Evaluate the integral

`int_(pi/6)^(pi/2)cot^2(x)dx`

Let's first evaluate the indefinite integral,

Use the identity:`cot^2(x)=csc^2(x)-1`

`intcot^2(x)dx=int(csc^2(x)-1)dx`

`=intcsc^2(x)dx-int1dx`

use the common integral: `intcsc^2(x)dx=-cot(x)`

`=-cot(x)-x`

`:.int_(pi/6)^(pi/2)cot^2(x)dx=[-cot(x)-x]_(pi/6)^(pi/2)`

`=[-cot(pi/2)-pi/2]-[-cot(pi/6)-pi/6]`

`=[-pi/2]-[-sqrt(3)-pi/6]`

`=-pi/2+sqrt(3)+pi/6`

`=sqrt(3)-pi/3`

In The Grifters, why was Lilly acting more like a grifter than a mom to Roy?

Lilly is not able to act like a real mother to Roy because the grifting way of life infiltrates every part of her being.

Lilly shows how grifting is not just a job as much as it is a way of life. Lilly has had to grift throughout her life. Her life has been filled with competition and conning to get what she needs or wants. From her economically challenged background to giving birth to Roy at such a young age, Lilly believes that living is one "long con." She shows this in how she competes for food with Roy when he is young and in the way she cultivates the grifting tendencies within him. Lilly is unable to show any capacity for nurturing and selfless love because the life she leads is one where "the grift" never ends.

Thompson shows that being a successful grifter means using people as a means to an end. It requires a hardness of heart. This defines Lilly because she uses people in order to get what she needs or desires. This is her way of life. She views using people, including Roy, as a path to her own happiness. She ends up taking his money because she needs it. She kills him as a way to achieve it. Lilly sees motherhood as a part of the grift. Thompson seems to be suggesting that when we embrace the grifting life, a mode of living that views people as a means to an end, it precludes all else. Nothing else matters but "conning the mark." As a result, Lilly cannot behave as a mother. She can only be a grifter.

What substances can and cannot diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer?

It is very important for a cell to be able to exercise some control over what can enter and what can exit a cell through the cell membrane (lipid bilayer).  Because of the nature of the lipids that make up the membrane, only certain molecules can diffuse directly through the membrane down their concentration gradients.  The tails of the phospholipids that make up the bilayer are hydrophobic and non-polar.  Principle of "like dissolves like" applies here.  Substances that are unlike the lipids, that are hydrophilic or polar, will not diffuse directly through the membrane as they will be repelled by the lipids.  Also, in order to fit through the membrane, substances that can diffuse through the membrane must be small.  Only substances that are small, uncharged, and non-polar such as oxygen and carbon dioxide gases may diffuse directly through a lipid bilayer.  This process is known as simple diffusion.  

Other molecules like ions, amino acids, water, and sugars may also diffuse through the membrane, but they require carriers or channels in order to move down their concentration gradients.  These molecules may be too large, charged, or polar and a protein-based carrier or channel in a way shields these substances from the lipids that would otherwise repel such substances.  Diffusion through a carrier or channel is known as facilitated diffusion.

What are character sketches of both Jimmy Wells and 'Silky' Bob in "After Twenty Years"?

'Silky' Bob and Jimmy Wells, longtime friends who have parted ways, agreed to meet again in their favorite restaurant in New York City twenty years later.

O. Henry's story begins on the appointed evening in New York City. A policeman, whose beat includes the block on which the old restaurant known as 'Big Joe' Brady's was located, notices a man standing in the unlit doorway. The man explains that he is waiting for his old friend because they made an agreement to reunite after twenty years. 

Patrolman Jimmy Wells

• 
  Conscientious lawman: Wells is first and foremost an officer of the law: When the man in the doorway says that he is meeting an old friend after twenty years, Jimmy realizes that this man is his old friend, Bob. But, he makes no comment because he has seen a Wanted poster with a man who resembles Bob. Therefore, he is careful not to identify himself because he wants to be certain about his friend's resemblance to the man who is wanted by the law. 
  Wells then returns to the police station, verifies Bob's identity, and asks a plain clothes policeman to make the arrest because he does not have the heart to embarrass his friend. He gives the other policeman a note of explanation for Bob.


• 
  Loyal friend: After Bob lights a cigar, the flame reveals the face that is on the Wanted poster, confirming Wells's fears. Because Bob has been his friend and is loyal enough to return to meet him, Wells does not have the heart to arrest his old friend. So, he says with irony, "Hope your friend comes around all right."

'Silky Bob'

• 
  An adventurous character: Whereas Jimmy remains true to his personality of twenty years ago, Bob has gone a different direction in life. After he went out West, Bob "kept hustling around over it pretty lively" and lost touch with Jimmy as he involves himself in various questionable adventures.


• 
  An unethical man: He is also not ashamed of what he has done, boasting that the West has given him everything that he has wanted. He adds, "It takes the West to put a razor-edge on [a man]." And, he refers to Jimmy as "a kind of plodder, though, good fellow as he was."


• 
  A loyal friend: Nevertheless, Bob has not forgotten the love he has had for Jimmy Wells and in an act of strong loyalty, Bob travels over a thousand miles to meet his friend despite possible risks. 


• 
  A man who is touched by Jimmy's act of friendship: When he reads Jimmy's note, his hand is steady at first, but it trembles after he realizes that it has been his friend with whom he has talked in the doorway. This trembling may indicate his realization that the old love that the two of them had for each other is gone as well as his being touched that Jimmy has not wanted to embarrass him. 

Compare and contrast democracy, authoritarianism, and totalitarianism.

Authoritarianism and totalitarianism are very similar forms of government.  Democracy has essentially nothing in common with these two types of governments.

Democracy is the form of government that allows its citizens to have the greatest amount of freedom and the most control over their government.  In a democracy, the people are sovereign.  They are able to control their government because they get to elect its leaders.  For a country to be a real democracy, these elections must actually feature multiple candidates who are not just picked by the government.  The candidates must be elected to positions that have real power and authority.  In a democracy, the people have political rights. They have the right to speak their minds and criticize the government.  They have the right to assemble to protest.  In other words, they have the right to make their voices heard in ways other than just voting.  In a democracy, the people have personal rights.  They have the right to marry who they wish.  They have the right to live where they want to.  They have the right believe in any religion of their choice or not to believe at all.  In these ways, and many others, democracy affords its citizens more power and more freedom than any other form of government.

Both totalitarian and authoritarian governments deny their citizens many or all of these rights.  In both sorts of government, there are no meaningful elections.  For example, people in China do officially get to vote for some government officials.  However, these elections do not feature real competition and the officials who are elected do not have real power.  In both of these types of government, the people are not guaranteed many rights, if any.  Again, we know that countries like China do not guarantee the freedom of speech for their people.  They certainly do not guarantee the right to criticize the government.  In fact, they do not even guarantee seemingly innocuous things like the freedom to live where you want or the freedom to belong to whatever religion you choose.  Both authoritarianism and totalitarianism are completely different from democracy.

It is very hard to say how totalitarian and authoritarian governments differ.  There is no really clear distinction between them.  Instead, it is impossible to know exactly where a government stops being simply authoritarian and becomes totalitarian.

Textbooks usually distinguish between the two by saying that totalitarian governments try to control their people’s lives completely.  This is why they are called “totalitarian:” they try to have total control over their people.  An example of a totalitarian government today would be North Korea.  There, the government tries to make sure that every aspect of their people’s lives conforms to what the government wants.  By contrast, China is more of an authoritarian government.  People in China can travel abroad and have contact with foreigners.  They can speak their minds at times (as seen in the criticisms of the government in this link).  The government is more likely to allow them rights than the North Korean government is.  However, this is a matter of degree.  In both countries, people don’t really have rights.  They can only speak when the government says it’s okay.  The difference is that it is more often okay to speak in China than in North Korea.  This is the basic difference between authoritarian and totalitarian governments.

What is the setting of The Swiss Family Robinson?

The Swiss Family Robinson, written by Johann David Wyss, tells the story of a family who becomes stranded on an island after being shipwrecked. The family was traveling to Port Jackson, Australia, to begin a new life. Though we do not have a specific date for when the story takes place, it was first published in 1812 and is woven with the theme of European colonialism. Port Jackson was the first European settlement in Australia, having been named by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770. We can assume from this date that The Swiss Family Robinson is set sometime between 1770 and 1812.

The family never arrives in Port Jackson, as they have been stranded by a storm somewhere in the East Indies. The term "East Indies" refers to the South-East Asian nations where Europeans developed colonies. These include Malaysia, Indonesia, New Guinea, and the Philippines. There are many islands in this area, so we cannot really say which, if any, actual island the family is supposed to have lived on.

Why might Eliot have called this a "love song"? If you were titling it, would you keep "love song" or use some other phrase?

We find the phrase "love song" in the title of the poem for a few reasons.

As a description of the speaker's sad, lonely wanderings and failures to connect with women, "love song" is a fairly accurate and straightforward description: the speaker yearns for love and intimacy without receiving it. Think of how many actual love songs you know that are about unrequited love, or failed relationships! They're very common.

And, paradoxically, "love song" works as an ironic description of the speaker's struggles, too. He doesn't find love, and he's too much of a coward to even try very hard to find it, and so he's definitely not singing a love song to any lady in real life!

To sum this up so far, although it sounds crazy, the poem both is and is not a love song, so the phrase "love song" in the title is both straightforwardly appropriate as well as ironic. But here's my favorite guess about why Eliot titled the poem with that phrase: "love song" also works to make the title funny. We might expect a poem to be called, for example, "The Love Song of Romeo" or "The Love Song of James Smith" or any other normal-sounding name. But this is "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," which is hilarious when you think of how stuffy that name really sounds. It's like saying "The Love Song of F. Humphrey Q. Longwhiskers III." I'm exaggerating, but you get the idea: the man's name is awkward and snobby, so putting it next to the phrase "love song" is funny.

For all those reasons, no, I, personally, wouldn't change the title of the poem to something else. It works too well as it is. But if you were interested in creating a more straightforward title, you might pick something like "Lonely Wanderings," or you might just echo a line you particularly like that embodies the theme, like "Ragged Claws" or "Indecisions" or "Music From a Farther Room."

You might be interested to know that Eliot himself originally titled this poem "Prufrock Among the Women" (according to the book T.S. Eliot: A Life by Peter Ackroyd). So if you were looking for a more appropriate title that expresses the fact that Prufrock wanders around among the women without actually wooing them or connecting with them in any meaningful way, that title would do the job.

What is the pharynx?

Structure and Functions

The pharynx, or throat, is the tube-shaped passageway that begins at the back of the nasal cavity, extends downward behind the mouth, and terminates at the fork of the esophagus and trachea, or windpipe. It comprises three sections: the nasopharynx, just behind the nose; the oropharynx, behind the mouth; and the laryngopharynx or hypopharynx, the remaining area above the esophagus. The pharynx contains lymphatic tissue to fight infection: the adenoids in the nasopharynx and the tonsils in the oropharynx. The left and right Eustachian tubes connect the nasopharynx to the ears and balance air pressure between the middle and outer ear.

Food enters the pharynx from the mouth, while air enters from the nose and mouth. The act of swallowing begins as a voluntary contraction of muscles and continues involuntarily until food passes into the esophagus. In the laryngopharynx, the epiglottis, a flap of connective tissue, prevents food and water from entering the trachea, while the soft palate of the mouth rises to block the nasopharynx so that material stays out of the nose. During vocalization, the pharynx plays a role in shaping the sounds made by the vocal cords, located just below it in the larynx.

Disorders and Diseases

Most problems in the pharynx arise from infection and inflammation. Pharyngitis, or sore throat, is an acute infection, usually from a virus or streptococcus bacteria, that is most common in children. Similarly, tonsillitis is an infection of the tonsils, quinsy (peritonsillar cellulitis and abscess) affects tissue near the tonsils, and epiglottitis is a bacterial infection of the epiglottis. Abscesses, with or without inflammation, may also occur in the pharynx; cysts known as Tornwaldt cysts may occur in the midline of the nasopharynx; and contact ulcers may result from damage to the pharyngeal tissue caused by swallowing something chemically harsh or physically abrasive or jagged.

Although not common, throat cancers
can occur in the nasopharynx and tonsils. They are usually squamous cell carcinomas and occur predominantly in males, usually due to smoking and alcohol consumption.

People with cleft palates may not have complete closure of the nasal passage during swallowing, a condition called velopharyngeal insufficiency. The condition can impair speech and give it a marked nasal sound.

Bibliography

Beers, Mark H., et al., eds. The Merck Manual of Medical Information. 2nd home ed. Whitehouse Station, N.J.: Merck Research Laboratories, 2003.

Parker, Steve. The Human Body Book. 2nd ed. New York: DK Adult, 2013.

PM Medical Health News. 21st Century Complete Medical Guide to Throat and Pharynx Disorders: Authoritative Government Documents, Clinical References, and Practical Information for Patients and Physicians. Mount Laurel, N.J.: Progressive Management, 2004.

Sasaki, Clarence T. "Introduction: Throat Disorders." Merck Manual Home Health Handbook, July 2008.

Thibodeau, Gary A., and Kevin T. Patton. Structure and Function of the Human Body. 14th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier, 2012.

"Throat Disorders." MedlinePlus, June 16, 2013.