Where in Thousand Cranes does it speak of trauma?

One could make a case for the book's main theme being trauma. There are many traumatic events depicted in the life of the main character, Kikuji. While the other characters in the book are the victims of traumatic events, the trauma that harms Kikuji comes from his feelings for the people who have suffered or died.

When the novel begins, Kikuji has been orphaned by the deaths of his parents. Of course, this leaves him with a great deal of sadness, but it also leaves him feeling lost. This may be just as traumatic.

Kikuji isn't quite sure how to live his own life, and emulates his father by taking Mrs. Ota as a lover. This, and his father's affair with her, lead to her suicide. The trauma is compounded by Kikuji's troubled relationship with Mrs. Ota's daughter, who may or may not commit suicide at the end of the book.

Discuss the characteristics of the literature of sentiment and sensibility in Thomas Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard."

Eighteenth-century literature of sentiment and sensibility was written to evoke feelings or emotions. Literary critic Ann Jessie van Sant distinguishes sentiment as describing feelings associated with the mind and sensibility as describing feelings associated with the body; other critics say it is difficult to separate the two. In any case, the literature of sentiment and sensibility is often characterized by a melancholy mood and a focus on the simple life and on suffering.

In "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard," the theme is death and the poems sets the melancholy tone from the first stanza, where the setting is evening and the tolling of bell, "parting," and "darkness" evoke death:

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,

The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea,

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way,

And leaves the world to darkness and to me.

The poem emphasizes death as the great leveller, for "the paths of glory lead to the grave" as surely as do the lives of humble folk. The poem focuses on the lives of  the simple, ordinary people, and Gray tries to evoke our sympathy for them and the poignance of their lives of dignity in obscurity. Using van Rant's distinction, we can see the lines below evoking sentiment, or an emotion of sympathy, towards a person, who, like a flower, lives and dies in obscurity:

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,

And waste its sweetness on the desert air.

The world is full of people buried in country churchyards who might have had the aspirations and talents to do great things, but nevertheless lived simple lives:

Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife,

Their sober wishes never learned to stray;

Along the cool sequestered vale of life

They kept the noiseless tenor of their way.

The poem invites us into a mood of melancholy or bittersweetness as we contemplate these lives. 

Why is Romeo to blame for his and his lover's death? What are some examples and analyses of his impulsiveness, impatience, and irresponsibility?

Romeo is indeed a rash young man. While pining over Rosaline, he falls in love with Juliet at first sight and soon agrees to marry her. This shocks Friar Laurence: “Is Rosaline, whom thou didst love so dear, / So soon forsaken?” Romeo’s overwhelming passion is matched by Juliet’s, who proclaims that their romance is “too rash, too unadvised, too sudden; / Too like the lightning.” Certainly, if Romeo had not gone to the Capulet party to spy on Rosaline in the first place, he never would have met and fallen for Juliet.

Romeo also kills Tybalt, Juliet’s cousin, after Tybalt slays Mercutio. Romeo tries to speak kindly to Tybalt but, in his grief, attacks and murders him. He even blames Juliet for his initial temperance:

… O sweet Juliet,
Thy beauty hath made me effeminate
And in my temper soften'd valour's steel!

Romeo reacts violently to his subsequent banishment, claiming to prefer death to such a fate: “There is no world without Verona walls, / But purgatory, torture, hell itself.” He wails and attempts to kill himself. The friar halts his sword, only delaying his inevitable death.

As soon as Romeo hears of Juliet’s death, he decides to die. Juliet, however, had only feigned death. If Romeo had waited and learned Juliet was still alive, they could have been together. Instead, he rushes to her grave and fights with Paris, Juliet’s fiancé, killing him. Romeo then drinks poison and dies next to Juliet: “Thus with a kiss I die.” When Juliet awakens, she also takes her life. In the end, the tragedy is by no means Romeo’s fault alone, but his haste plays a key role in the play’s unfortunate conclusion.

What is the process of water turning into a solid called?

Water is a liquid and its solid form is known as ice. When the water converts from the liquid phase (that is, water) to the solid phase (that is, ice), the process is known as freezing. 

Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius at standard atmospheric pressure, while it is present as liquid water between a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius and 100 degrees Celsius. Heat is lost to the surroundings as the water freezes. The ethalapy of fusion of water or heat of fusion of water is 6 kJ/mol. That is, for freezing 1 mole of water at 0 degrees Celsius, 6 kJ of heat is lost to the surroundings or is given out. Thus, freezing is an exothermic process.

Note that freezing refers to the phase change from liquid to solid and does not involve any change in the temperature of water.

Hope this helps. 

Who uses the lavatory the most and why is this the problem in Anne Frank: Diary of a Young Girl?

Albert Dussel, a dentist who joins the van Daans and Franks in hiding in the annex, is the person who uses the lavatory the most. This is an issue because his frequent bathroom usage seems to be a reflection of his disinterest in the comfort of the others; with so many people living in such a confined space and all sharing the same bathroom, occupying shared areas fairly becomes a major issue.

Anne, in particular, finds this irritating, as she shares a room with the man and often ends up being at the receiving end of his bad habits. She documents these habits carefully in her diary, even creating a list of times that Dussel occupies the bathroom, which she describes as "his favorite spot." Anne writes of the consequences of Dussel's routine as follows:

Three, four or five times a day there's bound to be someone waiting outside the bathroom door, hopping impatiently from one foot to another, trying to hold it in and barely managing. Does Dussel care? Not a whit... He never deviates or lets himself be swayed by the voices outside the door, begging him to open up before a disaster occurs. 

Find values for `a` and `b` that will make `f` continuous everywhere, if f(x) = { `-3x^2` if `x lt 1;` `ax + b` if `1lt=xlt=4;` `x + sqrt(x)` if `4...

Hello!

The formulas used to define `f(x)` are elementary functions and they are continuous on a given intervals. The only problem problematic points are the joint points `1` and `4.`

Even at these points `f` has limits from the left and from the right. And for `f` to be continuous at `1` and `4` it is necessary and sufficient for these limits to coincide. It is evident that

`lim_(x->1-) f(x) = -3,` `lim_(x->1+) f(x) = a+b,`

`lim_(x->4-) f(x) = 4a+b,` `lim_(x->4+) f(x) = 6.`

This gives the linear system for `a` and `b,` `a+b=-3` and `4a+b=6.` Solve it by substitution: `b=-3-a` and `4a-3-a=6,` thus `a=3` and `b=-6.` This is the (unique) answer.

What is touch?

Structure and Functions

An essential attribute of the survival of a species is the ability to detect both the internal and external environment. This is necessary so that appropriate and life-sustaining actions can be taken at all times. When changes or modifications of these environments take place, many responses can occur within an individual, ranging from rolling over during sleep to restore blood flow to an arm to avoiding contact with a prickly pear cactus. This kind of monitoring occurs within the general and special sense organs or structures found in humans and many other species.

One way in which the body monitors its internal and external environments is through the general senses. General sensations include temperature, pain, touch, pressure, vibration, tickle, and proprioception (internal sensations relating to how one’s body is situated in space). Sensations of touch usually originate at or very near the skin surface; some originate from receptors found in deeper, subcutaneous (below the skin) layers. Many of the general senses are collectively called the "tactile senses"—notably, those of touch, pressure, vibration, and tickle. In addition, the term “somatic senses” refers to the sensory receptors associated with skin, muscles, joints, and visceral organs. Receptors in the muscles or joints are essential for the awareness of body movement. Visceral receptors play important roles in monitoring changes in body pain, as in stomach pain, hunger, and thirst. The somatic senses provide a means by which the internal and external environments are monitored with regard to touch, pressure, stretch, pain, and temperature. While these terms are not precisely interchangeable, there is overlap in the sensations of touch, pressure, vibration, and tickle with all three categories: general, tactile, and somatic sensations.

Another means whereby a human interacts with the environment is controlled by the special senses. Special senses include taste, vision, smell, hearing, and body equilibrium in space (or balance). Special senses involve relatively large and specialized structures of the tongue, eyes, nose, and ear and inner ear, in contrast to the general senses, in which the structures are relatively simple but are more widely dispersed throughout the entire body. The neurological pathways are also simplified relative to the neurological events that occur in the special senses’ organs and pathways. Combined, the general and special senses form an intricate and elegant system that allows for an individual’s survival.

Sensations occur when a receptor receives a stimulus from the external or internal world. The result is a neural impulse that can be utilized in the brain to provide some awareness of the body and its immediate environment. Perception results from the interpretation of the sensory information at a conscious level. Conscious awareness of sensory stimulation generally occurs only when a sufficiently large, or sometimes abrupt, change in the status quo happens in either the internal or external environment. At that point, the perception of a sense will be registered and noted in the cerebral cortex.

An untold number of sensory receptors are stimulated at any given second, including receptors that note where each body part is placed—from the tiniest portion of each finger and toe, to the position of the body in a chair. Other receptors respond to inhalation and exhalation pressure changes or feel air brushing past. All receptors work simultaneously and in harmony in a healthy person, but most of this activity is on a subconscious level. Only if a sufficient change in either the internal or external world occurs will a sensation no longer be simply monitored but instead cause a conscious response. An example is feeling the hard coolness of a bench when being seated: at first, the perception of the hard and cold surface is pronounced, but this perception will decrease over time until one seemingly “forgets” about being seated on an uncomfortable bench. This kind of decreased sensitivity to a stimulus is called "adaptation."

It appears that adaptation prevents the conscious mind from being overloaded with “meaningless” data or data that require no particular response. Adaptation may also allow for new, perhaps more important, stimuli to be noted at the receptor sites. Thus, the adaptation mechanism acts as a “reset” button. Consider the bench example again: in spite of one’s “forgetfulness” about the bench being beneath the body, the stimulus is not, in fact, gone. Rather, the mind conveniently elects to ignore the stimulus unless a change occurs that reminds the brain of the bench’s presence. This new perception of the bench might recur if a shift in body position causes new receptors to receive stimuli from new contact places between the body and the bench. Eventually, these new sensations will undergo the adaptation process and the bench will once again be “forgotten.” (Although thermal equilibrium will be reached between the bench and the person, this process is slow and does not account for the quick rate of adaptation.)

There are four necessary components of sensation: a stimulus, which is generally caused by a change in the environment; a receptor, which can experience a stimulus and produce a generator potential to initiate a nerve impulse; an impulse, which carries the signal from the point of stimulation of the receptor to the brain; and a translation of the impulse within the brain, so that a meaningful interpretation of the kind of sensations experienced, such as a tickle or a floral fragrance, can be made.

All sense receptors are very excitable, but only if stimulated by the specific sensation that they are designed to monitor. This means that sensory receptors are highly specialized in their function. Sense receptors have a low threshold of response to the type of stimuli to which they are designed to respond, while having a high threshold of response to other kinds of stimuli. (Pain receptors are an exception to this rule, perhaps because of the variety of stimuli that can include a sense of pain.) An example of specialization of the receptors is seen in the fact that certain regions of the body are more susceptible to sensing a tickle than others. Specialization of receptors is attributed to the unique structures of the receptors, even though all sense receptors contain dendrites from sensory neurons.

At a receptor site, a stimulus may induce a generator potential, which sometimes is called the "receptor potential." The generator potential is a localized and graded response that may reach its threshold if enough depolarization of the dendrites occurs. In other words, if threshold potential is achieved at the receptor, then a nerve impulse will ensue. This kind of response is an all-or-none response, the landmark characteristic of nerve cells.

The cerebral cortex is essential in the perception (interpretation) of a sensation. All different impulses arriving at the cerebral cortex are chemically the same; the only difference between an impulse carrying a message of a soft touch or of a heavy pounding is where the impulse arrives within the cerebral cortex. Impulses arriving at different locations of the cortex allow the brain to identify, classify, and locate the origins of a stimulus. The ability to distinguish one sensation from another is called "modality"; the ability to locate precisely the point at which the stimulus is applied is called "projection". Modality and projection are functions of the cerebral cortex. In addition, the cortex can prompt many shifts in body position (such as stretching after reading) or body chemistry (such as the release of epinephrine to increase heart rate and blood flow in a crisis) if a response to the stimulus is deemed necessary.

Receptors can be classified according to the location or type of stimuli that cause the receptors to respond. Touch receptors can be classified as exteroceptors by virtue of the fact that these sensory receptors are externally located, mainly on the skin surface. Other classes of somatic receptors are located internally. Visceroreceptors monitor internal organs for data on hunger, thirst, pressure, and nausea. Proprioceptors monitor the muscles, tendons, joints, and inner ear for exacting knowledge of body position and body movement.

"Mechanoreceptors" are an alternative classification for touch receptors. This label is based on the type of stimulus—a mechanical displacement or disfiguring, for which touch receptors have a low threshold. Light touch is felt when the skin is very gently touched and no indentation or distortion of the skin results. Touch pressure is felt when a heavy touch causes a distortion of the skin surface, either laterally, as in a tugging sensation, or vertically, as in a depression of the skin surface.

Six types of touch receptors have been identified in the human anatomy: root hair plexuses, free nerve endings, tactile disks (or Merkel’s disks), corpuscles of touch (or Meissner’s corpuscles), type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors (or end organs of Ruffini), and Pacinian corpuscles (or lamellated corpuscles). At these structures, a mechanical stimulus can be transformed into a sensation, provided that the stimulus is sufficiently strong to bring about a threshold potential.

Root hair plexuses are located in networks at the hair
roots. On the scalp, these generate a sensation of touch when the hair is being pulled, brushed, or stroked. On the body surface, these receptors are sensitive to movement of the hair, as can occur if a small breeze passes over the skin or if a silk scarf is dragged lightly over the skin hairs. Root hair plexuses are not structurally supported, nor are they protected by any surrounding structure.

Free nerve endings are everywhere on the skin surface and seem to be responsive to many kinds of stimuli. These little dendritic processes of sensory neurons are not protected or supported by surrounding structures.

Made of disklike formations of dendrites, Merkel’s disks, or tactile disks, are found in the deeper layers of the skin. Merkel’s disks are particularly abundant on the fingertips, palms, soles of the feet, eyelids, lips, nipples, clitoris, tip of the penis, and tip of the tongue. Merkel’s disks are particularly suited to receiving stimuli of fine touch and pressure.

Meissner’s corpuscles, or corpuscles of touch, are egg-shaped dendritic masses that are sensitive to light touch and vibrations of a low frequency. Found in the hairless portions of the skin, these receptors are also used in making judgments about the textures of whatever the skin may contact. Two or more sensory nerve fibers enter each corpuscle of touch; the nerve fibers terminate as tiny knobs within the corpuscle. In addition, Meissner’s corpuscles contain dendritic extensions. The entire mass is enclosed in connective tissue, which offers some support and protection to the disks. Corpuscles of touch are found in the external genitalia, tip of the tongue, eyelids, lips, fingertips, palms and soles, and nipples of both sexes.

The end organs of Ruffini, or type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors, are found all over the body but especially in the deep dermis (skin) and deeper tissues below the dermis. These are also called "corpuscles of Ruffini" and are responsive to heavy and continuous touch and pressure.

Finally, the Pacinian corpuscles are relatively large ellipses that are found in the subcutaneous tissue (below the skin) and deeper subcutaneous tissues. Also known as "lamellated corpuscles," these touch receptors are found under tissues that contain mucous membranes, serous membranes, joints and tendons, muscles, mammary glands, and external genitalia. Pacinian receptors are sensitive to deep and heavy pressure and vibrations of low frequency. As such, these receptors detect pulsating, vibrating stimuli. There is an abundance of Pacinian receptors in the penis, vagina, feet and hands, clitoris, urethra, breasts, tendons, and ligaments. Inside each ellipsoid are dendrites from sensory nerves; the bundle itself is wrapped in connective tissue that can serve as a protective support.

Disorders and Diseases

Loss of tactile senses is a symptom rather than a disease. In general, a lost ability to sense touch, pressure, vibration, or tickle is a result of physical damage to a group of nerves or of a disease of the nervous system. Sensory receptors are not themselves targets of disease, but they can be physically or chemically impaired, especially if the skin is severely damaged.

An example of severe damage to the skin that will cause a loss of tactile sensations is a third-degree
burn of the body. Third-degree burns are marked by the total destruction of the full thickness of the skin. This destruction includes the epidermis, the dermis, and any associated skin structures, such as secretion glands, hair, and the general sensory receptors. No pain is sensed when regions of the body that have received a third-degree burn are touched, because the nerve fibers that innervate the touch receptors and the free nerve endings, as well as nerves located in the subcutaneous layers, have been destroyed by the burn. In such cases, total destruction of the nerve fibers and the skin has occurred. Third-degree burns can have a charred, dry appearance or a mahogany or ash-white color. Regeneration of the dermis and the subcutaneous structures is slow and painful as the healing occurs. Although skin grafting
can facilitate the regeneration
process, it is not uncommon for scarring to result from the rapid contraction of the wounded area as it heals.

The sense of touch is largely lost in scar tissue, since new nerve fibers cannot be formed. (Nerve cells are formed only during gestation and early life and are designed to last a lifetime.) Some tactile senses can return to scarred regions through a process called "sprouting." This process involves the branching forth, or the sprouting, of dendritic processes originating in undamaged nerve cells near to, but removed from, the injured site. In this kind of recovery, the healthy nerves assist in restoring tactile senses, to a limited degree, in the damaged regions.

Aside from a total loss of sensation, a sense of numbness can indicate a loss of proper blood circulation to a body region. For example, if one sits or folds oneself into a position so that a leg is receiving pressure from other body parts, the sensation of touch and pressure on the leg will eventually cause a sense of numbness; a form of pain ensues that feels like a tingling sensation that is often described as “pins and needles” all over the leg. The loss of blood circulation to the numbed region actually triggers pain receptors, sending an impulse to the cerebral cortex that warns of an odd feeling. The cerebral cortex will perceive the problem and command responses of the skeletal and muscular systems to change body position. Proprioceptors will sense the new body position, and as blood circulation restores a normal environment, the tingling decreases until it disappears. Numbness can also be a symptom of nerve damage or can result from the use of certain drugs, such as Novocain, that are used in dental and medical applications.

Changing of body position is an important outcome of the touch, pressure, and pain senses. Without the ability to change the position of the body, as can happen in some elderly or quadriplegic persons, damage to the areas on which the whole of the body is resting can occur. Neglect of these persons in home care or in health care facilities will result in bedsores (pressure ulcers) developing at these pressure points. If left unchecked, these bedsores will grow and can lead to gangrene. As a part of their care, such individuals require physical therapy or physical aid in moving body parts and in changing sitting and sleeping positions several times each day.

Damage to the right lobe of the brain may cause abnormalities in the senses of touch and pressure, which in turn can cause a deficit in the ability to locate precisely where a tactile sensation originates on the body surface (the ability to project tactile sensations), making adjustment to and interaction with the external environment challenging. Right lobe damage, therefore, may give rise to a condition called "passive touch deficit." Passive touch deficits are revealed by an impaired ability to discriminate touch sensations and by altered thresholds of touch and pressure that cause a sensation to be perceived.

Damage to the right lobe may also lead to deficits in active touch, meaning that such descriptors as size, shape, and texture cannot be readily discerned in touch tests. Generally, right lobe damage also leads to the loss of fine motor control of the fingers, which is especially challenging for musicians, authors, computer operators, visual artists, surgeons, and others who require exacting motor control of the fingers.

Sometimes, lesions in the right lobe of the cerebral cortex will lead to a condition called "tactile agnosia." Tactile agnosia will occur only in the left hand, given the contralateral arrangement of the hands and neurological pathways to the cortex. The symptom of tactile agnosia is the diminished ability, or the inability, to identify common items (such as a key, pencil, or comb) when it is placed in the left hand. Fortunately, this condition is not common.

Another interesting form of loss of touch can occur in an odd behavior called "neglect." Again, the problem with this loss of sensation originates from damage to the cerebral cortex, not to the touch receptors of the body. In neglect, lesions of the right parietal lobe are generally present but the contralateral neural pathway results in lost sense on the left side of the body. The ability to perceive a left-side stimulus is lost; patients may not notice anything in the internal or external environments on the left side of the body. In left-side neglect, patients may step into the right leg of a pair of pants but not the left leg and will not know that anything is wrong. Left-side neglect can also result in only right turns being made in walking patterns, and stimuli from the visual, auditory, and tactile sensations are not at all perceived. The sensation is traveling from the point of stimulation, but the cerebral cortex cannot process the sensation.

Finally, the issue of the phantom limb has significance in the medically related aspects of the sense of touch. “Phantom limb” is the term used to describe a sensation that seems to arise from a limb that has been amputated. Patients who have lost body parts to amputation, either surgically or mechanically (as a result of trauma such as a car accident or an accident while operating a meat-processing machine), often describe sensations of itching, burning, or heat or cold, as well as other general sensations in the limb that is missing.

Although the limb—such as a finger, toe, or part of a leg or arm—may be absent, general sensations seem to arise from these absent body parts because of the neurological pathways that would normally connect the limbs to the cerebral cortex. In addition, a sensation is only as accurate as the cortex’s ability to locate and identify the stimulus. This recall is called "perception." Perception, however, is not an exact science; it results from experiences and associations that teach the cortex how to sort and analyze sensory data. Much information comes into the brain on common pathways, as if only a few streets led into a special city and all cars wanted to travel those streets to get there. An index finger may have had priority access to the paths during the training days of a young concert pianist. If, however, the pianist loses that index finger, neurological activity along the pathway to which the finger was once connected has not stopped. In fact, during the adjustment and recovery period immediately following the amputation, neurological activity may be heightened. As these sensory receptors and neurons send impulses along the avenues as before, these impulses will now be dominant in the absence of the index finger. Although the conscious mind is fully aware that the finger is absent, the subconscious mind has not yet acclimated itself to the change. Thus, a false association is made before the conscious mind can “correct” the perception and realize that the stimulus must be originating from a place other than the absent body part.

Perspective and Prospects

Responsiveness to different kinds of touch at different locations on the body reveals a relationship between receptor structures and their subsequent function. Specifically, the hands of the human body are exquisitely sensitive to touch. The calculated innervation (number of nerve connections) for touch alone on the palms of the hands is seventeen thousand units.

On the palms, the most abundant type of touch receptors are Meissner’s corpuscles. Accounting for 43 percent of all the touch receptors of the palms, they are responsible for the sensations of texture, light touches, and low-frequency vibrations and clearly play an important role in the human experience. Meissner’s corpuscles are particularly abundant on the tips of all fingers and both thumbs. Although these receptors adapt at a moderately rapid pace, they are not so fast at adapting that the pleasure of stroking a cat or caressing a baby’s head is lost.

After Meissner’s corpuscles, Merkel’s disks are second most abundant on the palms. Constituting 25 percent of the touch innervation density, these cells are suited for fine touch and pressure. Mainly confined to the digits’ and thumbs’ full length, Merkel’s disks are important in tactile pursuits such as painting, drawing, sewing, writing, and dentistry. They are equally important in the expression of loving gestures to other people, animals, and plants via touch. Merkel’s disks are slow to adapt; thus, these sensations are somewhat sustained.

Constituting 19 percent of the palms’ innervation are the Ruffini endings. These are scattered throughout the palm surface area and are not localized. Ruffini endings are receptive to heavy and continuous touch and are slow adaptors. While a person is carrying a stack of books, for example, these endings are “firing” the nerves that connect to them.

Finally, making up only 13 percent of the palms’ innervation to touch are the Pacinian corpuscles. Having a slight clustering in the fingertips, these are very quick at adapting to stimuli. They are receptive to deep and heavy pressure, such as the sensations that can be felt while massaging the hands.

Hairless regions of the skin, such as the palms, soles, penis, and vagina, contain Merkel’s disks, Ruffini endings, Meissner’s corpuscles, and Pacinian corpuscles. The combinations of receptors within these regions make these body parts acutely aware of and sensitive to light or heavy touch, rough or velvety textures, and pulsating or vibratory stimuli. These areas are also associated with pleasure centers of the body, in part because of their heightened tactile sensitivity.

Hairy skin, such as on the legs, chest, and arms, contains tactile disks, Ruffini endings, root hair plexuses, and Pacinian corpuscles. These body parts are sensitive to vibratory stimuli, breezes and other forms of displacement of body hairs, and pressure and tugging or pulling of the skin.

People are often willing to go to extra lengths to take care of their special sensory organs—the eyes, ears, mouth, and nose—because of their unique and important functions in the human body, but rarely do the general senses receive such attention. In spite of being largely overlooked, the general senses provide humans and other species with something so fundamental to life that it is often forgotten: touch. Offering a means of experiencing the most intimate communication and connection between self and others or between self and the environment, touch is an integral aspect of life.

Bibliography

Møller, Aage R. Sensory Systems: Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathophysiology. 2d ed. Richardson, Tex.: Author, 2012.

National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research. "NIH Scientists Discover Molecule Triggers Sensation of Itch." National Institutes of Health, May 23, 2013.

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. "Pain: Hope Through Research." National Institutes of Health, July 10, 2013.

Piergrossi, Joseph. "Untangling the Source of Ouch and Itch." National Institute of General Medical Sciences, National Institutes of Health, June 12, 2013.

Schmidt, Robert F., ed. Fundamentals of Sensory Physiology. Translated by Marguerite A. Biederman-Thorson. Rev. 3d ed. Berlin: Springer, 1986.

Shier, David N., Jackie L. Butler, and Ricki Lewis. Hole’s Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology. 11th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2011.

Tortora, Gerard J., and Bryan Derrickson. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 13th ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2012.

Wolfe, Jeremy M., et al. Sensation and Perception. 2d ed. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer, 2009.

How are retirement and developmental psychology related?

Introduction

Retirement only became an accepted part of modern life in the first half of the
twentieth century, due to increasing longevity and the introduction of
pension and
retirement benefits. Many workers choose to retire when they
become eligible for pension or social security benefits. In the United States, the
possibility of retirement became more accessible with the passage of the Social Security
Act in 1935. From 1900 to 2000, the percentage of men over
the age of sixty-five who continued to work declined as much as 70 percent in the
United States. At the same time, the percentage of all adults over sixty-five who
worked at least part-time steadily increased from 1960. Although the majority of
older Americans do not choose to work after reaching retirement age, more than 18
percent of Americans older than sixty-five were working in 2012 (compared to less
than 11 percent in 1985). Psychologist Frank Floyd and his colleagues, in their
1992 Retirement Satisfaction Inventory, found four primary reasons for retirement:
job stress, pressure from employer, desire to pursue one’s own interests, and
circumstances such as health problems. With an increasing number of older workers
delaying retirement, psychologist Towers Watson and his colleagues at Boston
College's Center on Aging and Work looked at the reasons why American workers
postpone retirement and found that the most common reasons included high debt
loads; reluctance to lose employer-provided benefits, particularly health
insurance; insufficient savings for retirement; care-taking or financial
responsibilities for children and elderly parents; and a desire to remain active
and engaged in the work force.

The retired population is defined as all people aged sixty-five and over.
Traditionally, sixty-five has been the age at which people could retire and
receive full Social Security and Medicare benefits in the United States,
although a law is in place to gradually raise the retirement age to sixty-seven.
Approximately seventy-eight million people belong to the large cohort of baby boomers
who will begin to reach the traditional age of retirement in 2010. In 1900, only
about three million were retired at sixty-five, in 2000 the number increased to
thirty-five million, and it is projected that, by 2050, the number will be
increased to sixty-seven million. If future projections are anywhere close to
accurate, it can be assumed that it will take approximately four working Americans
to provide for every retiree in 2050.

Working during Retirement

Even as individuals near retirement age, the decision to continue working in
some form after retirement or to discontinue work altogether is a complex one.
Many people feel that they have sufficient finances to comfortably exist without
working if that is their preference. The primary determiner for most is their
health status. Employer pension benefits were found to reduce the probability of
future employment in some form, while part-time work was more likely for those who
were limited to Social Security benefits. Spousal influence is often cited by
retirees as a major factor in deciding whether to choose future employment,
although spouses report that they perceive themselves as having little influence
on the decision. Specific training and the job opportunities that are available
within a community are also important in determining postretirement work.

One survey reported that 80 percent of baby boomers expect to work during their retirement years. More than one-third wanted part-time work because they would personally find it interesting or enjoyable. A little less than one-fourth planned to work for financial reasons. In another study, nearly 70 percent planned to work for pay during postretirement because they wanted to stay active and involved.

The probability of working after retirement has a positive correlation with educational attainment and being married to a working spouse. The primary characteristics associated with men who work in their seventies and eighties are good health, a strong psychological commitment to work, and a distaste for retirement.

Retirees in the Work Force

The Retirement History Study by the Social Security Administration identified
four career job exits for postretirement employment: part-time employment in one’s
career job, part-time employment in a new job, full-time employment in a new job,
and full-time retirement. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of
1967 prohibited firing people because of their age before
they retired, and in 1978, the mandatory retirement age was extended from
sixty-five to seventy. Mandatory retirement was banned altogether in 1986, except
for a few occupations where safety is at issue.

Studies have found older adults tend to be productive participants in the
workforce. They have lower rates of absenteeism, show a high level of job
satisfaction, and experience fewer accidents. There is a cyclic relationship
between higher cognitive ability and complex jobs. Older adults who work in more
complex job settings demonstrate higher cognitive ability, and those with a higher
level of intellectual functioning are more likely to continue working as older
adults. It is also important to note that ageist
stereotypes of workers and their ability can encourage early
retirement or have an adverse effect on the career opportunities given to older
adults.

Adjustment to Retirement

Retirement may represent golden years for some, but not necessarily for all.
Certain factors have been found to have an impact on the degree of satisfaction
retirees experience. Some of these factors are found within society and have an
indirect influence on how life is experienced for those who retire. Other factors
are directly related to specifics in the individual’s life.

Data from longitudinal studies have identified factors that influence
adjustment to retirement. Those who adjust best are more likely to be healthy,
active, better educated, satisfied with life before retirement, have an adequate
level of financial resources, and have an extended social network of family and
friends. Factors that contribute to a less positive adjustment to retirement are
poor health, inadequate finances, and general or specific stress in
various areas of life. Those who demonstrate flexibility typically function better
in the retirement setting in which the structured environment of work is missing.
Individuals who have cultivated interests and friends unrelated to work show
greater adaptation to retirement.

A primary factor in adjustment is whether retirement was voluntary or
involuntary. Forced retirement has been ranked as one of the top ten crisis
situations that cause stress. When retirement is voluntary, adjustment is more
positive. Those who do not voluntarily retire are more likely to be unhealthy and
depressed.

An important aspect of successful adjustment is preretirement planning. Those who are most satisfied with retirement are those who have been preparing for it for several years. Adults can begin preparing psychologically for retirement in middle age. Decisions need to be made relative to activities that will be used to stay active, socially involved, and mentally alert. Of most importance during this time is the task of finding constructive and fulfilling leisure activities that can be continued into retirement. Individuals who are already involved in a number of leisure activities will experience less stress when they make the transition from work to retirement.

During the middle of the twentieth century, disengagement theory was proposed
as the approach older adults used to withdraw from obligations and social
relationships. It was suggested that this would provide enhanced life
satisfaction. Retirement was viewed as part of the disengagement process. Although
this theory has not been considered acceptable for some time, it would be fair to
say that it represented a prevailing belief about older adults during the first
half of the twentieth century.

Researchers have since found support for the activity theory, which is the
exact opposite of disengagement theory. The activity theory proposes that the
more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to experience
life satisfaction. Supporting research suggests that activity and productivity
cause older adults to age more successfully and to be happier and healthier than
those who disengage. The theory further suggests that greater life satisfaction
can be expected if adults continue their middle-adulthood roles into late
adulthood. For those who lose their middle-adulthood roles, it is important that
they find substitute roles to keep them active.

Marriage and Family Relationships

Retirement is often a time when adults have sufficient time to develop their
social lives. Aging expert Lillian Troll found that older adults who are embedded
in family relationships have less distress than those who are family deprived.
There is a gender difference in the perspectives of older parents relative to the
importance of support from family members. Women perceived support from children
as most important whereas men considered spousal support as most important.

For married couples, retirement may bring changes for both spouses. When
retirement allows a spouse to leave a high-stress job, marital quality is
improved. In dual-income families, couples may choose to retire simultaneously or
to retire at separate times to ease into the financial changes that retirement may
bring. However, studies have suggested that both husbands and wives report greater
marital satisfaction if they retire at the same time. Retirement may bring about a
significant disruption to established patterns within the home and family, and
couples need to work together to establish new patterns and habits that are
satisfactory to both partners. Some studies have likened the first two years of
retirement to the first two years of marriage or parenthood, in that couples need
to actively renegotiate their roles, plans, dreams, and habits to adapt to the
lifestyle and role changes that retirement brings. Nevertheless, nearly 60 percent
of retired couples report improved marital satisfaction following retirement,
after a period of adjustment.

Work, Retirement, and Leisure

The perception of retirement is affected by work and leisure experiences during
the preretirement years. Leisure refers to the activities and interests one
chooses to engage in when free from work responsibilities. Many find it difficult
to seek leisure activities during the height of their work careers because of the
value placed on productivity and the pressures of many modern jobs. They may view
leisure activities as boring and lacking challenge. Many workers fear a loss of
identity or status with the loss of their jobs; by engaging in enjoyable
activities, volunteer or part-time work, or family, retirees can establish new,
meaningful facets to their identity.

Midlife is the first opportunity many adults have to include leisure activities
in their schedule. This can be an especially appropriate time if they are
experiencing physical changes in strength, endurance, and health as well as
changes in family responsibilities. Those who are able to find constructive and
fulfilling leisure activities during this time are psychologically prepared from
the middle adult years for retirement. Some developmentalists believe that middle
adults tend to reassess priorities and that this becomes a time of questioning how
their time should be spent.

Late adulthood, with its possibility of representing the years from sixty-five
to more than one hundred years, is the longest span of any period of human
development. The improved understanding of the nature of life after sixty-five and
the greater commitment on the part of medical and mental health personnel to the
improvement of health and living conditions for the older adult are giving all
retirees a better chance of being satisfied with the years beyond their work
experience.

Bibliography

Bamberger, Peter, and Samuel B. Bacharach.
Retirement and the Hidden Epidemic: The Complex Link between
Aging, Work Disengagement, and Substance Misuse—And What to Do about
It. New York: Oxford UP, 2014. Print.

Bengtson, Vern L.,
and K. Warner Schaie. Handbook of Theories of Aging. 2nd
ed. New York: Springer, 2009. Print.

Knoll, Melissa A. "Behavioral and
Psychological Aspects of the Retirement Decision." Social Security
Bulletin 71.4 (2011): 15–32. PDF file.

Maddox, H. George
L., Caleb E. Finch, Robert C. Atchley, and J. Grimley Evans, eds.
The Encyclopedia of Aging. 3rd ed. New York: Springer,
2001. Print.

Milne, Derek. The Psychology of
Retirement: Coping with the Transition from Work. West Sussex:
Wiley, 2013. Print.

Pipher, Mary Bray.
Another Country: Navigating the Emotional Terrain of Our
Elders. New York: Riverhead, 2000. Print.

Ryff, Carol D., and
Victor W. Marshall, eds. The Self and Society in Aging
Processes. New York: Springer, 1999. Print.

Vaillant, George E.
Aging Well: Surprising Guideposts to a Happier Life from the
Landmark Harvard Study of Adult Development. Boston: Little,
2003. Print.

Wang, Mo, ed. The Oxford Handbook
of Retirement. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2013. Print.

In A Rose for Emily by Faulkner, what was Emily's father's generation?

In "A Rose for Emily" (Faulker), there is information in the story that allows us to infer that Miss Emily's father was part of the Civil War generation. We also know that the story was written in 1930, a mere 65 years after the war.  We are told that Miss Emily was given a dispensation for taxes, in perpetuity, upon the death of her father in 1894.  The Civil War was from 1861 to 1865, and Miss Emily, upon the death of her father, is clearly regarded as old enough to be the chatelaine of her deceased father's household. This means that certainly her father was old enough to have been alive during the Civil War and likely, actually, to have been old enough to have fought in it.  This is reinforced by the fact that Colonel Satoris, the mayor of the town, seems to have been a contemporary of Miss Emily's father, and he does treat her in a fatherly manner, including this dispensation of taxes for her.  He would not be called Colonel unless he had fought in the Civil War.  Furthermore, Miss Emily is buried in a cemetery of Civil War veterans, and it seems safe to assume she is being buried in a family plot, where her father must be, likely as one of those veterans. 

`(-2, 8), y = -3x + 2` Find the distance between the point and the line.

The distance between a point and line will be measured by finding the segment that is perpendicular to the line and goes through the point. The formula to find this distance is: 

`"distance"(ax+by+c=0,(x1,y1))=|ax1+by1+c|/sqrt(a^2+b^2)`

So, in our problem, we need to set the equation of our line equal to 0, so it ends up being `3x+y-2=0`

We can now plug our numbers into the equation as follows:

`"distance"(3x+y-2=0,(-2,8))=|3(-2)+1(8)-2|/sqrt(3^2+1^2)`

Which leaves us with an answer of `0/sqrt(10)=0`

``

What is the significance of the opening scene in Their Eyes Were Watching God?

The opening scene of Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God shows Janie coming back from her excursion away from home with her third husband, Tea Cake. She is dressed in overalls, which accentuate her curves in the right places, and her hair swings confidently behind her back as she walks up the dusty road to her home of twenty-plus years. Backbiting neighbors watch and criticize Janie's lack of manners when she walks past them without much notice. The reader gets the first introduction to the protagonist through the eyes of these neighbors as they air their opinions about her having run off with a younger man. Fortunately, a voice of kindness emerges from Janie's friend Pheoby Watson, who takes Janie some dinner to lighten the traveler's load upon her return home.

While Janie eats, Pheoby talks. Eventually, Janie opens up to her friend and tells her where she's been. However, Pheoby doesn't simply get the story of where Janie has been for the last couple of years; she gets the story from Janie's early beginning when she lived with her grandmother. Therefore, the opening scene is actually the closing scene. Janie is at the end of her journey, but talking with Pheoby gives the reader the passage through which to start back in time where Janie first began. The opening scene leads to a flashback that eventually encompasses the whole novel; thus, it is the pathway to the beginning.

In "The Devil and Tom Walker," what does Tom do to cause the narrator to call him a "violent churchgoer"?

In Washington Irving's "The Devil and Tom Walker" the title character makes a Faustian bargain with the devil. After meeting "old scratch" in a swamp he yearns for the riches which the incarnation of the devil can provide for him. He agrees to the devil's terms, which include cheating his neighbors by engaging in usury (loaning money with high interest rates). Toward the end of his life, however, he begins to have regrets about the deal. Just as he has cheated his friends and neighbors in Boston he seeks to cheat the devil by going to church:

He thought with regret on the bargain he had made with his black friend, and set his wits to work to cheat him out of his conditions. He became, therefore, all of a sudden, a violent churchgoer.

Despite his regular attendance at church, Tom continues to exact high interest on the loans he makes. The narrator reports that the more Tom sinned the louder and more vociferous his prayers became:

He prayed loudly and strenuously, as if heaven were to be taken by force of lungs. Indeed, one might always tell when he had sinned most during the week, by the clamor of his Sunday devotion.

Just as he had become hard hearted in his lending of money, Tom becomes equally tyrannical in his religion, harping on the sins of others and calling for the persecution of non-conformists such as Quakers and Anabaptists. In the end, all his "violent" religious devotion goes for naught, as he is swept away one day by a "black man" on a "black horse." He is last seen going into the devil's swamp and never seen again.

What is the significance of the lines "Astride of a grave and a difficult birth...But habit is a great deadener" in Waiting for Godot?

In his essay on Proust, Beckett writes that habit is "the ballast that chains a dog to his vomit." This is clearly a criticism of habit. Habit, by itself, is this idea that we repeat the same thoughts or actions simply because we have become used to doing so. In this sense, habit is thoughtless and robotic.

In this play, the two main characters continue to wait for Godot. They waste vast amounts of time waiting for someone who is (likely) never going to show up. They waste large portions of their lives waiting. A life is between birth and the grave. Each person is basically "astride" birth and death, one foot in each. We stride from birth to death. So, to spend that "stride" waiting for nothing, simply out of habit, is a waste of a life. In this passage, Vladimir is making complete sense: habit meaningfully kills a person by making him/her waste time with empty habits. 

The problem, as Vladimir sees it in this passage, is not a lack of time. The problem is that humans spend too much time with pointless habits. There is the added notion, derived from the play as a whole, that it is also useless to depend upon some outside authority figure (Godot). If Vladimir and Estragon could assert their own free will and their own independence from Godot, they could stop waiting and start doing more significant things with their time. They need to break from this habit of waiting. Breaking a habit or breaking a tradition allows one to experience new things. This seems like an obvious statement, but everyone is guilty of repetitive behaviors and ways of thinking. When these repetitions (habits) continue and produce nothing meaningful, the habits become "deadeners." 

What bruises does Harpo have in The Color Purple?

Harpo has bruises because he tried to beat his wife, Sofia.  His father has told him that it's the only way to make a woman mind what her husband says because wives are like children.  Even Celie has advised Harpo to beat Sofia in part because she is jealous of their marriage (when hers is so awful and abusive) and in part because she feels that Sofia pities her, and she thinks that getting beaten would take Sofia down a peg.  

However, the next time Celie sees Harpo, his face is covered in bruises.  He says the bruises came from his mule going crazy in the field, and then he says he walked straight into the door frame and hurt his face there too.  Further, he claims that he accidentally shut the window on his hand, but Celie knows that all the bruises came from Sofia beating back on Harpo when he tried to beat on her. 

In Chapter 16 of The Giver, what clues help you infer what the unnamed celebration is? When were you certain?

I'll put the clues in bold text:

Readers who celebrate Christmas themselves or who are very familiar with the holiday will recognize it right away in the memory delineated in Chapter 16, when we find out that it's the Giver's personal favorite, that it's full of joy, and that it takes place inside a warm room with "firelight glowing on a hearth." Then we see that there's snow outside the window. At this point, many readers already have grasped the atmosphere of a winter holiday, celebrated with a family gathered together.

A more obvious clue comes a moment later, when Jonas observes colored lights on a "twinkling tree" that is placed ("oddly," to Jonas) inside the room. Most readers know by this point that the memory is definitely about Christmas.

But if you weren't sure, you could keep reading and note that there's a smell of food cooking, and that there are brightly wrapped presents on the floor, and that the family members are opening the presents, laughing, and hugging each other. The image of the grandmother rocking her young grandson is especially touching and caps off the memory. Jonas never says the word "Christmas," and neither does the Giver, but it's absolutely certain that the memory was about that particular holiday.

What was Mr. Avery's purpose in giving his explanation for the change of seasons?

Mr. Avery told Scout and Jem that poorly behaved children caused the changing of the seasons.  He said this to make them feel obligated to behave themselves.

Mr. Avery was a neighbor of the Finch family.  He lived on their street and was a boarder.  A large man, he had frequent sneezing fits.  He enjoyed sitting on the porch and whittling stove wood.

When the seasons changed, Mr. Avery referenced the Rosetta stone.  He made it clear to Scout and Jem that if the seasons changed, it was because of their disobedience:

Mr. Avery said it was written on the Rosetta Stone that when children disobeyed their parents, smoked cigarettes and made war on each other, the seasons would change: Jem and I were burdened with the guilt of contributing to the aberrations of nature, thereby causing unhappiness to our neighbors and discomfort to ourselves (To Kill a Mockingbird, Chapter 8).

When a rare snow fell in Maycomb, Mr. Avery reminded Jem and Scout of his superstitious ideas.  He scolded them.

"See what you've done?" he said. "Hasn't snowed in Maycomb since Appomattox.  It's bad children like you makes the seasons change."

Scout and Jem did not take Mr. Avery's warning too seriously.  After he walked away, they made a snowman that looked like their cranky neighbor.  They were greatly amused by it.

In the book Maniac Magee, in which pen does Jeffrey sleep?

Jeffrey sleeps in the buffalo pen at the zoo.

As Chapter 22 begins, we learn that Jeffrey has been spending his nights with the mother and baby buffalo in their pen at the Elmwood Park Zoo. Each morning, he hops back over the fence to spend the daylight hours finding food; at night, he hops the fence again to nestle in with those animals.

However, despite this workable living arrangement, Jeffrey isn't doing too well. Presumably out of weakness caused by undernourishment, he falls one morning while trying to climb over the fence, remaining there just outside the pen in an unconscious clump until the kind old man Grayson discovers him.

At that point, Jeffrey is thin, scratched, and dirty. The buffalo pen has been a safe place for him, and he's enjoyed bonding with the baby buffalo, but as a result Jeffrey smells awful and desperately needs a bath.

Toward the end of Chapter 22, we find out that he had originally tried to sneak into the deer pen instead of the buffalo pen, which makes sense considering how Jeffrey and Amanda had previously talked about that as a possible place Jeffrey could stay. But as Grayson explains:

"They switched the deer and the buffaloes around last month."

So Jeffrey stays with the buffalo—an interesting choice, one that shows how adaptable Jeffrey is to the ever-changing situation of living as a homeless child.

In To Kill A Mockingbird, what is Atticus's view of "most people"? Cite evidence from book.

On the final page of the book Scout says about Boo Radley,

"Atticus, he was real nice."

To this, Atticus replies,

"Most people are, Scout, when you finally see them."

This comment is representative of the way Atticus treats everyone in the novel and the way he encourages his children to treat others. Atticus is a kind man and he believes that people, at their core, are good and that we should try our best to understand them. In this quote we are reminded of a scene from the beginning of the book where he told Scout that to truly know someone you must walk around in their shoes. Here, he says that most people are nice "when you finally see them," which implies that we don't typically really understand others and we see what we want to or what we assume rather than the real person. We have not really walked in their shoes.

He also believes that people often act badly simply out of ignorance, not because they are evil or terrible people. So when he says that most people are nice, this really seems to reflect the same views he has been showing throughout the book. He presumes best intentions on the parts of others.

Was the 1960s a progressive or conservative era in American history?

While no time in American history can fairly be called all “progressive” or all “conservative,” it is appropriate to say that, on balance, the 1960s were a progressive era.  This was a time of great change in the United States.  Conservatives, at the time, could only fight a rear-guard action against the more liberal spirit of the age.

The 1960s were a time of major change in the United States.  One of the most important changes was brought about by the Civil Rights Movement.  That movement destroyed the old system of racial segregation in the South and brought about legal equality for African Americans.  A second major change was the movement for women’s rights.  This was the decade in which Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique and in which the National Organization for Women was founded.  Third, there was the growing acceptance of “sex, drugs, and rock-n-roll.”  During the 1960s, American youths were coming to listen to very different kinds of music, have very different attitudes towards sex and even (though this was not nearly as widespread) to condone the use of illegal drugs.  Finally, Americans (particularly the young) were starting to feel very differently about authority and about their country.  This was the era of the Vietnam War, in which many Americans openly criticized their government for getting involved in a war.  It was a time when many Americans felt that their government did not act in moral ways.  Because they felt this way, many of them discarded traditional ideas of patriotism and respect for authority.  These attitudes (along with those about sex, drugs, and music) helped bring about the hippie movement. 

There were also political changes.  Along with the legislation that the Civil Rights Movement inspired, the US government passed Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society programs.  Before the Vietnam War, Americans felt that they lived in a time in which government could fix all of the problems of society.  This was a very progressive impulse.

All of this combines to make the 1960s a very progressive era.  It is true that this wave of progressivism started to recede by the late 1960s.  Richard Nixon was elected president in 1968, starting a move back towards more conservative values that would gain momentum by the 1980s.  However, this was too little, too late, to make the 1960s as a whole a conservative era.

How does smoking affect pregnancy?

Risks for Mother and Baby

Researchers do not yet fully understand how every chemical in tobacco smoke affects a growing baby, but they do know that the health risks are high. If an expecting mother smokes, she is more likely to have pregnancy complications that put both herself and the baby at risk. Such complications may be pelvic pain; early rupture of the membranes; placental problems (detachment, tearing, or slipping); stillbirth; premature births; and miscarriages. According to 2011 data accumulated from twenty-four states by the Pregnancy Risk Assessment and Monitoring System, about 10 percent of women said that they had smoked during the final three months of their pregnancy.

Smoking while pregnant also puts the baby at a higher risk for serious complications, such as being born underweight, which is a sign that the baby has not adequately developed. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2014, one in every five babies of mothers who smoke while pregnant is born underweight. This puts the baby at high risk for serious health issues, including intellectual disability, cerebral palsy, and lung problems. Babies are also at a greater risk for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and developing attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders.

It is also important to note that because the baby is exposed to nicotine through the placenta, smoking while pregnant can cause the baby to have nicotine withdrawal symptoms after birth. This can make the baby more jittery, nervous, and harder to soothe. The earlier an expectant mother stops smoking, the better it is for the baby and for the mother’s own health. Even shortly after stopping, an expectant mother will begin to recover. For example, within minutes, heart rate and blood pressure will drop. Within twelve hours, carbon monoxide levels in the blood return to normal (carbon monoxide decreases the level of oxygen in the body). Within just a couple of weeks, circulation and lungs improve their function.

In addition, smokers that breastfeed continue to pass chemicals like nicotine on to the baby through breast milk. Babies are also very susceptible to secondhand smoke. According to the American Lung Association in 2015, exposure to secondhand smoke causes 430 SIDS deaths in the United States annually.

Quitting Smoking

After an individual quits smoking, the body goes through withdrawal. The individual may experience symptoms such as dizziness, depression, headaches, tiredness, irritability, and sleep problems. Withdrawal effects, however, are temporary, and cravings can be overcome by simple distraction techniques. Some distraction techniques are participation in such activities as walking; relaxation methods, such as deep breathing; drinking water; nibbling on healthy snacks, such as vegetables and fruits; sucking on a hard piece of candy; investing time into a hobby; and simply talking with others who have successfully quit smoking.

In addition, certain programs and smoking cessation tools can help to gradually decrease nicotine levels. However, certain smoking cessation products such as nicotine gum or patches may not be safe to use while pregnant.

Bibliography

Anderson, Judith. It’s Your Health: Smoking. North Mantko: Smart Apple Media, 2005. Print.

"Health Effects of Secondhand Smoke." American Lung Association. Amer. Lung Assn., 2015. Web. 28 Oct. 2015.

How Tobacco Smoke Causes Disease: The Biology and Behavioral Basis for Smoking-Attributable Disease: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville: US Dept. of Health and Human Services, 2010. Print.

"Reproductive Health: Tobacco Use and Pregnancy." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC, 9 Sept. 2015. Web. 28 Oct. 2015.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2009 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Volume I. Summary of National Findings. Rockville: US Dept. of Health and Human Services, 2010. PDF file.

What examples of foreshadowing, imagery, similes and metaphors, symbolism, and/or theme can be found in the following excerpt from Shakespeare's...

In these lines, Juliet is talking to Friar Lawrence, complaining to him very dramatically about how she'd bravely and instantly do anything horrible, creepy, or painful in order to avoid marrying Paris. All she really cares about is rejoining Romeo somehow.

In terms of foreshadowing, Juliet's fearless and impetuous mention of bones, graves, and death provide a hint of what's to come: her reckless decisions, coupled with Romeo's, that will lead to both of their deaths. She's literally saying here that she'd prefer to leap to her own death or chain herself up to be eaten by bears rather than lose Romeo (or marry Paris). That tells you that she's willing to kill herself in the name of their love.

Note the imagery in these lines: of a faraway tower that's perfect for committing suicide, of lethal creatures like serpents and bears, and of yellow skulls, fresh graves, and a funeral shroud. These objects and creatures convey a mood of drama, foreboding, risk, and deadliness.

Juliet's reliance on concrete objects in her descriptions rather than on similes reveals the reality and solidity of her feelings of urgency and desire to Friar Lawrence. If you want to interpret these objects as metaphors or symbols, you can: she may be saying that life without Romeo is a death leap from a tower, that life with Paris would be a prison full of dead bodies, etc.

Finally, the lines convey the general themes of the life-or-death desperation and obsession inherent in young love, the idea that love becomes more dangerous as it becomes more intense and impetuous, and the idea that losing the person you love is similar to, or even worse than, death itself.

In the Broadway performance Wicked, what are the gender breakdowns and what appeals to the audience?

In the Broadway version of Wicked (as in the original Wizard of Oz), the main characters driving the action of the story are female.  In Wicked, the focus is on the relationship between Elphaba (Wicked Witch) and Galinda (Glinda the Good Witch), as well as Elphaba's political views.  

In my opinion, audiences enjoy Wicked because it offers a layered interpretation of the Wicked Witch.  Not only is Elphaba "different" (her green skin), but she stands up for what she believes in, even if others are against her.  This attitude endears her to the audience.  Young women who may be self-conscious about their looks or their opinions can be encouraged by Elphaba.  Elphaba's story is driven by her intention to do the right thing, even if it gets her in trouble.  This is reinforced in her most famous song, "Defying Gravity." Elphaba sings a heartfelt song about not letting anyone keep her down.  This hopeful, determined attitude appeals to audiences.

Why did Sherman's strategy of total war work?

Sherman's strategy of total war brought the war home to many in the Deep South.  Most of the young men and boys in the Confederate Army did not own slaves--they fought in order to protect their homes from people they were told were invaders.  During Sherman's March to the Sea, his army lived off the land, meaning that they took food that they needed from the countryside.  Southern soldiers who received letters from home learned that they needed to come and help their families rebuild--this led to higher desertion rates in the Army of Tennessee.  Sherman also went to war against the Southern infrastructure--he destroyed rail lines and telegraph lines which kept the Confederate armies supplied and informed.  By going to war against supplies as well as the armies which used them, Sherman made the war end sooner.  Sherman also inspired other generals to wage total war--upon seeing the success of Sherman's armies, Grant authorized Philip Sheridan to wage total war in the Shenandoah Valley in order to deprive Lee of valuable foodstuffs.  

`(2, 1), -2x + y = 2` Find the distance between the point and the line.

The formula to determine the distance from a point `(x_o, y_o)` to a line Ax+By+C=0 is:

`d=|Ax_o + By_o + C|/sqrt(A^2+B^2)`

To apply, set one side of the given equation equal to zero.

`-2x+y=2`

`-2x+y-2=0`

Then, plug-in the coefficients of x and y, as well as the constant to the formula.

`d=|(-2)x_o + 1y_o + (-2)|/sqrt((-2)^2+1^2)`

`d=|-2x_o + y_o - 2|/sqrt5`

And, plug-in the given point (2,1).

`d=|-2(2)+1-2|/sqrt5`

`d=|-5|/sqrt5`

`d=5/sqrt5`

`d=5/sqrt5*sqrt5/sqrt5`

`d=(5sqrt5)/5`

`d=sqrt5`

Therefore, the distance between the point (2,1) and the line is `sqrt5` units.

Why does Earth seem to be standing still?

There are two factors in why the Earth may appear to us to be standing still: constant speed and perspective.

The truth is that our planet moves very quickly throughout space, about 67,000 miles per hour around the Sun. On top of that, Earth is spinning at about 1,000 miles per hour. So how don't we get dizzy or fall over if our planet is moving so fast? Lucky for us, Earth's speed in orbit and rotation are constant. When Earth moves, gravity has everything fixed in place to move with Earth. If our planet's gravitational pull were not so strong, we might well be left behind and see just how fast Earth really moves. If Earth's speed were to somehow be changed, we might very well notice it if the change was significant enough.

Perspective is the second factor to consider in why we don't feel or notice much of Earth's motion. From our relatively fixed and stable points on the surface, we can observe changes in Earth's position over time. Have you ever noticed how the stars of the night sky are different throughout the year? This is a result of our revolution and rotation as a planet. These stars and planets are so far away, though, that we may as well consider them to be fixed points in the distance. Throughout the year, we are essentially "passing them by." Think of how quickly objects seem to pass by when you're riding in the car or on a bus--objects far away seem to pass more slowly, while those close up pass by quickly. It's all to do with perspective. If we had some celestial bodies at fixed points much closer to us, we might be able to look into the sky and sense just how fast Earth really is moving.

Where do we find the ideas of Renaissance in Shakespeare's Macbeth?

In his classic book The Elizabethean World Picture, Eustace Tillyard focuses on the concept of "the great chain of being" as one that held the universe together in an ordered hierarchy, with God at top and the lowest aspects of nature at the bottom. Mankind, especially in the Renaissance incarnation of this worldview, was in the center, though less important than heavenly creatures like angels and less important than God. (It was common in the Renaissance to call humans the "great amphibians," halfway between angels and animals.) In this view of the universe, all of nature from the celestial spheres to the grass growing beneath our feet will function properly if everyone and everything keeps to their place in the hierarchy, and does their job properly. Everything has a place and its place is carefully delineated, down to oaks being higher than other kinds of trees. This worldview places great emphasis on order and harmony, and on maintaining right relationship between beings on the chain. It permeated Renaissance thought, especially as texts by Aristotle, who is credited with articulating its first incarnation, became more widely available.

Macbeth illustrates the disaster that follows when individuals attempt to break out of the great chain of being in pursuit of their own ambitions. In the chain of being, the anointed king is appointed by God and must not be challenged by subordinates, especially if he is not violating his contract with his people, as Duncan was not. Macbeth breaks this code and causes bloodshed and near chaos.

Shakespeare underlines this disruption in the order of being (this play is not just about one individual wanting power but also about the proper ordering of the universe) by relating Macbeth's perversion of  order to the "unnatural:" the witches who advise him are described  and appear as unnatural, androgynous creatures, ugly and out of sync with God's natural order. The play opens with a sense of nature out of joint--"fair is foul and foul is fair," as the witches put in in a scene that offers images of thunder, lightning, "fog and filthy" air. Macbeth describes his guilt in terms of nature polluted and changed: the green seas, for example, he  imagines turning red from his blood. At the same time some of the play's irony rests on the way Macbeth takes comfort in the laws of nature that he has disrupted through murdering the king--laws that say, for example, a forest can't move, though, symbolically, as we see, once Macbeth starts violating the chain of being, nature itself can go awry. (The Birnam Woods, of course, don't move, but the men cut down branches to disguise themselves so that it looks like the forest is moving, a metaphor for the disruptions and chaos Macbeth has caused.)

Finally, through Malcolm, Shakespeare relates contemporary Renaissance wisdom about what constitutes a good king: virtues of purity, loyalty, honesty, lack of greed. Shakespeare obliquely enters a debate on kingship going on at the time: his ideal king is not Machiavellian (in the Renaissance Machiavelli openly introduced and justified the idea of realpolitik in princely behavior). Also, in Malcolm's sense of his character imposing restraint and limits on his kingly rights, there perhaps is a quiet criticism of the way some rulers took the "divine right of kings" doctrine out too far. 

What were the accomplishments of the Mayan priests?

In the hierarchy of the Mayan culture, only the king commanded more power and respect from the people than did the priests. Although the noble class often considered themselves to be above the priests, it was the sacred men who taught the sons of the noblemen.They taught math, science, writing, and religion to the sons of Mayan noblemen.

In Mayan culture, there was a belief the priests were able to speak to the gods, which gave them ultimate power over many aspects of daily life. They imparted wisdom, celebrated religious festivals, and dictated when the crops were planted and harvested according to their communication with the gods. Not only were they teachers, they were scholars who studied math, astronomy, and astrology. They had the ability to track the planets and the stars without telescopes. For this reason, they devised and kept scrupulous calendars. 

The Mayan priests were educators and scholars, they were advisers, and they were responsible for communication between the gods and men. This put them in positions of great influence in the Mayan culture.

What are eye infections and disorders?

Causes and Symptoms

Several varieties of eye problems exist worldwide. Among the most important are corneal infections, ocular herpes, trachoma, conjunctivitis, iritis, cataracts, glaucoma, macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, styes, ptosis, ectropion, entropion, either watery or dry eyes, astigmatism, myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, amblyopia, and keratoconus.

Many organisms can infect the eye. In corneal infections, bacteria, fungi, or viruses invade the cornea and cause painful inflammation and corneal infections called keratitis. Visual clarity is reduced, and the cornea produces a discharge or becomes destroyed, resulting in corneal scarring and vision
impairment.

Ocular herpes
is a recurrent viral infection by the herpes simplex virus. Symptoms are a painful sore on the eyelid or eye surface and inflammation of the cornea. More severe infection destroys stromal cells and causes stromal keratitis, cornea scarring, and vision loss or blindness. It is the most common infectious cause of corneal blindness in the United States.

Trachoma is a chronic and contagious bacterial disease of the conjunctiva and cornea. The eye becomes inflamed, painful, and teary. Small gritty particles develop on the cornea. Conjunctivitis is the inflammation of the conjunctiva caused by virus or bacteria infection, chemical irritations, physical factors, and allergic reactions. Inflammation of the cornea accompanies viral forms. The eyes become very sensitive to light. The infectious form is highly contagious, especially acute contagious conjunctivitis (pinkeye). Signs are red, extremely itching, and irritating eyes with a gritty feeling; tearing; nasal discharge; sinus congestion; swollen eyelids (in severe cases); and eyelids that may stick together from dry mucus formed during the night.

Iritis is inflammation of the iris. The cause is still under investigation, but it is associated with rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus, syphilis, diseased teeth, tonsillitis, trauma, and infections. Symptoms are red eyes, contracted and irregularly shaped pupil, extreme sensitivity to light, tender eyeball, and blurred vision.

A cataract is a clouding of the lens that causes a progressive, slow, and painless loss of vision. Symptoms are reduced night vision, blurriness, poor depth perception, color distortion, problems with glare, and frequent eyeglass prescription changes. Cataracts are the world’s leading cause of blindness. Causes are under investigation, but it could result from eye injury, prolonged exposure to drugs such as corticosteroids or to X rays, inflammatory and infectious eye diseases, complications of diseases such as diabetes, prolonged exposure to direct sunlight, poor nutrition, and smoking. Babies can be born with congenital cataracts.

Glaucoma is an optic nerve disease caused by fluid pressure that builds up abnormally within the eye because of very slow fluid production and draining. This can damage the optic nerve, retina, or other parts of the eye and result in vision loss. Early stages have no symptoms. Side (peripheral) vision is lost at an advanced point when irreversible damage makes vision restoration impossible. Blindness results if the condition is left untreated.

In macular degeneration, often called age-related macular degeneration (AMD or ARMD), the light-sensing cells of the macula, which is responsible for sharp and clear central vision, degenerates. The result is a slow, painless loss of central vision necessary for important activities such as driving and reading. Early signs are shadowy areas in the central vision, or fuzzy, blurry, or distorted vision. About 90 percent of cases are “dry” AMD, without bleeding, and 10 percent cases a more severe “wet” type, in which new blood vessels grow and leak blood and fluid under the macula, causing the most vision loss.

Diabetic retinopathy
is damage to the blood vessels of the retina caused by uncontrolled diabetes. Early signs may not be exhibited, but blurred vision, pain in the eye, floaters, and gradual vision loss are the symptoms in advanced cases.

A number of disorders can affect the eyelids. A stye, or hordeolum, is a painful localized swelling produced by infection or inflammation in a sweat gland of the eyelids or the sebaceous glands that secrete oil to stop the eyelids from sticking together. Ptosis is drooping of the upper eyelid that obstructs the upper field of vision for one or both eyes. It produces blurred vision, refractive errors, astigmatism, strabismus (in which the eyes are not properly aligned), or amblyopia (lazy eye). Symptoms include aching eyebrows, difficulty in keeping the eyelids open, eyestrain, and eye fatigue, especially during reading.

With an ectropion, the lower eyelid and eyelashes turn outward and sag, usually because of aging. Scarring of the eyelid caused by thermal and chemical burns, skin cancers, trauma, or previous eyelid surgery can also cause the problem. Symptoms are eye irritation, excessive tearing, mucus discharge, and crusting of the eyelid. With an entropion, the lower eyelid and eyelashes roll inward toward the eye and rub against the cornea and conjunctiva. This condition is also primarily the result of aging. Symptoms are irritation of the cornea, excessive tearing, mucus discharge, crusting of the eyelid, a feeling of something in the eye, and impaired vision. It can also be caused by allergic reactions, inflammatory diseases, and scarring of the inner surface of the eyelid caused by chemical and thermal burns.

Watery eyes
are caused by the blockage of the lacrimal puncta (two small pores that drain tear secretions from lacrymal glands that bathe the conjunctival surfaces of the eye) or oversecretion of the lacrimal glands. Dry eyes
result from inadequate tear production due to malfunction of the lacrymal (tear) glands, more common in women, especially after menopause. Symptoms are a scratchy or sandy feeling in the eye, pain and redness, excessive tearing following dry sensations, a stinging or burning feeling, discharge, heaviness of the eyelids, and blurred, changing, or decreased vision. Causes include dry air; the use of drugs such as tranquilizers, nasal decongestants, antidepressants, and antihistamines; connective tissue diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis; or the aging process.

Several refractive vision disorders are common. Astigmatism is blurred vision caused by a misshapen lens or cornea that makes light rays converge unevenly without focusing at any one point on the retina. In hyperopia (farsightedness), the eye can see distant objects normally but cannot focus at short distances because the eyeball is shorter than normal, causing the lens to focus images behind the retina. Presbyopia is farsightedness that develops with age. The lens gradually loses its ability to change shape and focus on nearby objects, creating difficulty in reading. In myopia (nearsightedness), the eye cannot focus properly on distant objects, although it can see well at short distances, because the eyeball is longer than normal. The lens cannot flatten enough to compensate and focuses distant objects in front of, instead of on, the retina.

Amblyopia, commonly called lazy eye, is a neurologic disorder in which the brain favors vision in one eye. Misalignment of the eyes (strabismus) creates two different images for the brain. If the condition goes untreated, then the weaker eye ceases to function.

Keratoconus is the progressive thinning of the cornea, producing conical protrusion of the central part of the cornea. It results in astigmatism or myopia and swelling or scarring of cornea tissue that ultimately impairs sight. Its causes are heredity, eye injury, and systemic diseases.

Treatment and Therapy

The treatment of eye infections and disorders depends on their cause and severity. Minor corneal infections are treated with antibacterial eyedrops. Intensive antibiotic, antifungal, and steroid eyedrop treatments eliminate the infection and reduce inflammation in severe cases. With ocular herpes,
prompt treatment with antiviral drugs stops the herpesvirus from multiplying and destroying epithelial cells. The resulting stromal keratitis, however, is more severe and therefore difficult to treat. The primary treatment for trachoma consists of three to four weeks of antibiotic therapy. Severe cases require surgical correction.

A conjunctivitis infection can clear without medical care, but sometimes treatment is necessary to avoid long-term effects of corneal inflammation and loss of vision. Treatment includes antibiotic eyedrops or ointments, antihistamine eyedrops or pills, decongestants, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), or mast-cell stabilizers. Artificial tears and warm compresses offer some relief. Tinted glasses reduce the discomfort of bright light.

With iritis, warm compresses can lessen the inflammation and pain. Certain steroid drugs produce quick reduction of the inflammation. A protective covering enables the eye to rest, and atropine drops could be used to dilate the pupils and prevent scarring or adhesions.

For cataracts, a stronger eyeglass prescription is recommended, but surgery that replaces the clouded lens with an artificial one is the only real cure. Drugs that keep the pupil dilated may help with vision.

Glaucoma detection is challenging because the disease is asymptomatic until it is advanced. Medical therapy is the first step for treatment. Glaucoma is difficult to cure, but some medications successfully lower pressure in the eye. If medication is ineffective, then laser surgery is applied to create openings and facilitate fluid draining in the eye.

One way to diagnose macular degeneration is by viewing a chart of black lines arranged in a graph pattern (Amsler grid). Early signs can be detected through retinal examination. No outright cure has been discovered, but some drug treatments may delay its progression or even improve vision.

Some cases of diabetic retinopathy
can be treated with laser surgery that shrinks or seals leaking and abnormal vessels on the retina. Vision already lost cannot be restored. A vitrectomy is recommended for some advanced cases, in which the vitreous component of the eye is surgically removed and replaced with a clear solution.

In treating a stye, applying hot compresses for fifteen minutes every two hours may help localize the infection and promote drainage. Mild antiseptics may be applied to prevent spread of the infection. A small surgical incision may be necessary in some cases.

Surgery is the treatment for congenital ptosis. The procedure tightens the levator muscle to lift the upper eyelid to the required position, allowing a full field of vision. For ectropion and entropion, surgery, under local anesthesia, is used to repair the abnormal eyelid before the cornea becomes infected and scarred. This is followed by an overnight patch and application of antibiotics for a week.

For dry eyes,
lubricating artificial tears in the form of eyedrops are the usual answer. Serious cases of watery eyes
may be treated by surgically closing the lacrimal puncta (tear drain) temporarily or permanently. Sterile ointments prevent the eye from drying at night.

Astigmatism is corrected with asymmetrical lenses that compensate for the asymmetry in the eye. Surgery and laser treatments are used to reshape the cornea and change its focusing power. Myopia is corrected by concave-shaped glasses or contact lenses that diverge light rays from distant objects to focus on the retina. Hyperopia and presbyopia are corrected with convex-shaped eyeglasses or contact lenses that converge light rays from nearby objects slightly before entering the eye, in order to focus on the retina. For those with amblyopia, a patch over the preferred eye forces the brain to use the other eye, but the drug atropine, which temporarily blurs vision in the preferred eye, offers a better medical alternative to eye patches.

For keratoconus, vision is corrected with eyeglasses initially, followed by special contact lenses that reduce distortion if astigmatism worsens. Corneal transplantation

becomes necessary when scarring becomes too severe. Preventive measures in strong sunlight are protective eyeglasses, sunglasses, and hats with brims.

Perspective and Prospects

Ancient papyri indicate that physicians of Egypt were the first to establish clinical practices for the treatment of eye infections and disorders. Herbs and eye paints with bacteriocidal properties, such as malachite, were used to prevent infections. Medicated ointments were used by Arab and Greek physicians to treat trachoma. Leukoma (a white spot on the cornea) was treated with animal galls, especially the gall of tortoise. Antimony sulfite and copper solutions were used to treat eyelid disorders. Herbs have been used in Africa, Asia, and Latin America to treat eye problems since ancient times.

In the twenty-first century, improved antibiotics and other chemicals are widely used to treat eye diseases. Technological advances in surgical procedures and laser techniques have provided additional options for treating vision disorders. Cataract surgery that once required several days of hospitalization is performed in less than thirty minutes on an outpatient basis. Multifocal lenses are designed to provide both near and distant vision that eliminates the use of reading glasses, advanced lens technology provide more foldable and flexible lens materials, and doctors use lasers to reduce secondary opacification in lenses. Immunotherapy is used to treat allergies that cause conjunctivitis.

Innovative research provides new knowledge and treatments for eye disorders. The Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Keratoconus Study by the National Eye Institute (NEI) is investigating factors that influence the progression and severity of keratoconus. The NEI supported the clinical trials of the Herpetic Eye Disease Study that investigated treatments for severe ocular herpes, the most common infectious cause of corneal blindness in the United States.

Research that explored ayurvedic herbs of India has produced the isotine eyedrop, which effectively treats different eye disorders without surgery, including early stages of cataracts.

Functional MRI (fMRI) techniques allow researchers to create images of neurological activity in real time and to obtain insight into neurological eye diseases such as amblyopia. Scientists are conducting research to obtain implanted lens material that is able to form a new lens within the eye and that works efficiently with the original eye muscles. Investigations are in progress for glaucoma medications that reduce eye pressure and also protect the optic nerve. Research shows that antioxidants and nutrients such as zeaxanthin and lutein (found in green, leafy vegetables), zinc, and vitamins A, C, and E help to control AMD, and omega-3 fatty acids (abundant in coldwater fish) have a protective and healing effect against AMD.

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Lucentis in 2006 for treating the more severe “wet” AMD by monthly injections into the eye. Macugen (pegaptanib sodium), another AMD treatment medication that improves vision with six-week interval injections, was FDA-approved in 2004. In 2006, it was reported that a team of international research scientists discovered a protein called sVEGFR-1 that prevents blood vessels from forming in the cornea; it could become the basis of new treatments for cancer and macular degeneration. In 2012, research published in the journal Ophthalmology indicated that monthly injections of ranibizumab into the center of the eye halts the progression of scarring and the leaking of blood vessels in “wet” AMD sufferers. Stem cell research is also advancing the potentional for cures for AMD and other eye diseases and disorders.

Also in 2006, the HealthDay News reported that a visual aid invented by U.S. scientists comprising a tiny camera, a pocket-sized computer, and a transparent computer display mounted on a pair of glasses provides better vision and mobility for people with tunnel vision, who have lost their peripheral vision. Such innovations are welcome, since one in two hundred Americans over age fifty-five has tunnel vision, which is caused by diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa and glaucoma.

Early detection of signs and symptoms is a primary key to the treatment of all eye infections and disorders. As preventive measures, people must avoid eyestrain, exercise their bodies, eat healthy foods, control their sugar levels and blood pressure, avoid smoking, protect the eyes from sunlight, and have regular medical checkups.

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