What are the steps involved in personal selling?

"Personal selling" refers to any time in which a salesperson is meeting with potential customers face-to-face and trying to convince them to buy a particular product. (You can contrast it with mass advertising, where there is no particular customer targeted, and telemarketing, where the conversation is not face-to-face.)

There are several steps involved in personal selling, usually broken up as follows:

1. Prospecting and qualifying: Search for potential customers, and find ways to target specific people who are especially likely to buy.

2. Preapproach: Once you have found particular potential customers to target, learn as much as you can about them and their needs before meeting them.

3. Approach: Meet with the potential customer and establish rapport with them.

4. Presentation and demonstration: Show the product and how it can fulfill their needs.

5. Handling objections: Answer questions the potential customer may have, and try to assuage any concerns they have about it.

6. Closing: Ask the customer to buy the product, and if they do, carry out the purchase.

7. Follow-up: Contact the customer after they have received the product to ask them how things are going and ask them if they want to refer any other customers.

What are the people in The Chrysalids sheltering themselves from?

I believe that the "people" that the question references are the members of the Waknuk society.  

The people in the Waknuk society are sheltering themselves from and actively fighting against drastic genetic changes.  

The reader learns this detail about the Waknuk people early in the book.  Readers are introduced to Sophie and David in chapter one.  David accidentally discovers that Sophie has six toes, and her parents plead with David to keep it a secret.  

"It's very, very important," she insisted.  "How can I explain to you?"

But she didn't really need to explain. Her urgent, tight-strung feeling of the importance was very plain. Her words were far less potent.

She said: "If anyone were to find out, they'd — they'd be terribly un-kind to her. We've got to see that that never happens."

It was as if the anxious feeling had turned into something hard, like an iron rod.

"Because she has six toes?" I asked.

"Yes. That's what nobody but us must ever know. It must be a secret between us," she repeated, driving it home. "You'll promise, David?"

Their pleading is not so Sophie avoids playground teasing.  They want to keep Sophie alive.  If her genetic mutation becomes known to the Waknuk people, Sophie will either be killed or banished.  

The reader further learns about the Waknuk's deeply ingrained fear of genetic changes when David's house is described.  Hanging up on the walls are "motivational" sayings.  It's akin to people hanging up framed Bible verses in their house.  But the sayings in David's house are hardly positive and uplifting.  They say things like the following:

BLESSED IS THE NORM . . . WATCH THOU FOR THE MUTANT! . . . THE NORM IS THE WILL OF GOD . . . THE DEVIL IS THE FATHER OF DEVIATION.

The Waknuk people are actively seeking shelter from genetic changes.  They actively remove unwanted genetic changes from their population.  Essentially, they are practicing selective breeding, but they are not attempting to breed in new positive traits.  They only want the current, existing traits.   

What are emerging and reemerging infectious diseases?

Definition

First introduced by Nobel laureate Joshua Lederberg, the phrase “emerging
infectious diseases” applies to those infectious diseases that newly appear in a
populace, have been in existence for some time but are rapidly increasing in
incidence or geographic range, or appear as new drug-resistant strains of viruses,
bacteria, fungi, or parasitic species. Most emerging diseases are zoonotic in
origin and are disseminated through a range of vectors, from insects such as
mosquitoes to nonhuman primates.

While new infectious diseases continue to emerge, many of the old plagues remain, often appearing in more virulent and drug-resistant forms. While many outbreaks inexplicably appear, often there are specific identifiable ecological factors, such as climate change; agricultural development, such as land clearing; or demographic changes that may place people at increased risk through exposure to unfamiliar microbes or their natural zoonotic hosts.

Still another major challenge to the global health community is the growing
drug
resistance, particularly to antibiotics,
of certain diseases. These diseases include tuberculosis
(TB), typhoid, malaria, and sexually transmitted diseases
such as HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection. There has been a
renewed commitment to vaccine research to prevent and treat these infections and
other preventable infectious diseases.

Often to blame for emerging diseases are megacities, with their increased urban crowding, general lack of potable water, and ability, through its populations, to rapidly spread contagious diseases around the world through air travel. Mostly, these are global problems and are viewed as global infectious disease threats.

Background

Throughout history, populations have been afflicted by major outbreaks of
emerging
infectious diseases. These disease include the
bubonic
plague (also known as the Black Death), caused by the
bacterium Yersinia pestis and spread by fleas that feed on rats.
The plague emerged in the fourteenth century and decimated populations in Europe
and Asia.

Even more deadly than Y. pestis, however, was the variola
virus, the etiologic agent responsible for smallpox,
which evolved from poxviruses in cattle and emerged into human populations
thousands of years ago; from the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries, Spanish
conquistadors vanquished Central America by causing a smallpox epidemic through
introduction of the smallpox virus into indigenous populations, thereby disabling
their armies. More than four hundred years later, in 1980, the World Health
Organization (WHO) declared that smallpox had been eradicated
worldwide. In 2003, however, the United States entered into war with Iraq, and
U.S. president George W. Bush decreed that members of the U.S. Armed Forces be
vaccinated against smallpox in anticipation of a biological attack. This order
came on the heels of several acts of bioterrorism in 2001 in the United
States, wherein anthrax infection caused by Bacillus
anthracis emerged in Florida and New York.

The United States was also at war (World War I) in 1918 when the
influenza pandemic of that year killed up to fifty million
persons, more than the war itself. In 2010, emerging viral scourges include
H1N1
influenza, or swine flu, which exhibited drug-resistant
strains, and HIV, which was isolated in 1981 and continues to mutate in persons
with HIV infection and AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), mandating the
need for new therapies and combinations. Emerging bacterial scourges include
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus A (MRSA), multi-drug
resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), and extensively multi-drug resistant TB
(XMDR-TB). In addition, malaria, a parasitic disease, has demonstrated resistant
strains of its most lethal species, Plasmodium falciparum.

Emerging Viruses

Swine flu is a zoonotic disease resulting from a mix of swine, avian, and
human flu viruses. Between 2006 and 2009, investigators in China isolated H1N1,
H1N2, and H3N2 from pigs, observing a novel reassortment between contemporary
swine and avian influenza viruses and hypothesizing that swine may serve as hosts
for genetic reassortment between humans and avian panzoonotic viruses.

H1N1 first emerged in the Northern Hemisphere in Mexico, where the index case
was isolated. Following the regular flu season of April, 2009, H1N1 appeared in
the United States; during the 2008-2009 flu season, influenza A (H1), A (H3), and
B viruses had cocirculated. In mid-April, the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) documented the first two cases of novel
influenza A pandemic (H1N1) in the United States. Beginning in September, the CDC
had antigenically characterized flu viruses; one seasonal influenza A (H1N1),
three influenza A (H3N2), four influenza B, and 412 influenza A (H1N1) 2009
viruses, the latter spread rapidly in the Northern Hemisphere and producing
unprecedented morbidity and mortality in infants, young children, and pregnant
women. Most cases were found in persons age sixty and younger; only 1 percent of
those age sixty-five years and older and 50 percent of those age twenty-five to
forty-nine years were infected. Usually, the flu causes the greatest morbidity and
mortality in those age sixty-five years and older. H1N1 infected about twenty-two
million people in the United States and killed almost four thousand persons
between April and October, 2009.

Emerging Retroviridae

HIV/AIDS is of zoonotic origin and was first observed in nonhuman primates who came in close contact with hunters and with persons clearing land in the African plains. Since the time that HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, was isolated in the early 1980’s, the virus has continued to emerge in new populations and new geographic locations and has continued to morph into new strains and variants, becoming resistant to available antiretroviral therapies (ART); new drugs and combinations of old and new therapies must be produced to help keep alive the more than 1.3 million persons in North America living with HIV and AIDS in 2008.

Although HIV infection is now treated as a chronic disease in many developed
countries, developing nations continue to struggle to facilitate prevention
programs and to obtain enough drugs to treat all those infected with the virus.
The world awaits the first cure and vaccine to prevent the dreaded disease.
Moreover, despite the advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in 1996, a range of
comorbidities continues to affect those living with HIV and AIDS. These
comorbidities include liver disease (hepatitis B and C),
non-Hodgkin’s
lymphoma, neurological illnesses, malignancy, malnutrition,
and increased susceptibility to TB and MDR-TB. In addition, socioeconomic factors
such as poverty, unemployment, stigmatization, drug and alcohol addiction, and
undocumented immigration status are often by-products of those infected with the
disease.

In 2010, the CDC presented one of the first large-scale studies to demonstrate a strong association between poverty and HIV infection; poverty was shown to be a powerful driver of the AIDS pandemic. Of note, the study was conducted by surveying nine thousand heterosexual persons living in cities of the United States, a population not considered to be of high risk of contracting HIV infection. The results of the study revealed a 2.1 percent incidence of HIV infection, twice the expected number.

Also, in 2010, U.S. president Barack Obama announced the implementation of a new strategy to prevent HIV infection and to better serve those living with HIV/AIDS. The president declared his commitment to continue the fight against HIV and AIDS in the United States and across the globe with an emphasis on prevention, and he allocated $30 million in funding in addition to an earlier pledge, in 2009, of $45 million over five years; the new strategy will focus on gay and bisexual men, on blacks and other persons of color, and on substance abusers. Program goals include reducing new HIV infections by 25 percent and increasing the number of those who know their HIV status from 79 to 90 percent.

Emerging Mycobacterial Diseases

The emergence and spread of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains
that are resistant to multiple drugs represent an emerging threat for global
control of both TB and HIV; TB often coinfects patients with HIV and AIDS, whose
weakened immune systems are more vulnerable to bacterial
infections, especially TB, MDR-TB, and XMR-TB. WHO estimates
that almost one-half million cases of MDR-TB emerged in 2006; MDR-TB is defined as
resistance to a minimum of the anti-TB drugs, isoniazid and rifampin, and in
certain regions of the world, prevalence of MDR-TB may be greater than 20 percent.
Although HIV may or may not be directly associated with the risk of developing
MDR-TB, nosocomial outbreaks of MDR-TB in persons with HIV/AIDS have been noted.
HIV/AIDS has also been linked to an increased risk for rifampin-monoresistant
TB.

In addition, new cases of XMR-TB that are defined as MDR-TB resistant to a
fluoroquinolone and to a (minimum of one) second-line injectable anti-TB agent,
have been reported in forty-five countries and on all continents. Treatment of
MDR-TB is complex and may result in the use of less effective and more toxic drugs
that require treatment over longer periods of time, thereby threatening success;
this is a serious problem for developing countries, especially countries (such as
those in sub-Saharan Africa) with a high prevalence of HIV-1 infection. MDR-TB and
XMR-TB also are of concern in developed countries because of mass immigration and
global travel; even long-term visitors appear to significantly contribute to the
burden of TB among foreign-born persons in the United States.

Emerging Parasitic Diseases

Malaria continues to wreak havoc across the developing
world. According to WHO, the disease killed 881,000 persons in 2008, 89 percent of
whom were African; 88 percent of these persons were younger than age five
years.

Malaria is spread through mosquito bites. While significant progress in malaria
control has been made in some of the highly endemic nations, such as Zambia,
Zanzibar, and Rwanda, where control relies on a combination of interventions that
include the use of insecticides and sleeping nets, the
number of patients treated for malaria with a confirmed diagnosis of malaria
remains low in Africa. This can lead to the inappropriate administration of
antimalarial medications, a practice that could foster the spread of
resistance.

Of note, parasite resistance to almost all commonly used antimalarials has been observed in the most lethal parasite species, P. falciparum, presenting a huge barrier to successful disease management. Although artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) has made a significant contribution to malaria control by reducing transmission, its administration to infants and small children may be especially problematic. As such, educating health workers and entire communities about malaria prevention, diagnosis, and treatment remains vital to effective case management and to the forestalling of the emergence of resistance to both ACT and insecticides used in vector control.

Global Impact

The impact of emerging infectious diseases on global health is far reaching; new and reemerging infectious diseases that were once unknown or thought to have disappeared have reappeared, and diseases that were once treatable have become resistant to drug therapies that once worked. In addition, socioeconomic determinants and environmental factors have been shown to play a significant role in morbidity and mortality from emerging infectious diseases, which remain the world’s leading cause of death (killing 34 percent of persons who succumb each year across the globe, 9 percent of whom are children). HIV/AIDS, malaria, and TB are the three leading threats to global health and are becoming more difficult to treat because of resistance to drug therapies and, in the case of malaria, resistance to insecticides.

Most prevalent in developing countries, TB and malaria are further retarding
economic and social development. Malaria kills almost one million persons each
year, and it can decrease a country’s gross domestic product by 1.3 percent; for
example, malaria costs African countries more than $12 billion per year. TB kills
more than 1.7 million persons per year, costing affected countries more than $3.1
billion in 2008 (up from $2.3 billion in 2007). MDR-TB should be given high
priority in global public health and biomedical research, and greater efforts
should be made to furnish appropriate resources to economically disadvantaged
areas for fighting MDR-TB and preventing XMR-TB.

HIV/AIDS kills 2 million persons each year, and though the number of persons
who contracted HIV infection declined from 3.2 million in 2001 to 2.7 million in
2008, there are 33.4 million persons living with HIV and AIDS worldwide; they are
able to survive because of antiretroviral therapy (ART) and preventive measures.
Sub-Saharan Africa is the global epicenter of the AIDS
pandemic, with 71 percent of cases. According to the journal
Health Affairs, if the pandemic continues unabated, more than
1 million persons will become infected each year through 2031, the fiftieth
anniversary of the beginning of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, at a total cost of $722
billion.

Many other infectious diseases of zoonotic origin have emerged at considerable
cost to human and animal life, with attendant economic losses when livestock are
removed from the food chain: Emerging zoonotic infectious diseases, including
bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE, or mad cow disease) and avian
influenza (or bird flu), cost an estimated $120 billion
worldwide from 1995 to 2008.

Another zoonotic disease emerged in 2009 and soon became a pandemic. According to WHO, as of November, 2009, there were more than 40,600 cumulative confirmed and probable cases of H1N1 influenza and 7,826 deaths worldwide, though this may be an underestimate because the statistics are based on just 20 percent of the countries and communities that were able to provide confirmed laboratory data. In 2010, the Global Influenza Surveillance Network (GISN) reported that H1N1 continued to circulate in Malaysia, Singapore, India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Chile, and Uruguay. During the height of the pandemic, many countries culled swine, resulting in economic hardship and adding to the losses incurred by human morbidity, mortality, and other related expenses.

Environmental factors such as climate change have influenced the emergence of
disease, as was demonstrated with the appearance of vector-borne West Nile
virus infection, which is endemic to the Near East and
Africa. West Nile was observed in the Western Hemisphere for the first time in the
northeastern United States in 1999, and it continues to return each summer to the
same region as mosquitoes return to feed on the viral reservoir of infected birds;
in July, 2010, the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene issued an
alert for the virus, which can sicken and kill humans. From 2004 through 2007,
hospitalization costs for waterborne pathogens such as Legionnaires’
disease (caused by a bacterium), cryptosporidiosis (caused by a fungus), and giardiasis
(caused by a protozoan) were $154 million to $539 million.

Despite the foregoing statistics, there is growing worldwide recognition that science and public policy based on historical experience, international law, and ethics must intersect more effectively if the global community is to conquer the multitude of problems resulting from new and reemerging infectious diseases.

Bibliography

Drexler, Madeline. Emerging Epidemics: The Menace of New Infections. New York: Penguin Books, 2010. A comprehensive book that includes the history of a range of emerging diseases, including H1N1 and West Nile virus infection.

Fischback, M. A., and C. T. Walsh. “Antibiotics for Emerging Pathogens.” Science 325, no. 5944 (August 28, 2009): 1089-1093. Discusses options for developing new antibiotics to circumvent existing bacterial resistance mechanisms.

Garrett, Laurie. Betrayal of Trust: The Collapse of Global Public Health. New York: Hyperion Books, 2001. Focuses on biopreparedness, bioterrorism, and public health preparedness.

Giles-Vernick, Tamara, and Susan Craddock, eds. Influenza and Public Health: Learning from Past Pandemics. London: Earthscan, 2010. Discusses lessons learned from past flu pandemics about transmission patterns and successful (and not so successful) interventions.

Hill, Stuart. Emerging Infectious Diseases. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2005. Includes historical data and updates on emerging diseases of the twenty-first century.

Leslie, T., et al. “Epidemic of Plasmodium falciparum Malaria Involving Substandard Antimalarial Drugs, Pakistan, 2003.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 15 (2009): 1753-1759. Describes the role of substandard treatment of malaria in the formation of resistant malarial strains.

MacPherson, D. W., et al. “Population Mobility, Globalization, and Antimicrobial Drug Resistance.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 15 (2009): 1727-1732. A timely assessment of the root causes of drug resistance.

Strickland, Thomas, et al., eds. Hunter’s Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases. 8th ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 2000. This is a classic textbook written by internationally known experts in the field. Although it uses some technical words, most readers should find the text understandable.

What are three ways the society in the story makes its citizens equal?

We can actually interpret this issue in two ways, both of which help us understand the world in which this short story takes place.

First, we can describe the strategies or methods by which the society forces its citizens to be equal. The society in the story accomplishes this forced equality by passing constitutional amendments, by creating a governmental authority figure called the "United States Handicapper General," and by policing the public with agents of that Handicapper General. Personal handicapping devices are imposed on the citizens, devices that interrupt people's thinking, distort their voices, prevent the free motion of their bodies, and hide their physical appearances. For example, George's thinking is interrupted by a device that plays loud sounds in his head, and the ballerina's face is obscured by a mask.

Alternatively, we can describe the specific aspects of human diversity that the society erases, like intelligence, beauty, and strength. That is, they make everyone equally dumb, equally ugly, and equally weak. George's mental handicapping device in his ear interrupts his thinking, which stops him from processing ideas too deeply or for too long. The ballerina's mask prevents anyone from seeing how "blindingly beautiful" she actually is. And the weights strapped to Harrison's body prevent him from using his natural physical strength.

Compare and contrast "Desiree's Baby" and "The Story of an Hour" by Kate Chopin.

These two stories by Kate Chopin have a few similarities and many differences. Both stories have a young married woman as the main character: Desiree and Mrs. Mallard. Both women are under the control of their husbands and live in male-dominated cultures, and both women love their husbands. Each woman enjoys a short episode of bliss and also experiences a revelation while in her own bedroom. Desiree is blissfully happy for the first month after her baby is born, especially since Armand, her husband, becomes uncharacteristically kind towards the slaves because he is so pleased about having a son. But when the baby is about three months old, Desiree notices something unusual about the baby, something she has never realized before, when she is lying with him on her bed. Mrs. Mallard goes to her room to mourn her husband's death, and while there, she realizes that she is now free, and she relishes the thought. Both women succumb to an untimely death at the end of the story. Desiree walks ill-prepared with her baby into the bayou instead of taking the road to her family home, and the assumption of most readers is that she dies in the swamp. Mrs. Mallard learns suddenly that her husband is not dead after all and dies from a heart attack because of the shock. 

Despite those similarities, the stories are really quite different. "Desiree's Baby" is set on a plantation in the bayou country of Louisiana during the pre-Civil War era over a period of two months. "The Story of an Hour" takes place in a very short time period in an urban setting probably in the 1890s. Desiree is treated well by her husband at first, but when he finds out their child is part black, he treats her cruelly. Brently Mallard imposes his will on his wife mostly with "a kind intention," not with abuse. Desiree is a new mother; Mrs. Mallard appears to be childless. Desiree hears what is probably a lie about herself from her husband, namely, that she is not white. Mrs. Mallard hears a falsehood about her husband from a friend, namely, that he is dead. Desiree has a support system in her mother, but in the end, she refuses to go to her. Mrs. Mallard's sister, Josephine, is there for her, and Mrs. Mallard heeds Josephine's calls and comes out to her. Desiree chooses to end her own life (presumably), but Mrs. Mallard dies unexpectedly from a heart attack. Most importantly, the themes of the stories are quite different. "Desiree's Baby" portrays the cruelty produced by racial prejudice while "The Story of an Hour" explores the issues of power and freedom in marriage. 

What are carotenoids as a dietary supplement?

Overview

Carotenoids are red, orange, and yellow pigments found in fruits and
vegetables. About six hundred carotenoids have been identified, and all of them
have antioxidant properties. Some carotenoids can be converted in the body to
vitamin
A, and these are called provitamin A carotenoids. The
best-known carotenoids include beta-carotene, lutein,
lycopene, astaxanthin, and zeaxanthin.

The results of some observational studies suggest that a diet high in these carotenoids can reduce the risk of developing various illnesses, including cardiovascular disease, age-related vision loss, and various types of cancer. These findings led to large-scale studies of synthetic beta-carotene for preventing cancer (especially lung cancer), heart disease, cataracts, strokes, and macular degeneration. The results showed, at best, no benefit and, at worst, a possible increase in disease risk.

Many proponents of alternative medicine considered this outcome paradoxical and attempted to explain the outcome in various ways, such as beta-carotene alone may not be as useful as mixed carotenoids (and other healthful substances) found in fruits and vegetables, and synthetic beta-carotene may be less effective than natural beta-carotene. Also, the participants in these studies were inappropriate for the trials (generally, they were smokers).

However, while any of these explanations may be correct, it is also quite possible that carotenoids simply do not provide any of the healthful effects attributed to them. Observational studies are notoriously unreliable for proving a treatment effective. Such studies only find associations between events, rather than cause and effect. It is quite possible, for example, that people who tend to eat more fruits and vegetables may be healthier in various other ways than those who do not, and that these other factors account for the apparent improvements.

Consider the history of medical beliefs about hormone replacement therapy
(HRT) for menopausal women. Observational studies had found
evidence that women who used HRT had less heart
disease, and on this basis millions of women were prescribed
HRT. However, when proper double-blind studies were done, the results indicated
that HRT actually caused heart disease.

Similarly, nothing more reliable than observational studies underlies the
widespread belief that lycopene can prevent prostate
cancer and that lutein can do the same for cataracts.
One double-blind study does hint that mixed carotenoid supplementation is
beneficial for people with human immunodeficiency virus infection,
but the results were statistically weak. Thus, while it is a good idea to eat
fruits and vegetables, it is not clear that taking concentrated extracts of
various substances found in fruits and vegetables provides any health
benefits.

Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. “A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial of High-Dose Supplementation with Vitamins C and E and Beta Carotene for Age-Related Cataract and Vision Loss.” Archives of Ophthalmology 119 (2001): 1439-1452.

Austin, J., et al. “A Community Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial of Mixed Carotenoids and Micronutrient Supplementation of Patients with Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome.” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60 (2006): 1266-1276.

Epstein, K. R. “The Role of Carotenoids on the Risk of Lung Cancer.” Seminars in Oncology 30 (2003): 86-93.

Hak, A. E., et al. “Plasma Carotenoids and Tocopherols and Risk of Myocardial Infarction in a Low-Risk Population of US Male Physicians.” Circulation 108 (2003): 802-807.

Peterson, C. E., et al. “Combined Antioxidant Carotenoids and the Risk of Persistent Human Papillomavirus Infection.” Nutrition and Cancer 62 (2010): 728-733.

In Chapter 6 of To Kill a Mockingbird, how does "One Eye, Two Eyes, and Three Eyes" relate to the story?

In Chapter 6, Jem decides to return to the Radley house in the middle of the night to get his pants back.  Scout does not want him to go and threatens to tattle.

After a period of quiet, Jem says to Scout, "'Sleep, Little Three-Eyes?'"  This is referring to the Grimm's Fairy Tale called "One-Eye, Two-Eyes, and Three-Eyes."  In the story, there is a sister with three eyes.  The three-eyed sister is supposed to watch her two-eyed sister.  The sister with two eyes sings a lullaby to the sister with three eyes, in hopes that she will fall asleep.  Two out of the three eyes on the three-eyed sister fall asleep.  Her third eye is awake in the story.  The two-eyed sister thinks that her sister is completely asleep.  Instead, the three-eyed sister spies on her with her one awake eye.

Jem refers to this part of the story when he mentions "Little Three-Eyes."  He is pointing out that Scout is awake and is watching him to make sure he does not sneak out to the Radley house.  This reference to a story within another story is called allusion.

`int (1 - tan^2(x))/(sec^2(x)) dx` Evaluate the integral

`int(1-tan^2(x))/(sec^2(x))dx`

Rewrite the integrand as,

`int(1-tan^2(x))/(sec^2(x))dx=int(1-(sin^2(x))/(cos^2(x)))/(1/(cos^2(x)))dx`

`=int(cos^2(x)-sin^2(x))dx`

Now use the following identities:

`cos^2(x)=(1+cos(2x))/2`

`sin^2(x)=(1-cos(2x))/2`

`=int((1+cos(2x))/2-(1-cos(2x))/2)dx`

`=int(1+cos(2x)-1+cos(2x))/2dx`

`=intcos(2x)dx`

`=sin(2x)/2`

add a constant C to the solution,

`=sin(2x)/2+C`

What is Wilms' tumor?

Risk Factors

One risk factor for Wilms’ tumor is having a family member with a Wilms’ tumor. Certain birth defects also increase the risk of a Wilms’ tumor. These include WAGR, a syndrome that includes Wilms’ tumor; aniridia—a completely or partially missing iris (colored part) of the eyes; genitourinary abnormalities, such as defects of the kidneys, urinary tract, penis, scrotum, testicles, clitoris, or ovaries; and mental retardation.

Additional risk factors include having Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, in which patients have a larger than normal tongue, larger than normal internal organs, and one arm or leg that may be larger than the other; having Denys-Drash syndrome, which is the absence of the penis, scrotum, and testicles; and hemihypertrophy, in which one side of the body is larger than the other. Other genetic defects, including defects on chromosome 11, also increase risk. Patients with these abnormalities should be regularly screened for Wilms’ tumor during childhood.

Etiology and Genetics

The great majority of cases of Wilms’ tumor are sporadic (nonfamilial), and they are believed to arise as the result of genetic mutations in the kidney tissue either before or shortly after birth. Only about 5 percent of all cases are inherited, and even among these it appears that mutations in any of several different genes may be responsible. About one-third of patients with familial Wilms’ tumor have mutations in the WT1 gene, located on the short arm of chromosome 11 at position 11p13. The protein encoded by this gene is a regulatory molecule that acts to turn other genes on at appropriate times during the development of kidney and reproductive tissue. Failure to do so as a result of mutations in the WT1 gene may result in the uncontrolled growth of kidney tumors characteristic of the disease.

Other genes reported to be associated with genetic predisposition to Wilms’ tumor include WT2 (at position 11p15.5), WT3 (at position 16q), WT4 (at position 17q12-q21), WT5 (at position 7p14-p13), WTX (at position Xq11.1), GPC3 (at position Xq26), and BRCA2 (at position 13q12.3). A small percentage of patients with Wilms’ tumor have identifiable genetic syndromes in which this malignancy is one manifestation of a larger panoply of clinical presentations. These include Denys-Drash syndrome, Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, and WAGR syndrome.

The inheritance of familial Wilms’ tumor follows a classic autosomal dominant pattern, meaning that a single copy of the mutation is sufficient to cause full expression of the disease. An affected individual has a 50 percent chance of transmitting the mutation to each of his or her children. In some cases, however, the disease results from a spontaneous new mutation, so in these instances affected individuals will have unaffected parents. Curiously, it has been shown that at the molecular level within cells, both copies of the WT1 gene must be mutated in order to initiate the formation of kidney tumors. One of these mutations is the inherited one that is present in all cells, while the second occurs randomly during normal cell growth in kidney tissue. It is this acquired second mutation that triggers tumor formation in the affected tissue.

Symptoms

The first noticeable symptom is usually a large lump or hard mass in the abdomen. Other symptoms may include stomach pain; fever; blood in the urine; high blood pressure; and loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, and constipation. Erythrocytosis (a condition where there are too many red cells in the blood) may also be a presenting sign that the doctor finds when taking a blood test. This is because Wilms’ tumor makes a protein that causes increased production of red cells. Wilms’ tumors may grow larger without causing any pain or other symptoms.

Screening and Diagnosis

The doctor will ask about a child’s symptoms and medical history and will perform a physical exam. Blood and urine tests may be done. The child will need one or more tests in order to look for tumors. These tests provide pictures of the kidney, surrounding blood vessels, and other organs to which the cancer may have spread.

These tests include ultrasound, a test that uses sound waves to examine the kidneys. A computed tomography (CT) scan, a type of x-ray that uses a computer to make pictures of the inside of the body, may also be done. In some CT scans, a dye is first injected into a vein. This dye makes structures in the body more visible on an x-ray. Additional tests include a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, a test that uses magnetic waves to make pictures of the inside of the body; a chest x-ray, a test that uses radiation to look for the spread of cancer to the lungs; a bone scan, in which a small amount of a radioactive material is injected into a vein to highlight any cancer that may have spread to the bones; and a biopsy, the removal of a sample of tissue to test for cancer cells. In Wilms’ tumor, the biopsy may actually be a major surgical procedure to remove the kidney.

Except for removal of the kidney, these tests are not invasive but require the child to remain still. Sedation may be needed.

Children who have risk factors for Wilms’ tumor should have a physical exam with a specialist and an ultrasound every three months until age six or seven. This screening should be done even if they do not have symptoms. It can help find tumors while they are small and have not yet spread to other parts of the body.

Treatment and Therapy

Wilms’ tumor can be cured in most children. The specific treatment depends on if the cancer has spread beyond the kidney to other parts of the body and, if so, how far. The process for determining this, called staging, uses the results of the diagnostic tests. Tumor size, cell type, whether the tumor is favorable or unfavorable, and the child’s age and health are also considered in choosing treatment. In general, tumors with a favorable histology are treated only with combinations of chemotherapy, and those with unfavorable patterns or that are recurrent often require the addition of radiation therapy.

Treatment may include surgery. The main treatment for Wilms’ tumor is a type of surgery called nephrectomy. This is the removal of the kidney with the tumor. The tissue around the kidney may also be removed, as well as some nearby lymph nodes. The remaining kidney will take care of all of the needed functions for the body.

Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy can be given in many forms, including pill, injection, and via a catheter placed in a blood vessel. The drugs enter the bloodstream and travel through the body killing mostly cancer cells, but also some healthy cells.

Radiation therapy is the use of radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may be external radiation therapy, in which radiation is directed at the tumor from a source outside the body.

Prevention and Outcomes

As of 2014 there is no known way to prevent Wilms’ tumor.

Bibliography

Dome, Jeffrey S., and Vicki Huff. "Wilms
Tumor
Overview." GeneReviews. Ed. Roberta A. Pagon et al. Seattle: U of
Washington, Seattle, 1993–2014. NCBI Bookshelf. Natl. Center for
Biotechnology Information, 19 Sept. 2013. Web. 29 Aug. 2014.

Driskoll, K. M.
Isakoff, and F. Ferrer. “Update on Pediatric Genitourinary Oncology.”
Current Opinion in Urology 17, no. 4 (July, 2007):
281-286.

EBSCO Publishing.
Health Library: Wilms’ Tumor. Ipswich, Mass.: Author,
2009. Available through http://www.ebscohost.com.

Kalapurakol, John A.,
and Patrick R. M. Thomas. “Wilms’ Tumor.” In Perez and Brady’s
Principles and Practice of Radiation Oncology, edited by Edward
C. Halperin, Carlos A. Perez, and Luther W. Brady. Philadelphia: Wolters
Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008.

Mayo Clinic Staff. “Wilms’ Tumor.”
Mayo Clinic. Mayo Foundation for Medical Educ. and
Research, 2 Sept. 2011. Web. 29 Aug. 2014.

"Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney
Tumors Treatment (PDQ®)". National Cancer Institute. Natl.
Cancer Inst., 22 May 2014. Web. 29 Aug. 2014.

A voltaic cell is constructed such that the cathode is a standard hydrogen electrode and the anode is a hydrogen electrode (P(H2)= 1atm) immersed...

A voltaic cell uses chemical reactions to produce electricity. This electricity is generated due to the reactions taking place at the anode and the cathode and such reactions are known as half-cell reactions. 

Nernst equation is commonly used to solve questions related to these cells. The equation is commonly written as:

`E = E^0 + (RT)/(nF) log_10 ([H^+]^2/p_H_2)`

When the hydrogen electrodes serve as both the cathode and the anode and the reaction is taking place at 298 K (or 25 degrees C) and the partial pressure of hydrogen is 1 atm, this equation reduces to:

`E = E^0 -0.059/2 log_10([H^+]^2)`

Using the given cell potential value of 0.212 V, we get

0.212 = -0.059/2 log([H^+]^2)

solving the equation, we get, [H^+] = 2.55 x 10^-4 M

since, pH = -log [H^+] = 3.59

Thus, the anode is dipped in a solution of pH = 3.59.

Hope this helps.

Can propionic acid be used in Khaman?

We are talking about propionic acid (a chemical) and Khaman (a food).

Propionic acid is an organic chemical with the formula CH3CH2CO2H.  It is a clear, colorless liquid with a sharp, unpleasant odor.  It its salt form like sodium propionate (CH3CH2CO2Na), it exists as a white solid that has antimicrobial properties.  Since it is a cheap chemical to produce on large scale, it is used as a food preservative in small proportions to prevent mold formation on baked goods.

Khaman is a particular type of Indian food found in western India.  It is essentially a baked good made from a flour produced from ground chickpeas that is soaked in water and then heated before being cut or sliced.  It is usually spiced or served with spicy garnishments like chilies or chutney.

Since Khaman is essentially a baked good, a small amount of propionic acid could be used in the batter as a preservative for Khaman produced on an industrial scale.  Keep in mind, however, that food additives and preservatives are usually carefully matched with the foods they are used in so that flavor profiles are not compromised.  This would mean that adding propionic acid to Khaman would need to be kitchen tested on a small scale before moving to large scale production.

How does the porter's scene increase tension and suspense in Macbeth?

In the scene just prior to the porter's, the audience witnesses the reaction of the Macbeths to Duncan's murder , and it is a very tense scene.  Macbeth is in a panic, thinking he'll never have clean hands again, and Lady Macbeth is chastising him for bringing the daggers from the room and calling him a coward for being unable to go back or pull himself together.  They hear the knocking at the door even as they are trying to wash their hands and calm themselves down.  So we are already feeling pretty tense even before we meet the porter.  

When the scene changes, we meet him.  He is very drunk, so when he hears the knocking, he pretends to be guarding the gates of hell, an ironic fiction because he doesn't know that all hell is about to break loose when he opens the door.  We, the audience, know more than he does (and more than Macduff and Lennox who have just arrived), and this generates dramatic irony (when the audience knows more than the character).  The purpose of dramatic irony is to create suspense, and so, as we watch them chit chat, we know what horror they are about to discover, and this builds tension for us.  

What characteristic of water will remain the same regardless of what may be dissolved in it? a) the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen b) the...

Hello!

Let's take each of the possible choices and discuss their possibilities :)

a) The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen

There is a very specific chemical equation to represent water. At the smallest level, there needs to be two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. If the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms changes, then it would no longer be water. For example, two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms create hydrogen peroxide.

b) The hydroxide ion concentration

A hydroxide ion is one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom pair (OH-) that has not bonded with any other atoms. Notice that it has a negative charge. The charge sign should be written towards the top of the H.

Changing the amount of either positive hydrogen (H+) or negative hydroxide (OH-) floating around without a bond also changes the level of acidity of the liquid. In other words, the pH of the liquid would change.

If dissolving a substance in water changes its pH, then that characteristic of water is being changed.

c) The ability to refract light

Refraction is what happens to light as it travels through different substances that have different densities. As the light travels through these materials its speed changes. This causes the light to appear as if it is "bending."

If the type of substance being dissolved in the water changes its density then it would also change its ability to refract light.

d) The freezing temperature

Different liquids have different freezing temperatures. For example, salt water freeze at a lower temperature than fresh water does. This is why we add salt to ice cubes when making ice cream in plastic bags.

So, if the substance being dissolved in the water is salt, then it would definitely change the freezing temperature. This is only one example of that change. You may want to research if there are any more and what they may be.

Conclusion:

So if we look at the reasons why each answer is true or false, we can see that only answer a) is possible.

Have a GREAT day!

Summarize the effects of the Civil War on the United States.

The Civil War had a huge impact on the United States. There were several issues that were resolved by the Civil War. Prior to the Civil War, the South believed the state governments should have more power than the federal government. The Civil War settled this question. Federal laws take priority over state laws. Another issue that was resolved was the issue of slavery. The Civil War ended slavery in the United States.

The Civil War sent a few other messages. People began to realize there had to be a better way to resolve disputes than by having Americans fight each other. Over 600,000 people were killed in the Civil War. The casualty rate of the Civil War was over one million hurt and wounded. In some cases it took years for those injuries to heal. The Civil War cost billions of dollars. It took years for the land in the South to recover from the damage that occurred because of the fighting and the destruction that occurred there.

The Civil War had a tremendous impact on the United States.

Why shouldn't have Brutus killed Julius Caesar?

Brutus’s assassination of Julius Caesar was motivated by patriotism. He viewed Caesar as a threat to the republic. If Caesar had lived, Brutus feared (prodded by Cassius) that Caesar would become king, instigating a monarchical system that the Roman Republic had already rejected almost five hundred years previously.

Yet it was not Caesar that Brutus should have feared. It was the Roman people themselves, who were willing to make Caesar king. Their hero-worship of Caesar made them entertain the idea of discarding their freedom and their self-government in favor of this man who had done such great things. If it were not Caesar, they would have sought someone else, as indeed they did in allowing Octavius (Caesar Augustus) to become emperor, thus staring the Roman Empire that lasted another five hundred years. Against the people at large, Brutus had little chance of changing their minds. But not no chance. He was viewed as an influential speaker and could have potentially swayed the masses. Indeed, he tried this after Caesar’s death but Marc Antony came along and persuaded the people to oppose Brutus instead.

How can I write a conclusion for my geography project?

Your conclusion, whether it be in an essay or part of a presentation, should serve two purposes:

1. Re-state your thesis, which should be mentioned in your introduction.


2. Wrap up any "loose ends" from your body paragraphs or previously discussed material.

If you aren't sure what your thesis statement is, consider the "big idea" of your project. What is the main thing you want people to learn from your essay or presentation? Think of your project like a sandwich-- the introduction and conclusion paragraphs are like the bread, and all of the stuff in the middle is your evidence and reasoning for your thesis. Try to avoid introducing any new ideas in your conclusion paragraph.

Sometimes writing your introduction and conclusion paragraphs can be the hardest part of writing a paper. Imagine you are speaking to someone who has no previous knowledge of your subject-- in this case, map analysis and interpretation. What do you want this person to know? Is there one particularly effective method of map analysis, or are there many? What are the steps of map analysis, and must they be followed strictly in order? You could try talking about this subject with a friend, parent, or teacher, and see what kind of conclusion comes naturally to the discussion.

If you'd like some feedback on your conclusion once you have written it, you may like to use our Essay Lab service.

Why does y=(sinx)^2+(cosx)^2 create a flat line on a graph?

Hello!

A flat line (a straight horizontal line) as a graph of `y=f(x)` means that `f(x)` is a constant (all its values are the same). Is this true for `y=sin^2(x)+cos^2(x)`? Yes, it is one of the most known trigonometric identities.

It is simple to prove it, at least for `x` between `0` and `pi/2` (90 degrees). Such an `x` may be an angle in a right triangle. If the lengths of its legs are `a` and `b,` then the length of the hypotenuse is `sqrt(a^2+b^2)` by the Pythagorean theorem.

Let `a` be the adjacent leg of the angle `x,` then

 `cos(x)=a/sqrt(a^2+b^2)`  and  `sin(x)=b/sqrt(a^2+b^2).`

Therefore  `cos^2(x)=a^2/(a^2+b^2)`  and  `sin^2(x)=b^2/(a^2+b^2),`

and  `cos^2(x)+sin^(x)=(a^2+b^2)/(a^2+b^2)=1.`

The answer is: because the given function is a constant (and this constant is 1).

What four things did Charles Lamb and his sister enjoy doing when they were poor?

Charles Lamb’s closest playmate was his sister Mary, eleven years his senior.

Before Charles was born, Mary enjoyed, and later shared with Charles, the healthful life of the country in her mother’s native county of Hertfordshire, where there were still relatives.

In nearby Mackery, there was a married great-aunt whom Mary visited. Here, she relished the farm setting, enjoyed the fields of sheep and young lambs, and then the sheep shearing.  There was hay making, the thresher in the barn, collecting eggs and violets, the orchard, the farm house suppers, and the great wood fires.

She also visited her maternal grandmother, Field, who was a housekeeper at a stately mansion called Blakesware, not far from Hertfordshire. Here, the young Mary (and later Charles) was free to explore the house and its grounds.  In her explorations, Mary was overjoyed one day, after she had repeatedly tried to pry open an old lock on a door, to discover a large library. Thereafter she abandoned her usual haunts and spent entire mornings in this room.  After the death of the owner, when Mrs. Field was in sole charge of the estate, Charles had the same free rein that his sister Mary had experienced.

The children’s father was a clerk to a London lawyer named Samuel Salt.  The family had use of Mr. Salt’s office and house, which included the use of the library.  Here Mary (and later her brother) pored over books about witches and martyrs, which is thought to have contributed to her later madness, as well as her brother’s. 

There was also the Temple Gardens, with its churchyard with sun-dials, tombstones, gardens, and fountain – all balm, and avenues for exploration, for the sensitive natures of the Lamb siblings.

How do the issues of due process and just cause affect employers' disciplinary actions?

How due process and just cause have an impact on the discipline of employees is mostly a matter of context and a matter of perception.  There is no one definitive answer to this question, so I will address a few different contexts for you.

First, if there is a collective bargaining agreement, it is quite likely that due process and just cause will be built into that agreement, such that grievances can be filed over disciplinary actions and an employer is required to have just cause for any disciplinary action. I have never seen a collective bargaining agreement in which these were not present.

Second, absent a collective bargaining agreement, if there is an employment contract of any sort, these may or may not be part of that contract. Employee contracts can contain a myriad of provisions, some allowing termination without due process or just cause, while others might contain provisions for one, the other, or both.

Third, to what degree any of this matters is largely a function of what state has jurisdiction over the situation. Some states are called "at will" states, which means that employees, absent some sort of contract, can be fired for no reason at all, as long as it is not for an unlawful reason, for example, race discrimination or pregnancy.  A few states have some worker protection built in, although I am not aware of any state that guarantees workers due process.

Fourth, it is quite important to understand that due process is guaranteed to us by government. There is no guarantee of due process in a private employment situation. That is simply not an entitlement of the American worker, unless that person is working for the government. 

Fifth, similarly, just cause is not an entitlement.  It is not an entitlement under the Constitution nor an entitlement in private employment. It is something that is valued by employees, but that by no means makes it a requirement.

Finally, in spite of the fact that they have no entitlement, employees who perceive disciplinary actions to be lacking in due process and just cause are likely to become disaffected employees very quickly, as will any workmates who have this perception, too.  Without either, we perceive the workplace to be quite unfair, and this is very bad for motivation and productivity. A wise employer will build in at least a modicum of due process and not act without good cause, lest the perception of unfairness permeate the workplace to the employer's detriment. 

So, it is important to consider collective bargaining agreements, other contracts, and what state has jurisdiction over the matter.  It is important to remember that absent a contract of some sort, neither is an entitlement.  Nevertheless, the perception of fairness is an important part of effective management, and some due process should be built in to discipline, and no disciplinary action should be occurring arbitrarily. 

What were the significant contributions of Spivak and Bhabha to their schools of literary criticism? Also, what contributions to criticism have...

Gayatri Spivak has been an influential figure in rethinking Marxism, postmodernism, and feminism in the context of post-colonial, transnational capitalism. Her most often cited texts are the essay “Can the Subaltern Speak?” and her book A Critique of Postcolonial Reason. Spivak’s notion of the “subaltern,” an underclass that exists independent of Marx’s proletariat, is an attempt to theorize classes of people, particularly women, who have been “erased” by the dominant culture and rendered unable to “speak,” or be heard in public discourse.

Homi Bhabha is best known for his books Nation and Narration and The Location of Culture. Bhabha argues that traditional European notions of nationhood (that a nation can be defined by a single, coherent historical narrative) cannot apply to post colonial nations, and that instead national identity is “imagined” or produced through the interaction and conflict of many different cultural experiences. In fact, colonial rule itself produces the conditions for resistance through “mimicry” – the idea that by trying to instill European language and values on native populations, colonial rulers actually invite indigenous co-optation and inversion of official language.

Trauma theory seeks to understand the significance of past catastrophes or traumas. It is based on a few basic principles: first, that the trauma did happen; second, that the totality of the trauma is inaccessible to representation; third, that testimony about the trauma is a legitimate way to understand the importance of the trauma; fourth, the collective narrative created by testimony about the trauma can, through its incompleteness, provide “spaces” in which the significance of the trauma can be understood. Trauma theory provides a theoretical framework within which personal experience can be used to understand or construct the “reality” of historical trauma.

Taken together, Spivak and Bhabha, along with the trauma theorists, can be understood to be engaged in the same project: understanding and articulating the colonial experience – finding a way, either through Bhabha’s notion of “mimicry” or the “testimony” of trauma victims, to allow Spivak’s subaltern to finally speak.

Sources:

Berger, James. “Trauma and Literary Theory”. Contemporary Literature 38.3 (1997): 569–582. Web.

Simon, Jon, ed. From Agamben to Zizek: Contemporary Critical Theorists. Edinburgh: Univ. of Edinburgh Press. 2010. Print.

What are chemical germicides?

Definition

Germicides are chemical agents that, as antiseptics, kill microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, and fungi) on the surface of skin or other living tissues and as disinfectants kill microorganisms on nonliving surfaces.

Application

The following is a list of the effectiveness of germicidal chemicals against
pathogens, in descending order: lipid or medium-sized
viruses, vegetative bacteria, fungi, nonlipid or small viruses,
mycobacteria, and bacterial spores. Unlike antibiotics,
chemical germicides typically target multiple sites within the microorganism when
used at sufficiently high concentrations. For that reason, microorganisms tend to
develop tolerance to germicides more slowly than develop resistance to an
antibiotic.

Efficacy

The agent’s effectiveness depends on several factors, including its chemical composition, temperature, the amount of organic matter and microbes on the object that needs to be treated, and the amount of time the germicide is left on the object’s surface. In most cases, higher concentrations increase germicidal activity and rapidity of action, but organic matter (such as blood or fecal material) decreases activity. Germicidal strength is classified as being of high, medium, or low level activity.

Types

Chemicals used as germicides include chlorine compounds, phenolics, alcohols, aldehydes, hydrogen peroxide, iodophors, peracetic acid, and quaternary ammonium compounds. These compounds are not interchangeable because no single germicide is effective against all pathogens and because the agents vary widely according to rapidity of action.

Chlorine compounds. Hypochlorites are oxidizing agents that are widely used to disinfect floors, laundry, and water distribution systems, and to decontaminate small blood spills and medical laboratory waste. They include sodium hypochlorite (bleach), which has broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity but is less effective against fungi. Its advantages are its low cost and rapid action, but it can be corrosive to metal and is inactivated by organic matter. Although relatively nontoxic, mixing sodium hypochlorite with ammonia or acid releases a toxic chlorine or chloramine gas. Other hypochlorites include calcium hypochlorite, sodium dichloroisocyanurate, and chloramine.

Phenolics.
Phenol has been used as a germicide since the nineteenth
century, and numerous derivatives (phenolics) have developed. Phenolics are
medium-to-high level germicides used on environmental surfaces and noncritical
medical devices. Exposure to these compounds can cause hyperbilirubinemia in
infants; therefore, if used on objects such as infant bassinets and incubators,
these surfaces should be rinsed thoroughly with water and dried before use.

Alcohols. Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and
isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol) are traditional disinfectants that are often
combined or are mixed with formaldehyde or sodium hypochlorite to increase
potency. Alcohols are medium-level germicides that are generally ineffective
against bacterial spores and fungi, and they show variable activity against
nonlipid viruses. Alcohols are used for equipment such as stethoscopes, scissors,
rubber stoppers of medication vials, and the external surfaces of medical
equipment.

Aldehydes. The two most commonly used aldehyde disinfectants are
formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde. Formaldehyde is active against all
organisms at low temperatures; however, it is a potential carcinogen and can
irritate the skin and respiratory system, which limits its use. Glutaraldehyde is
considered a high-level disinfectant with excellent germicidal activity against
all types of microorganisms. Sodium bicarbonate activates glutaraldehyde; it is
not sporicidal when acidic. It is commonly used in health care settings for
medical equipment because it is not corrosive to metal, rubber, or plastic, and it
is not inactivated by organic matter. Ortho-phthalaldehyde has a mechanism of
action similar to that of glutaraldehyde, but is more stable, appears to have
higher germicidal activity, and does not need to be activated with sodium
bicarbonate. However, if not rinsed thoroughly from medical equipment, the residue
can stain unprotected skin and mucous membranes.

Hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen
peroxide is a relatively stable and safe compound that exerts
medium-to-high level activity. Its mechanism of action involves the release of
hydroxyl free radicals, which damage microbial cells. In the hospital, hydrogen
peroxide-based products are used to clean equipment and instruments such as
endoscopes and ventilators.

Iodophors. Iodophors are solutions or tinctures of iodine complexed to a solubilizing agent or carrier that gradually releases free iodine. The most commonly used iodophor is povidone-iodine. Iodophors are relatively nontoxic medium-level germicides traditionally used as antiseptics. Unlike other germicides, iodophors are diluted to increase bactericidal action. The iodine rapidly penetrates microorganisms, where they appear to damage proteins and nucleic acids and inhibit their synthesis. They are also used to disinfect various types of medical equipment, but they can damage silicone tubing.

Peracetic acid. Peracetic acid is a fast-acting medium-level germicide that effectively inactivates pathogens, even in the presence of organic material. Because it does not leave a residue, it is useful for disinfecting medical instruments. The combination of peracetic acid and hydrogen peroxide is used to disinfect hemodialyzers for reuse in dialysis centers.

Quaternary ammonium compounds. Quaternary ammonium compounds are low-level disinfectants that appear to exert their effects in microorganisms by denaturing proteins, inactivating energy-producing enzymes, and disrupting the cell membrane. They are not effective against spores and tend not to be active against nonlipid viruses and mycobacteria. Accordingly, these compounds are used to disinfect noncritical surfaces such as floors, furniture, and walls.

Nonchemical germicides. Nonchemical germicides include ozone, a colorless pungent gas that is a powerful oxidizing agent. Because it leaves no residues or toxic compounds, ozone is safe for treating drinking water, food, food containers, and food storage rooms. Certain metals (such as copper, silver, and iron) exert germicidal activity and are therefore incorporated into medical devices and the environments of hospitals and laboratories. Ultraviolet light is also used to inactivate pathogens on surfaces and in the air.

Impact

A variety of germicidal agents are used as antiseptics and disinfectants in
health care settings. Germicides are effective against most emerging pathogens,
including Cryptosporidium parvum, Escherichia
coli O157:H7, avian influenza virus, and
multidrug-resistant bacteria such as vancomycin-resistant
Enterococcus and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus. Germicides are also increasing used, and perhaps overused, in
the home. Their overuse does appear to be a factor in the development of
antibiotic-resistant pathogens.

Bibliography

Block, Seymour S., ed. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001. Extensively covers the prevention of infection with disinfectants. Includes detailed descriptions of each class of disinfectant, their regulation and testing, and special applications.

Rutala, William A., et al. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities, 2008. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/disinfection_sterilization/toc.html. This guideline discusses the use of germicides and similar products in the home, in hospitals, and in other health care settings.

Sanford, Jay P., et al. The Sanford Guide to Antimicrobial Therapy. 18th ed. Sperryville, Va.: Antimicrobial Therapy, 2010. A comprehensive guide to antimicrobial agents.

Weber, David J., et al. “Role of Hospital Surfaces in the Transmission of Emerging Health Care-Associated Pathogens: Norovirus, Clostridium difficile, and Acinetobacter Species.” American Journal of Infection Control 38 (2010): S25-S33. Explores the role of hospitals in the spread of pathogens and discusses current guidelines for surface disinfection and hand hygiene.

Westin, Debbie. Infection Prevention and Control: Theory and Practice for Healthcare Professionals. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2008. Includes background information to support the rationale behind basic principles of infection control and how to apply them using evidence-based recommendations on infection control management.

According to the article that Mrs. Fisher reads, what is Tangerine County famous for?

Mrs. Fisher reads from an article describing how Tangerine County is famous for how often it's struck by lightning.

This happens near the beginning of the novel, in the chapter titled "Thursday, September 7." Mrs. Fisher, the rest of the family, the school principal, the football coach, and many other parents of football players have all gathered for a a meeting at the Fisher family home. That day, a member of the football team, Mike Costello, has been killed by a lightning strike during practice after school. Storms and lightning usually hit during the late afternoon, when football practices are always held. Mrs. Fisher wants to prevent further deaths or injuries from lightning strikes, so she's trying to get the team to reschedule their practice sessions for a time when lightning will be less likely.

Of course, the coach doesn't want to change his entire schedule just because of this one sad incident. He presents several logical arguments to Mrs. Fisher, essentially trying to dismiss her idea. He seems to indicate that lightning strikes are random and rare.

But Mrs. Fisher is prepared. She reads from the article, from the local Tangerine Times, which says that their city experiences the highest proportion of deaths by lightning strike in the entire nation. It's excellent support for her argument--it totally negates the coach's point about lightning strikes being a negligible concern--and she succeeds in convincing the rest of the group to at least vote on a motion to move the football practices to a different time of day.

Write a short letter to a friend. Describe what you have learned about the separation of powers and checks and balances. Tell why you think these...

When writing such a letter, it would be important to consider the following. First, you might look at some of the historical origins of the concept of separation of powers. The development of Parliament in England is an important example of this, one which was described by the most famous advocate of separation of powers in government, a French philosopher named the Baron de Montesquieu. Then you would want to look at how the U.S. Constitution actually implements separation of powers and checks and balances. Power in the U.S. federal government is divided between an executive branch (the president and cabinet and independent agencies), Congress (both the House of Representatives and the Senate) and the judiciary (the Supreme Court and the lower federal courts). This is established in the Constitution, which goes further by giving each branch of government some powers to "check" the powers of the others. For example, the President can veto laws passed by Congress, but Congress has the power to impeach and remove the President for committing crimes while in office. Obviously, the idea was to keep any one branch from becoming too dominant, and the people within them from becoming too powerful. This is why the concepts of separation of powers and checks and balances are so important, and the letter you write should discuss how this works, with perhaps some other examples of "checks." 

How are the theory and art of the short story defined?

The fictional form of short story was defined by Edgar Allan Poe, who felt people were sometimes too distracted by "worldly interests" to read novels. Poe thought a shorter form of narrative concentrated upon a single, powerful impression would hold the reader's interest, and, in fact, be the best type of fiction.

Of course, the short story shares with other forms of fiction the basic elements of plot, characterization, point of view, setting, symbols, theme, and tone. But because the short story is so concentrated, its settings are restricted, there are a limited number of characters, its plot has a narrow range of action, and there are usually only one or two themes. Sometimes an author places emphasis upon just one of these fictional elements. For instance, Poe often focused his tales upon an unreliable narrator/character. This skewered point of view frequently affects other story elements such as the story's tone, plot, and character development. Thus, in Poe's writings (and in those of other authors, as well, who may focus on another particular element), the short story is further distinguished from longer forms of fictions by its unity of the essential story elements. If the short story is executed successfully, these occur at once in the tale, creating the powerful impression desired. This effect, along with its brevity, have come to make the short story a very popular literary form.

In "The Adventure of the Speckled Band," what motives might Dr. Roylott have for killing Julia Stoner?

When Helen Stoner comes to see Sherlock Holmes at Baker Street in the early morning, she tells him, significantly:

“When Dr. Roylott was in India he married my mother, Mrs. Stoner....My sister Julia and I were twins, and we were only two years old at the time of my mother's re-marriage. She had a considerable sum of money—not less than £1000 a year—and this she bequeathed to Dr. Roylott entirely while we resided with him, with a provision that a certain annual sum should be allowed to each of us in the event of our marriage."

A bit further on in her long back story, Helen tells the detective and his friend Dr. Watson about her and her sister's unhappy lives at Stoke Moran, but adds:

"We had, however, an aunt, my mother's maiden sister...and we were occasionally allowed to pay short visits at this lady's house. Julia went there at Christmas two years ago, and met there a half-pay major of marines, to whom she became engaged....but within a fortnight of the day which had been fixed for the wedding, the terrible event occurred which has deprived me of my only companion.” 

Before Holmes and Watson go down to Stoke Moran to examine the premises, Holmes does some research in the civil records and learns that the deceased mother's will provided that the girls' stepfather would be legally obligated to pay either of them one-third of the proceeds of the capital she had left him if either girl married. Holmes naturally suspects that Dr. Roylott must have been responsible for Julia's death two years ago to spare himself from having to pay her such a large sum annually once she was married. Holmes ascertains that:

"The total income, which at the time of the wife's death was little short of £1100, is now...not more than £750. Each daughter can claim an income of £250, in case of marriage. It is evident, therefore, that if both girls had married, this beauty would have had a mere pittance, while even one of them would cripple him to a very serious extent." 

Dr. Roylott would have a strong motive to kill Julia in order to avoid paying her and her husband £250 a year indefinitely. Now Helen Stoner has become engaged to be married within two or three months. Dr. Roylott has found an excuse for moving Helen into Julia's former room, which is right next to his own. He pretends that some repair work was necessary on Helen's own room, which is separated from Roylott's by Julia's. Evidently her stepfather wanted her to be sleeping in Julia's old room for some reason. The main mystery in "The Adventure of the Speckled Band" is how Dr. Roylott could have killed Julia when she was sleeping in a locked room which seemed impenetrable from the outside.

Holmes and Watson travel down to Stoke Moran and hire a trap at Leatherhead Station to take them out to Roylott's crumbling country mansion. There Holmes examines the room where Julia died two years ago and then examines Dr. Roylott's room next door. Holmes observes that there is a ventilator between the two rooms. In Helen's room there is a dummy bell-rope by the bed. The bed cannot be moved because it has been bolted to the floor. He and Watson stay in Julia's room that same night, and Holmes drives the "speckled band" back up the bell-rope and through the ventilator, where it bites Dr. Roylott and kills him instantly. Later Holmes explains his deductions to Watson:

"My attention was speedily drawn, as I have already remarked to you, to this ventilator, and to the bell-rope which hung down to the bed. The discovery that this was a dummy, and that the bed was clamped to the floor, instantly gave rise to the suspicion that the rope was there as a bridge for something passing through the hole and coming to the bed. The idea of a snake instantly occurred to me, and when I coupled it with my knowledge that the doctor was furnished with a supply of creatures from India, I felt that I was probably on the right track."

So Sherlock Holmes not only saves the life of his client Helen Stoner but solves the two-year-old mystery of the death of her sister Julia. Dr. Roylott had only one motive for murdering Julia with his poisonous snake. He was in desperate financial trouble and simply could not afford to pay Julia £250 a year out of his dwindling  assets. By killing her, he solved that problem. But then Helen became engaged and he had the same problem all over again. He moved Helen into the room next to his and was planning to kill her by the same means. But she became terrified on the second night when at around three o'clock she heard the same low whistle which her sister had described to her shortly before she died an agonizing death. Helen waited until daybreak and then hurried to London to consult Sherlock Holmes, whom she had heard of from a friend.

What are some of the significant features of Islamic art?

Islam as a religion spans most of the globe and has spread and acquired characteristics from all of the countries that observe it as the dominant form of worship. But despite this wide range of cultures from which to gather artistic influences, Islamic art does have several significant features that distinguish it from other types of art.

The basic elements of Islamic art are: calligraphy, vegetal (plant-based) patterns, geometric patterns, and figurative representation. Calligraphy is often considered the highest form of Islamic art. The Koran was transmitted to the prophet Muhammad by Allah in the Arabic language, a written language that lends itself naturally to calligraphy, as many of its written characters flow and are linked together, similar to English cursive writing. Thus, producing handmade, calligraphic versions of the Koran gained prominence in the Muslim world and was viewed as a holy pursuit.

Vegetal, or plant and vine-based, patterns are older than the religion of Islam itself. Islamic artists adapted ideas and forms from the more ancient cultures surrounding it, the Byzantine Empire and the Iranian kingdoms. The favorite style of pattern that emerged from Islamic artists is known as the arabesque, a scrolling and interlacing of leaves, stems, and foliage that can be combined and repeated endlessly, a process known as “tiling.” As the Mongol invasion came to the Islamic world in the 13th and 14th centuries many Chinese design motifs were introduced to traditional Islamic vegetal patterns.

Geometric patterns are similar to vegetal patterns. But rather than natural plant forms, a geometric pattern is created by combining, interlacing, repeating and combining very simple, idealized geometric forms like circles, squares, stars, and multi-sided shapes. The beautiful complexity and the feelings of infinity and wonder that they create in viewers has made geometric patterning one of the most recognizable features of Islamic art.

Figurative representation of the human form has a difficult relationship with Islam as a religion, which prohibits most depictions of living beings, because it is felt by some adherents that the creation of living forms is something that only God (Allah) is allowed to do. Thus there is almost an absence in Islamic art, as opposed to European Christian art, of pictorial representations of Allah, Muhammad, and scenes from the Koran. But figures were included in many book illustrations, and were somewhat acceptable as miniatures. This prohibition on figures and portraiture can account for the amazing variety of abstract patterns and fantastic calligraphy that make up the majority of Islamic art.

The techniques and mediums used to create Islamic art are varied, but a few take precedence: book making, painting (miniatures and illuminated manuscripts), weaving (the famous rugs), and ceramics (especially mosaic tile decoration, probably unequaled by any other culture or artistic movement).

What is the word equation for the precipitation of lead iodide?

Lead iodide precipitate can be produced by reacting potassium iodide (`KI` ) with lead II nitrate (`~Pb(NO_3)_2` ). The chemical equation for this reaction is:

   `~2KI` + `~Pb(NO_3)_2` -> `~PbI_2` + `~2KNO_3`

This is a double replacement reaction that results in the formation of a precipitate. This type of reaction can also be called a precipitation reaction. 

The solubility of a substance can be determined by looking at a list of solubility rules. A list of solubility rules can be found in your textbook or online. The solubility rules tell us that `~PbI_2` is insoluble and will form a solid precipitate. 

Therefore, the word equation for this reaction would be:

Aqueous potassium iodide reacts with aqueous lead II nitrate to produce solid lead II iodide and aqueous potassium nitrate.

How can I write a critical review of Macbeth?

By definition, a critical review of a literary work is a summary and evaluation of the text in light of certain elements, such as the theme, structure, motifs, and historical and social context.  To write a critical review does not mean you are offering a negative assessment, but rather you are analyzing the text and responding to it.  Therefore, in writing a critical review about Shakespeare’s Macbeth, a good place to start would be to make a list of the various themes present in the play.  

One of the most prominent themes in the book is the lust for power, as Macbeth kills Duncan in a fervent attempt to gain the crown in response to the witches’ prophecy. In Act 1, Scene 4, Macbeth delivers the following aside:

The prince of Cumberland!  That is a step

On which I must fall down, or else o’erleap,

For in my way it lies.  Stars, hide your fires;

Let not light see my black and deep desires.

The eye wink at the hand, yet let that be

Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see. (I. iv. 50-55)

The above quote provides good textual support for the theme of greed and the lust for power.  Here, Macbeth privately admits that he has a deep, burning desire to kill Duncan to progress up the royal ladder. 

Another theme that is present in the play is that of guilt.  Upon killing Banquo to protect his murderous secret, Macbeth is haunted by Banquo’s ghost, which is a manifestation and symbol of the guilt that Macbeth is experiencing.  In Act 3, Scene 4, Macbeth is greatly troubled by the presence of Banquo’s ghost, and his distress reveals the detrimental effects of Macbeth’s previous actions:

Avaunt! And quit my sight! Let the earth hide thee!

Thy bones are marrowless, they blood is cold;

Thou hast no speculation in those eyes

Which thou dost glare with! (III. iv. 92-95)

The above quote is delivered when Macbeth orders the ghost to vanish from his sight.  It also provides complexity to Macbeth’s character, for he is not a cold-blooded murdered, but is rather deeply troubled by his actions.  This makes him more sympathetic. 

An additional theme is that of feminism, as exhibited by Lady Macbeth.  When she learns from her husband about the intended prophesy, Lady Macbeth becomes wildly ambitious to aid Macbeth in his conquest for power.  In Act 1, Scene 5, she gives the following lines:

Come, you spirits

That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here,

And fill me from the crown to the toe top-full

Of direst cruelty. Make thick my blood.

Stop up the access and passage to remorse,

That no compunctious visitings of nature

Shake my fell purpose, nor keep peace between

The effect and it! Come to my woman’s breasts,

And take my milk for gall, you murd'ring ministers,

Wherever in your sightless substances

You wait on nature’s mischief. (I. v. 30-40).

The above soliloquy uses the diction of “unsex me” and Lady Macbeth asks the spirits to remove her womanly nature from her breasts.  She instead wants to be like a callous, man with no emotional attachment or remorse to what she and her husband are about to do. 

The above list includes just some of the themes in Macbeth, but others include morality, evil, the supernatural, and reality verse the imaginative.  Once you select a theme or themes to respond to, meaning you show how the theme is present in the play through textual support, you must provide the significance of the theme.

For example, with the first listed theme of lust for power, the play concludes with the death of both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, illustrating the negative cause-and-effect of corrupt greed and ambition.  As with the theme of guilt, both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are haunted by their deeds either through hallucinations or vivid dreams.  This suggests that Shakespeare is asserting that individuals cannot out run their wrong doing.  Finally, with the theme of feminism, Shakespeare is writing against the norm of the patriarchal Elizabethan period by presenting a strong, assertive woman.   Yet, the argument could also be made that by having Lady Macbeth kill herself in the end, she could not truly be the “unsexed” woman she tried to become. 

In conclusion, a critical review should convey your response to a particular element or elements of the play, but it should be supported by textual evidence.  Ground claims in quotes and explain how these quotes support your stance. 

Which of the following statements is NOT true, according to natural selection? (1) organisms that are well adapted to their environments...

Statement four is the incorrect statement—"Organisms in a changing environment must adapt to acquire necessary traits and survive."

This statement seems a great deal like Jean Baptiste Lamarck's theory of Use and Disuse and the Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics. This theory was an earlier one than Darwin's Natural Selection Theory. 

Lamarck believed if an organism acquired an ability or trait during its lifetime that allowed it to adapt, it would pass along this trait to its offspring. Also, if an organism didn't use a body part, it would wither and eventually disappear from the species. For example, he believed giraffes inherited longer necks from ancestors who stretched their necks to try to reach the food supply high up in the trees. According to Lamarck, this acquired trait would then be passed down. This can easily be disproved by August Weisman's experiment where he removed tails from mice, allowed them to breed for several generations, and all offspring still had tails.

In Natural Selection theory, all individuals have variations and these variations may prove to be advantageous in a certain environment. The variations are not acquired but are present when the organism was born and are a result of genetic differences (a concept not known at the time of Darwin). New traits arise by mutation and natural selection operates on these as well. 

If an organism has an adaptation that allows it to survive and reproduce—known as differential reproduction, its offspring may inherit the beneficial trait. As time goes by, natural selection operates on populations that allow the best-suited individuals to have a selective advantage. As enough beneficial traits are inherited over time, a population may evolve to become a new species. Conversely, if the environment changes, if a population can't adapt, it may become extinct.

Explain how the title of the poem "To the doctor who treated the raped baby and who felt such despair" by Finuala Dowling is unusual, and comment...

The title of the poem, "To the doctor who treated the raped baby and who felt such despair" by Finuala Dowling, is unusual because it is a direct address. The title indicates the narrator will be speaking to the physician who treated the abused child, and acknowledging his/her feelings. In addition, the title lacks the accepted use of capitalization for a piece of poetry by solely using an upper case letter for the first word.

The use of the title as a direct address to the doctor is appropriate for the contents of the poem. The words are spoken on behalf of those who were able to sleep that night without a thought of such gruesome atrocities. The author creates a dichotomy in the poem by alternating between describing the medical care the doctor provides for the child’s horrific wounds, and explaining how other children are nurtured by caring adults.

Although the poem alludes to a larger social problem, it is written as a personal acknowledgement. Once again, in the last lines of the poem, the narrator speaks directly to the doctor.

And for the rest of us, we all slept in trust

that you would do what you did,

that you could do what you did.

We slept in trust that you lived.

Why do you think Macbeth does not kill Banquo and Fleance himself?

This is an excellent question. If we look at it from the perspective of Macbeth himself, it can be answered that the main reason he has for not killing Banquo and Fleance himself is that he is concerned about his public image. He hopes against hope that he and his wife have gotten away with their murder of King Macduff and their usurpation of the Scottish crown: but he would like to keep a low profile and try to build a good reputation with the people. It turns out that his hired murderers bungle the job of killing Fleance. Macbeth is widely suspected of being behind that father-son murder attempt, and this leads to his being suspected of the murder of King Duncan as well.

From the perspective of Macbeth's creator, it appears that William Shakespeare wanted to preserve some degree of audience sympathy for his tragic hero. We, of course, know that Macbeth was behaving villainously. But he loses less of our respect by distancing himself from the deed as much as possible.

The same would apply to Shakespeare's reason for having Macduff and his family killed by emissaries. When Shakespeare has Macbeth meet his downfall in the fifth act, it seems obvious that the playwright wanted his audience to preserve at least some small amount of sympathy for his tragic hero. So Macbeth's crimes are either perpetrated by agents or else are only described by others, such as Lennox and Ross.

What would be a good thesis statement for family and loyalty in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird?

In To Kill a Mockingbird, author Harper Lee certainly does develop the theme of family loyalty throughout her novel. She particularly develops it in line with her greater theme concerning development and maturity, which expresses her view that the South is slowly growing and changing and needs to grow and change more. As family members within the story grow and mature, they tend to drift apart, but still remain loyal to each other. It can be said that Lee is using this growth and maturity among family members to show that, just as one must remain loyal to one's family, one must also remain loyal to the South and believe it can improve as it grows and matures.

Multiple examples of family members growing and drifting apart can be found throughout the book. One example can be seen in Atticus's relationship with his sister, Alexandra. Atticus was raised in the same way Alexandra was, on a wealthy Southern farm that used to be worked by slaves. He was also raised to believe the Finches are an affluent family with a background that makes them superior to many around them. While Alexandra maintained these views, Atticus did not. Instead, he and his younger brother Jack were the first Finches to decide not to stay and work the farm, instead pursuing their own occupations as a lawyer and a doctor. As Atticus progressed on his own path away from his family, he developed his own views about equality and what characteristics a good person should own.

We learn Atticus's views of a good person through Scout who, in reflecting on her aunt's comments about "Fine Folks," thinks about how she has been taught that "Fine Folks were people who did the best they could with the sense they had" (Chapter 13). We further learn exactly how much Atticus and Alexandra disagree on views about their family background when she orders Atticus to discuss with his children the fact that they are the "product of several generation's gentle breeding," and the only reactions he receives from his children are tears and other signs of distress. Scout expresses her distress in the following:

For no reason I felt myself beginning to cry, but I could not stop. This was not my father. My father never thought these thoughts. (Ch. 13)

Scout's feelings of distress show us just how much Atticus disagrees with Alexandra; we can tell by Scout's distress that she has been taught the exact opposite. She has been taught not to think of herself as being above anyone else. Atticus and Alexandra further disagree when it comes to issues of race. Due to her racial prejudices that stem from being from a family whose ancestors owned slaves, Alexandra thinks it is disgraceful for Atticus to defend an African-American citizen.

Despite their disagreements, Alexandra shows genuine concern for Atticus's distress at the news that Tom Robinson had been shot by prison guards 17 times. Her concern for her brother's state of mind proves she believes in remaining loyal to him out of love, even though she disagrees with his actions. Plus, even though Atticus disagrees with Alexandra's racist views, he does not ask her to leave his house because he still feels she will be a good feminine influence for his children as they grow up, showing us Atticus also believes in remaining loyal to his sister, despite their disagreements.

Alexandra's views represent traditional views of the Old South, whereas Atticus's views represent a new system of belief in which everyone truly is considered equal. Harper Lee uses Atticus to portray the ways in which the South was beginning to change during this time period and to promote the need for changes to continue. Alexandra and Atticus's disagreements represent the disagreements between the Old South and the New South. But, more importantly, their loyalty to each other represents Lee's view that the people of the South still need to remain loyal to the South, despite the need for change.

If one were to argue the above in an essay, a thesis statement might look like the following: "Harper Lee uses the theme of family loyalty, despite family disagreements, to further develop her theme concerning loyalty to the South."