What can one infer about the comfort objects and how Jonas and Lily live?

Jonas and Lily have a great life. They are provided with nice parents who enjoy them, their physical needs are met, and they receive friendly support from their community and school as they grow. They are like every other child in the community, too; everyone has a home with food and water to drink, and each child is treated with respect and has access to all the benefits society can offer. They are also taught respect and to take responsibility for their actions. For example, if anyone is late for school and keeps the class waiting, he or she must apologize to the class and the class must answer back that they accept the apology. All of these lessons that the children learn have good qualities that teach them to respect life, others, and themselves.

Comfort objects are given to newborn babies and are recycled after the child becomes eight years old. These are plush toys like teddy bears; Lily's is an elephant. Lily's parents keep her elephant on a shelf during the day and only give it to her when it is time to go to bed. In chapter two, Lily's mother reminds her that the comfort object will soon be taken away and given to a baby, so she should learn to sleep without it.

One can infer the community is set up to nurture kids very well. The stages of growth and development that children go through seem logical and natural based on basic human needs. Each year, a child loses one thing, such as a comfort object, but gains something else, such as pockets in a jacket, which helps them learn responsibility for smaller, personal objects. Symbolically, this helps children let go of one stage in their life and accept the next one. This practice also teaches children to accept appropriate changes in life as well as structure and obedience to the rules.

If 78.2 grams of oxygen react with copper, how many moles of copper oxide will be produced?

When copper reacts with oxygen, copper (II) oxide is formed. The reaction can be written as follows:

`Cu + O_2 -> CuO`

However, this reaction is not balanced, as the number of oxygen atoms are 2 on the reactant side, while there is only 1 oxygen atom on the product side.

The well-balanced chemical reaction for this process can be written as:

`2Cu + O_2 -> 2CuO`

Using stoichiometry, we can see that 2 moles of copper react with 1 mole of oxygen to generate 2 moles of copper oxide. 

Here, we have 78.2 g of oxygen. The molar mass of oxygen is 32 g. Hence the number of moles of oxygen are: 

78.2 g / (32 g/mole) = 78.2/32 moles

Since 1 mole of oxygen produces 2 moles of copper oxide, the number of moles of copper oxide generated are:

(78.2/32)  x 2 moles = 4.89 moles of copper oxide.

Hope this helps. 

How did Polyneices die in Antigone?

Antigone is the third installment in Sophocles' trilogy about the disastrous fate which torments the royal house of the Greek city-state of Thebes. The first two stories mainly concern Oedipus, who kills his father and marries his own mother (hence, the "Oedipus complex" in Freudian psychology). Eventually, Oedipus, who has four children, two sons and two daughters, is exiled from Thebes while his brother-in-law, Creon, rules as king. Oedipus's two sons soon clash over who will assume their father's throne. Creon sides with Eteocles and Polyneices is forced into exile where he raises an army and attempts to invade Thebes. At one of the gates of city, the brothers meet and wind up killing each other. As Antigone opens, it is the day after the battle and Eteocles has been buried with full military honors, but Polyneices has been deemed an enemy of the state and left unburied. This was a very harsh sentence to the Greeks because their religious laws required the performance of certain burial rites. If a body was left to decay in the open, then its soul would never be at rest. The play concerns itself with the clash between Antigone, one of Polyneices's sisters, and Creon over the burial of the brother.

How did immigrants impact the United States in the 1920s?

Immigrants in the 1920s affected the United States in two main ways.  One of these impacts was economic while the other was political/social.

As in other time periods of history, the immigrants who had arrived in the US in the late 1800s and early 1900s helped the American economy.  This was a boom time for the US economy.  The country was industrializing rapidly and there were many jobs to be had in factories of various sorts.  Immigrants helped the economy grow by providing a large pool of cheap labor.  This allowed factories to produce goods at relatively low prices, which allowed more Americans to buy those goods and enjoy a higher standard of living.

However, while the immigrants helped the economy, they also brought some amount of political and social strife.  Part of this was because many Americans thought that this wave of immigrants was different from regular Americans.  These immigrants came mainly from Southern and Eastern Europe.  They were largely Catholic or Jewish.  Their ethnicity and their religion set them apart in the eyes of many Americans, making them seem like they were too different to ever become true Americans.  In addition, some of these immigrants held radical political beliefs.  This was a time when socialism, communism, and anarchism all had many believers around the world.  The Soviet Union had just been formed, becoming the world’s first communist country.  Anarchists were carrying out terrorist attacks in Europe and even in the US.  Because some of the immigrants held these beliefs, many Americans did not trust them.  The presence of the immigrants led to nativism, which expressed itself in such ways as the National Origins Act of 1924 and the rise of the KKK in this decade.

Thus, while immigrants contributed to the American economy in the 1920s, they also brought about political and social conflict both because of the political beliefs that some of them held and because of ethnic and religious prejudice on the part of “native” Americans.

What is an anaphora and how is it used in Whitman's "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry"?

There are actually quite a few examples of anaphora in the poem. Let's take a look at one:

Others will enter the gates of the ferry, and cross from shore to shore; Others will watch the run of the flood-tide; Others will see the shipping of Manhattan north and west, and the heights of Brooklyn to the south and east; Others will see the islands large and small;

In poetry, Anaphora is the repetition of initial words or phrases in subsequent sentences. The passage above illustrates the use of anaphora because the word 'others' is repeated in every succeeding line. The repetition of 'others' lends an interesting rhythm to the stanza and illustrates the narrator's awareness of the ties that bind him to his fellow man, past and present. He is cognizant of the fact that his ties to the greater web of humanity are predicated on the certainty that everyone shares an intrinsic experience universal to all.

The others that are to follow me, the ties between me and them; The certainty of others—the life, love, sight, hearing of others.

Another example of anaphora in this poem would be:

Just as you feel when you look on the river and sky, so I felt; Just as any of you is one of a living crowd, I was one of a crowd; Just as you are refresh’d by the gladness of the river and the bright flow, I was refresh’d; Just as you stand and lean on the rail, yet hurry with the swift current, I stood, yet was hurried; Just as you look on the numberless masts of ships, and the thick-stem’d pipes of steamboats, I look’d.

The above is an example of anaphora because the word 'just' is repeated at the beginning of successive lines. Again, the repetition lends a rhythm to the stanza, mimicking the continuing march of humanity throughout all of history. By using the literary device of anaphora, the narrator is once more emphasizing his shared experience with his fellow travelers.

Look’d at the fine centrifugal spokes of light around the shape of my head in the sun-lit water, Look’d on the haze on the hills southward and southwestward, Look’d on the vapor as it flew in fleeces tinged with violet, Look’d toward the lower bay to notice the arriving ships,

Saw their approach, saw aboard those that were near me, Saw the white sails of schooners and sloops—saw the ships at anchor,

The sailors at work in the rigging, or out astride the spars, The round masts, the swinging motion of the hulls, the slender serpentine pennants, The large and small steamers in motion, the pilots in their pilot-houses, The white wake left by the passage, the quick tremulous whirl of the wheels, The flags of all nations, the falling of them at sun-set, The scallop-edged waves in the twilight, the ladled cups, the frolicsome crests and glistening, The stretch afar growing dimmer and dimmer, the gray walls of the granite store-houses by the docks, 

Above, the successive repetition of the words 'saw,' 'look'd,' and 'the' demonstrate the use of anaphora. Every 'the,' 'saw,' and 'look'd' precedes the description of some minute detail in the narrator's birds-eye view of the skyline. The poet once again uses the literary device of anaphora to emphasize the narrator's connection with all of humanity. Shared experiences and shared emotions across time underline the commonality universal to the human race.

In Summer of the Seventeenth Doll by Ray Lawler, what is the third quality that Barney says a woman must have to appreciate a man like him?

Since Pearl does ask about the third quality, but Barney does not say what it is, readers are at pains to understand what that quality is and must infer from the text and context what it might be. Considering what we learn in the fight scene between Roo and Barney, preceding the conversation between Barney and Pearl, one reasonable inference is that the unspoken third quality is deep love for him. Then, considering what we learn in a later scene between Roo and Emma, one reasonable inference is that the quality is shrewdness: being shrewd enough to see the reality of life and of true unity (marriage). Putting both inferences together, we might say that the quality is that of choosing real life over illusion, even the illusion of sixteen years of summer love. Pearl wouldn't like this answer because she has her own illusions that she clings to.   

Examining these scenes in some depth, the fight between Roo and Barney, ending Act II and preceding Pearl's Act III departure, offers some insight into Barney's perception of what that third quality is (the first two qualities are given haltingly at the end of Act I). From what we learn through their fight, it is clear that Barney loves Nancy because of the rage he goes into when Roo brings Nancy into his verbal assault on Barney. Barney is humiliated, though feebly attempting to defend himself all the while that Roo grapples him and roughly restrains his arm, pushes him to the floor, drags him back to his feet, then shakes him. Even after Barney tears himself free, "'S enough, Roo," he still is not in the same rage that has overcome Roo. It is only when Roo taunts Barney with his loss of Nancy that Barney is overcome with rage and strikes back:

ROO: And Nancy--after seventeen years, you couldn't even hold Nancy.
BARNEY: You rotten--your dirty rotten--
[Angry beyond measure, BARNEY seizes the nearest heavy object to hand. ... BARNEY swings this at ROO's head.]

To Barney, Nancy is not like any other woman he has taken up with. She is one of a kind in his mind. This, of course, is painfully ironic--and the probable source of Barney's loss of virility catalogued so loudly and hatefully by Roo--since Nancy's marriage leaves Barney on his own during the seventeenth magical, youthful lay-off season. When Pearl asks Barney about the other quality, he says it is "far too late" for her to be asking, that she "wouldn't like" the answer if told, and that he'd only "met one woman in [his] life who ever had" it. Barney's implication is clear to Pearl and to us: that woman is Nancy.

BARNEY: Only met one woman in my life who ever had it, anyway.
PEARL: Her?
BARNEY: Her. And she went off and got herself married months ago.

When Roo and Emma later talk about Nancy--providing background to the foursome relationship--Emma says that Nancy is shrewd, shrewd enough to "buy and sell Olive any day." Responding to Roo's question about whose fault it was that the seasons of fun were messed up and came to a "cropper," Emma says the "lay-off seasons" were "just--seasons" and "not for keeps"; the four of them had "gone as far as" they could go with their summer lay-offs (remember that in the Southern Hemisphere summer months come at the end and beginning of calendar years, roughly November through February: "New Year's Eve. A hot velvety summer night.").

This conversation suggests that the third quality is the shrewdness Nancy has: being shrewd enough to see the reality of life, she is shrewd enough to choose love of real life over love of one "lay-off season" cane cutter. Both inferences produce the one idea that the quality is being able to love deeply yet choose reality over illusion; being able to see when something "not for keeps" has gone as far as it can go.

In Their Eyes Were Watching God, what impact do Janie's three marriages have on her?

In Their Eyes Were Watching God, Janie's three marriages shape, to a certain degree, Janie's individual identity and sense of self.  Janie does not have a choice in marrying Logan Killicks--her grandmother Nanny marries her off to him so that Janie will be secure.  Before getting married, Janie feels that love offers a sense of freedom, and she longs for this feeling.  However, she soon learns that a marriage cannot make love, and Logan's treating her like "a mule" leads her to run off with Joe Starks.  In her marriage with Joe, Janie feels like she has found love in the beginning, but soon Joe begins treating her like a piece of property as evidenced by him making her tie up her hair.  Janie is not free to speak her mind in the store, nor can she dress in a manner that reflects her identity.  Janie feels like she loses a sense of herself in her second marriage, and when Joe dies, Janie feels like she has been set free.  Janie resolves to find someone who will celebrate her independent spirit, and when she meets her third husband Tea Cake, he does just that.  So, by the end of the novel, Janie has learned through her three marriages that her independent spirit is valuable.

Convert 48 grams of oxygen to liters at STP.

At STP (standard temperature and pressure), an ideal gas occupies 22.4 liters per mole. 

Here we have 48 g of oxygen gas or O2, each molecule of which consists of two atoms of the oxygen element.

Since oxygen (O) has an atomic mass of 16 g, oxygen gas (O2) has a molecular mass of 2 x 16 = 32 g. 

We need to convert the given amount of oxygen gas to moles and this can be done by dividing the given mass by the molecular weight of oxygen gas.

Hence, moles of oxygen gas = 48 g / 32 g/mole = 1.5 moles.

Since each mole occupies 22.4 liters at STP conditions, 1.5 moles of oxygen gas will occupy 1.5 x 22.4 = 33.6 liters.

Thus, at STP, 48 g oxygen will occupy 33.6 liters.

Hope this helps.

Which of the following would increase the rate of dissolution of a solid in a solution?a. cool only the solidb. cool the solid and the solution...

Dissolution occurs when a solute dissolves in a solvent. The rate of dissolution is a measure of how fast a solute dissolves in a solvent.

Factors that affect the rate of dissolution of a solid solute include:

• 
  Particle size: If the solute is broken into smaller pieces, more of the surface area of the solute is exposed to the solvent. This increases the rate of dissolution.

• 
  Temperature: Increasing the temperature increases the movement of solute and solvent particles. This increases the rate of dissolution.

• 
  Stirring: Stirring the solute and solvent creates more contact between the solute and the solvent particles. This increases the rate of dissolution.

Answers a and b are incorrect because cooling the solid or solution would slow the movement of the particles and cause them to be less likely to interact.

Answer c is incorrect because if the solvent were dried up, there would be nothing for the solute to dissolve in.

Answer d is correct. Stirring the solid and the solution would increase the rate of dissolution by making it more likely that the solid particles would come in contact with the solvent particles.

What is the slave revolt in morality? Why does Nietzsche disapprove of this development?

In Nietzsche's conception, during the Jewish slave revolt in morality, the Jews turned against the idea that only aristocrats were good and instead believed that the powerless were associated with the idea of goodness. Nietzsche describes their ideas as, "Only those who suffer are good, only the poor, the powerless, the lowly are good; the suffering, the deprived, the sick, the ugly, are the only pious people, the only ones saved, salvation is for them alone" (page 17). This is the idea of what he calls ressentiment, or resentment--that the meek shall inherit the earth and that those who suffer and are poor will be saved. The aristocrat and the rich came to be associated with evil and cruelty. Therefore, they were believed to be damned. 

Nietzsche writes that the slave revolt resulted in the Christian idea of the gospel of love, but he warns that this love "grew out of the hatred" (page 18). He asks, "Did Israel not reach the pinnacle of her sublime vengefulness via this very ‘redeemer?'" (page 18). In other words, this form of love, practiced in the Judeo-Christian tradition, was in fact a form of revenge against those it deemed evil.

In addition, he traces the idea of nihilism, or belief in nothing, to the slave revolt. He writes:

"Right here is where the destiny of Europe lies – in losing our fear of man we have also lost our love for him, our respect for him, our hope in him and even our will to be man. The sight of man now makes us tired – what is nihilism today if it is not that?. . . We are tired of man . . ." (page 25).

He believes that the promise of the afterlife has made modern people so indifferent of their present-day happiness that they have slipped into a state of nihilism and a way of life that is dull and uninspiring. He traces this sense of nihilism back to the slave revolt in morality. 

What does the conch represent in the novel Lord of the Flies?

The conch symbolically represents democracy, structure, and civility throughout the novel Lord of the Flies. At the beginning of the story, Ralph and Piggy discover the conch shell on the beach, and Ralph uses it to call the other boys on the island together. Throughout the novel, Ralph blows the conch to get the boys' attention and adds structure to the assemblies by creating the rule that one must hold the conch in order to address the group during their meetings. In order to avoid confusion, nobody is allowed to talk unless they are holding the shell at the assemblies. Each boy on the island, including the littluns, has an opportunity to speak during the assemblies which is how the conch shell becomes a symbol of democracy. As the novel progresses, the boys gradually descend into savagery and the conch shell loses its power. While Ralph and Piggy remain proponents for civility and protect the conch, Jack and his followers dismiss the conch which represents their contempt for structure and order. When Piggy is murdered, the conch shell breaks. The broken conch symbolizes the utter chaos and barbarism on the island.

In Act 1 of Antony and Cleopatra, Cleopatra is “cunning past man’s thought,” but Antony is aware and engages in many a battle of wills with...

In the first scene, Antony and Cleopatra are arguing about Antony’s loyalties.  Is Antony loyal to her, or to Rome?  Antony is having an affair with Cleopatra, but he is married to Fulvia.  He is supposed to be loyal to Caesar, but he has been staying in Egypt and does not want to return to Rome.  Antony makes light of the arguing and doesn’t want to hear the messengers from Rome, whom Cleopatra has urged him to hear.  She feels like he is shirking his responsibilities.

MARK ANTONY

Fie, wrangling queen!
Whom every thing becomes, to chide, to laugh,
To weep; whose every passion fully strives
To make itself, in thee, fair and admired!
No messenger, but thine; and all alone
To-night we'll wander through the streets and note
The qualities of people. (Act 1, Scene 1) 

In this scene, Cleopatra seems to know the score.  She asks why Antony would “marry Fulvia, and not love her.”  She tries to get Antony to listen to the messengers from Caesar.  She is aware that while Antony has been playing in Egypt, Caesar has been gaining power and influence.  He can’t run away from his responsibilities forever.

Cleopatra is aware of the precarious position they are in.  If we are declaring winners, Cleopatra won the first scene because the next scene has Antony finally listening to what the messenger has to say, and finding out that his wife Fulvia made a move against Caesar.  She is dead.  Antony is being called to Rome, something he finds difficult.  He describes how he must break his “strong Egyptian fetters.”

In the next scene, Cleopatra argues with Charmian about the best way to handle Antony.

CHARMIAN

Madam, methinks, if you did love him dearly,
You do not hold the method to enforce
The like from him.

CLEOPATRA

What should I do, I do not?

CHARMIAN

In each thing give him way, cross him nothing.

CLEOPATRA

Thou teachest like a fool; the way to lose him. (Act 1, Scene 3) 

Cleopatra knows that Antony wants a strong woman.  He likes Cleopatra for who she is.  She is not just beautiful, she gives as good as she gets in battle.

The argument that ensues between them is expected at this point.  Antony barely gets a word in edgewise in this argument.  It is driven by Cleopatra.  Cleopatra’s reaction to Antony’s wife’s death is complicated.  On the one hand, she sees in his reaction to Fulvia’s death his reaction to her death.  She is evaluating it.  On the other hand, she is glad he is unattached.  However, he has to go back to Rome because of the trouble Fulvia caused, which Antony is being blamed for.  He tries to explain this to her.

When Antony is away, Cleopatra frets.  The way she maintains control over him is with her feminine wiles.  She worries that he will go to Rome and never come back.  This is why she sends messengers to see how he is doing.  She wants to know every detail.  She also comments, though, that she loves Antony and it is not just about maintaining her power.

CLEOPATRA

Who's born that day
When I forget to send to Antony,
Shall die a beggar. Ink and paper, Charmian.
Welcome, my good Alexas. Did I, Charmian,
Ever love Caesar so? (Act 1, Scene 5)

By comparing Antony to Julius Caesar, Cleopatra is making a distinction between the two relationships for the audience.  She loves Antony, and it is not just about getting or maintaining her own power.  Antony, on the other hand, is diminishing in power.  This is why he had to run off to Rome when (Octavius) Caesar demanded it.  Cleopatra is worried about what is next for them.

In The Great Gatsby, Nick leaves New York and heads back west in disgust. Jaded by his experiences with Gatsby, the Buchanans, Jordan Baker, etc.,...

I think Nick will remain cynical when he returns home to the Midwest.  After all, he left the Midwest because he'd already become rather disillusioned with it.  In Chapter I, Nick says that he came back from the war "restless" and with a sense that

"Instead of being the warm center of the world, the Middle West now seemed like the ragged edge of the universe [...]." 

Therefore, it seems unlikely that Nick would be satisfied moving back to the place that he wasn't happy in before.  Before, he was cynical about the place, and now he's cynical about people, so it doesn't seem like there's much possibility that Nick would feel any better about anything when he gets back home.  By the end of the story, Nick understands that there is little to be optimistic about.  He says,

"Gatsby believed in the green light, the orgastic future that year by year recedes before us.  It eluded us then, but that's no matter -- to-morrow we will run faster, stretch out our arms farther . . . . And one fine morning--."  

Nick now understands that this fine morning will never come. The dream in which Gatsby believed is only a dream and will never be reality.

What are parasitic diseases?

Types of Parasites

Parasites are organisms that take up residence, temporarily or permanently, on or within other living organisms for the purpose of procuring food. They include plants such as bacteria and fungi; animals such as protozoa, helminths (worms), and arthropods; and forms such as spirochetes and microscopic viruses.

The study of parasitism is a study of
symbiosis. Symbiosis occurs when two organisms, known as symbionts, live in close association with each other, usually with one organism living in or on the body of the other. Such a living arrangement is called a symbiotic relationship. In a symbiotic relationship, the symbionts are usually, but not always, of different species, and the relationship need not be beneficial or damaging to either organism.

Often, two symbionts will exist together merely as traveling companions. Such a symbiotic relationship is called phoresis. In such cases, neither partner is physiologically dependent on the other, but the smaller of the two organisms has simply attached itself for the ride. Examples of phoresis are bacteria carried on the legs of a cockroach and fungus spores on the feet of ants and beetles.

If a situation exists in which both symbionts benefit from an association, the partnership is referred to as a mutual relationship. In most cases, mutualism is obligatory because both symbionts have evolved to a point at which they are physiologically dependent on each other and the survival of both symbionts requires a continuous interrelationship. Such a relationship exists between termites and the protozoan fauna that live in their guts. Termites are unable to digest cellulose fibers, because their bodies cannot produce the proper enzyme, but protozoa that live in a termite’s gut synthesize the ingested cellulose fibers and excrete a fermented product that nourishes the host termite. The protozoa benefit by living in a stable, secure environment, with a constant supply of food, and the termite is supplied with sustenance.

Another form of mutualism that is not obligatory is called cleaning symbiosis. In this instance, certain animals, called cleaners, remove other parasites, injured tissues, fungi, or invading organisms from a cooperating host. Examples of cleaning relationships include birds that groom the skins of rhinoceroses and the mouths of crocodiles, and tiny shrimp that remove parasites from the body surfaces of fish.

When one symbiont benefits from its relationship with its host but the host neither benefits nor is harmed, the condition is called commensalism. Examples of commensals are pilot fish and remoras, which attach themselves to turtles or other fish, using their hosts as transportation and scavenging food left over when the hosts eat; in no way, however, do they harm their hosts or rob them of food. Another example of commensalism exists between humans and the amoeba Entamoeba gingivalis. This amoeba lives in the human mouth, feeding on bacteria, food particles, and dead epithelial cells, but it never harms its human host. The amoeba is transmitted from person to person by direct contact and cannot exist outside the human mouth.

When one member of a symbiotic relationship actually harms its host or in some way lives at the expense of the host, it is then a parasite. The word parasite is derived from the Greek parasitos, which means “one who eats at another’s table” or “one who lives at another’s expense.” A parasite may harm its host by causing a mechanical injury, such as boring a hole into it; by eating, digesting, or absorbing portions of the host’s tissue; by poisoning the host with toxic metabolic products; or by robbing the host of nutrition. It has been found that most parasites inflict a combination of these conditions.

The majority of parasites are obligate parasites—that is, they must spend at least a portion of their lives as parasites to survive and complete their life cycles. Most of these obligate parasites have free-living stages outside their hosts in which they exist in protective cysts or eggs. Certain symbionts are referred to as facultative parasites, which means that the organism is not normally parasitic, but if the proper situation arises, it becomes a parasite. The most common facultative parasites are those that are accidentally eaten or enter a host through a wound or body orifice. One facultative parasite whose infection of humans is almost always fatal is the amoeba Naegleria, which is responsible for amebic meningitis. Many obligate parasites are also hyperparasites. Hyperparasitism exists when parasites play host to other parasites; for example, the malaria-causing parasite Plasmodia is carried in mosquitoes, and juvenile tapeworms live in fleas.

Parasites that live their entire adult lives within or on their hosts are called permanent parasites. Other parasites, such as mosquitoes and ticks, are called temporary parasites because they feed on their hosts and then leave. Temporary parasites are actually micropredators that prey on different hosts, or on the same host at different times, as the need for nourishment arises. There are many parallels between parasitism and predation in that both parasites and predators live at the expense of their hosts or prey. Parasites, however, do not normally kill their hosts, because to do so results in their own death. It is the mark of a well-adapted parasite to produce as few pathological conditions in the host as possible.

Despite the knowledge that parasites are a major cause of disease, it is wrong to assume that an animal hosting a parasite must ultimately be in danger. The healthiest human or wild animal is probably harboring some type of parasite, and while the host and parasite may live for years without interfering in each other’s existence, at any given time, the healthy host can fall victim to a disease brought on by the parasite, or some change in the host may destroy the parasite.

Whether the host reacts to its symbiotic partner with indifference, annoyance, or illness is the result of many factors. The most important is how many parasites are being hosted. A single hookworm takes approximately 0.5 milliliter of blood per day from its host. This is about the same amount of blood lost when one pricks oneself with a needle. This amount of blood loss is so low that the host will never miss it and, in most instances, will not even know that the parasite is there. If a host harbors five hundred
hookworms, however, the blood loss per day becomes 250 milliliters, approximately one half pint, and the result is physically devastating to the host.

Causes and Symptoms

Medical parasitology is the study of human diseases caused by parasitic infection. It is commonly limited to the study of parasitic worms (helminths) and protozoa. The science places nonprotozoan parasites in separate disciplines, such as virology, rickettsiology, and bacteriology. The branches of parasitology known as medical entomology and medical arthropodology deal with insects and noninsect arthropods that serve as hosts and transport agents for parasites, as well as with the noxious effects of these pests. The study of fungi (molds and yeasts), including those that cause human disease, is called mycology.

Throughout history, human welfare has suffered greatly because of parasites. Fleas and bacteria killed one-third of the human population of Europe during the seventeenth century, and malaria, schistosomiasis, and African sleeping sickness have killed additional countless millions. Despite successful medical campaigns against yellow fever, malaria, and hookworm infections worldwide, parasitic diseases in combination with nutritional deficiencies are the primary killers of humans. Medical research suggests that parasitic infections are so widespread that if all the known varieties were evenly distributed among the human population, each living person would have at least one.

Most serious parasitic infections occur in tropical, less modernized regions of the world, and because most of the planet’s industrially developed and affluent populations live in temperate regions, many people are unaware of the magnitude of the problem. On an annual basis, 60 million deaths occur worldwide from all causes; of these deaths, half are children under five years of age. Fifty percent of these, 15 million child deaths per year, are directly attributable to a combination of malnutrition and intestinal parasitic infection. It must be noted that less than 15 percent of the world’s present population is served by adequate clean water supplies and sewage disposal programs, and that almost all intestinal parasitic infections are the result of ingesting food or water contaminated with human feces.

The transmission of parasitic diseases involves three factors: the source of the infection, the mode of transmission, and the presence of a susceptible host. The combined effect of these factors determines the dispersibility and prevalence of a parasite at a given time and place, thus regulating the incidence of a parasitic disease in a population. Because of host specificity, other humans are the chief source of most human parasitic diseases. The various manifestations of any human parasitic disease are a result of the particular species of parasite involved, its mode of transport, the immunological status of the host, the presence or absence of hosts, and the pattern of exposure.

Humans transmit parasitic diseases to one another through the intestinal tract, nose and mouth, skin and tissue, genitourinary tract, and blood. It is fecal discharge, however, that offers the most convenient and common means for a parasite or its ova and larvae to leave its host, since the majority of parasites inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. For this reason, the proper disposal of fecal material is the most important method of preventing the spread of parasitic disease. Since most parasites inhabit the intestinal tract, food and water are also important means of transmitting parasitic infections. The infective organism may be present in contaminated drinking water, in animal and fish flesh used as food, in human feces used as fertilizer, or on the hands of food handlers.

Arthropods are one of the main sources of parasitic diseases in humans. Arthropods act as both mechanical carriers of and intermediate hosts to many diseases—bacterial, viral, rickettsial, and parasitic—which they transmit to humans. In most tropical countries, basic preventive medicine for many devastating parasitic diseases depends on the control or eradication of insects and arachnids.

There are four major groups of parasites that most often invade human hosts: nematodes, trematodes, cestodes, and protozoa. Most nematodes, or roundworms, are free-living, and nematodes are found in almost every terrestrial and aquatic environment. Most are harmless to humans, but some parasitic nematodes invade the human intestinal tract and cause widespread debilitating diseases. The most prevalent intestinal nematodes are Ascaris lumbricoides, which infect the small intestine and affects more than a billion people; the whipworm Trichuris trichiura, which infects the colon and is carried by an estimated 500 million individuals; the human hookworms Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale, which suck blood from the human small intestine and cause major debilitation among undernourished people; and Enterobius vermicularis, the human
pinworm, which infects the large intestine and is common among millions of urban dwellers because it is easily transmitted from perianal tissue to hand to mouth.

Nonintestinal, tissue-infecting nematodes are spread most often by hyperparasitic bloodsucking insects such as mosquitoes, biting flies, and midges. The most common tissue-infecting nematode is Trichinella spiralis, the pork or trichina worm, which is the agent of
trichinosis. Other important parasitic nematodes include Onchocerca volvulus, which is transmitted by blackflies in tropical regions and causes blindness, and the mosquito-transmitted filarial worms that are responsible for
elephantiasis.

Trematodes, or
flatworms, are commonly called flukes. Flukes vary greatly in size, form, and host living location, but all of them initially develop in freshwater snails. The human intestinal fluke, the oriental liver fluke, and the human lung fluke are all transmitted to humans by the ingestion of raw or undercooked aquatic vegetables, fish, or crustaceans. An important group of trematodes consists of the blood flukes of the genus
Schistosoma, which enter the body through skin/water contact and are responsible for schistosomiasis.

Cestodes, commonly called tapeworms, are parasitic flatworms that parasitize almost all vertebrates, and as many as eight species are found in humans. The two most common cestodes–Taenia saginata, the beef tapeworm, and Taenia solium, the pork tapeworm—are transmitted to humans by infected beef or pork products obtained from livestock that grazed in fields contaminated by human feces, or by contaminated water. The resulting disease, cysticercosis, which is potentially lethal, develops mostly in the brain, eye, and muscle tissue. Another animal-transmitted cestode is the dog tapeworm, Echinococcus granulosus, which dogs ingest by eating contaminated sheep viscera and then pass on to humans, who ingest the parasite’s eggs after petting or handling an infected dog. The human infestation of E. granulosus results in hydatid disease. Probably the most dramatic of the cestode parasites is the gigantic tapeworm
Diphyllobothrium latum, which may
reach a length of 10 meters and a width of 2 centimeters. This tapeworm is transmitted to humans by the ingestion of raw or undercooked fish. This tapeworm, like most cestodes, can be effectively treated and killed by drugs, but if the worm merely breaks, leaving the head and anterior segments attached, it can regenerate its original body length in less than four months.

Protozoa that can infect human hosts are found in the intestinal tract, various tissues and organs, and the bloodstream. Of the many varieties of protozoa that can live in the human intestinal tract, only Entamoeba histolytica causes serious disease. This parasite, which is ingested in water contaminated by human feces, is responsible for the disease amebiasis, also known as amebic dysentery. A less serious, though common, waterborne intestinal protozoan is Giardia lamblia, which causes
giardiasis, a common diarrheal infection among campers who ingest water fouled by animal waste.

Another group of protozoa parasites specializes in infecting the human skin, bloodstream, brain, and viscera. Trypanosoma brucei, carried by the African tsetse fly, causes the blood disease trypanosomiasis (African sleeping sickness). In Latin America, infection by the protozoa Trypanosoma cruzi results when the liquid feces of the reduviid bug is rubbed or scratched into the skin; it causes
Chagas disease, which produces often fatal lesions of the heart and brain. Members of the protozoan genus Leishmania are transmitted by midges and sandflies, and their parasitic infestation manifests in long-lasting dermal lesions and ulcers; the destruction of nasal mucous, cartilage, and pharyngeal tissues; or in the disease kala-azar, resulting in the destruction of bone marrow, lymph nodes, and liver and spleen tissue.

Two other types of protozoa are parasitic to humans. The first is the ciliate protozoa, which are mostly free-living, and of which only a single species, Balantidium coli, is parasitic in humans. This species is responsible for balantidiasis, an ulcerative disease. The second is the sporozoans, all of which are parasitic. Many species of sporozoans are harmful to humans, the most important being Plasmodium, the agent of malaria. The sporozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, the agent of
toxoplasmosis, is responsible for encephalomyelitis and chorioretinitis in infants and children and is thought to infect as much as 20 percent of the world’s population. Pneumocystis
pneumonia, a major cause of death among persons with Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), was formerly considered a result of sporozoan infection but is now thought to be fungal.

Perspective and Prospects

Because of their size, the large parasitic worms were among the first parasites to be noted and studied as possible causes of disease. The Ebers papyrus, written about 1600 BCE, contains some of the earliest records of the presence of parasitic worms in humans. In early Egypt, trichinosis, cysticercosis, and salmonellosis were all likely to be acquired from pigs. This knowledge is reflected in the law of Moses, later reinforced in the Qur'an, which forbids the eating of “unclean swine” or the touching of their dead carcasses—a clear indication that people knew of the relationship between parasitic worms and human disease. Persian, Greek, and Roman physicians were also familiar with various parasitic worms, and many of their early medical writings describe the removal of worm-induced cysts. The Arabic physician and philosopher Avicenna (979–1037 CE) was the first to separate parasitic worms into classifications: long, small, flat, and round.

The modern study of parasites began in 1379 with the discovery of the liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, in sheep. During the eighteenth century, many parasitic worms and arthropods were described, but progress was slow prior to the invention and widespread use of the microscope. The microscope made possible the study of small protozoan parasites and allowed for detailed anatomic and lifecycle studies of larger parasites.

In 1835, Trichinella spiralis, the parasite responsible for the disease trichinosis, was described, and quickly thereafter knowledge concerning the parasitic worms of humans began to accumulate. Many new species were discovered, prominent among which were the hookworm and the blood fluke.

Between 1836 and 1901, the first protozoan parasites of humans were recognized and described; among the most important of these were the parasites responsible for giardiasis, gingivitis, vaginitis, trichomoniasis, kala-azar, and Gambian trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).

Although arthropods had been recognized as parasites since early times, their role in transporting other parasites and in spreading disease was not noted until 1869, when the larval stages of the dog tapeworm were found in the dog louse. Further investigations led to the identification in 1893 of ticks as the transmitting agents of Texas fever in cattle. By 1909, parasitologists had observed the development of the malarial parasite in mosquitoes, had proved the transmission of yellow fever by the mosquito Aedes aegypti, and had linked the tsetse fly to African sleeping sickness, the tick to African relapsing fever, the reduviid bug to Chagas disease, and the body louse to the transmission of typhoid fever.Human Experience: Philosophy, Neurosis, and Elements of Everyday Life

In 2013 the American Academy of Neurology (ANN) published new guidelines for the treatment of neurocysticerosis, a tapeworm infection of the brain that can trigger epileptic seizures. The AAN, concerned with what appears to be an increase in the incidence of the disease, based their recommendations on a review of ten studies published between 1980 and 2010. An estimated 40,000 to 160,000 cases of neurocysticerosis occur annually in the United States

Bibliography

Despommier, Dickson D., et al. Parasitic Diseases. 5th ed. New York: Apple Tree, 2006.

Frank, Steven A. Immunology and Evolution of Infectious Disease. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002.

Gittleman, Ann Louise. Guess What Came to Dinner? Parasites and Your Health. Rev. ed. New York: Putnam, 2001.

HealthDay. "Tapeworm-Linked Seizures May Be Rising in US, Doctors Say." MedlinePlus, April 8, 2013.

Klein, Aaron E. The Parasites We Humans Harbor. New York: Nelson Books/Elsevier, 1981.

MedlinePlus. "Parasitic Diseases." MedlinePlus, May 21, 2013.

Roberts, Larry S., and John Janovy, Jr., eds. Gerald D. Schmidt and Larry S. Roberts’ Foundations of Parasitology. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2013.

Wilson, Brenda A., Abigail A. Salyers, et al. Bacterial Pathogenesis: A Molecular Approach. 3d ed. Washington, D.C.: ASM Press, 2011.

How does Saki provide imagery in the story "The Open Window"?

Most of the imagery Saki provides in "The Open Window" is in straight prose description. There are three especially striking images in the story. The description of the first two is understood to be from Framton Nuttel's point of view. These first two follow from Mrs. Sappleton's announcement that she sees the three hunters returning towards the open window. Nuttel turns to look at Vera to show he understands that her poor aunt is having an hallucination. But he is shocked to see Vera putting on an act for his benefit:

The child was staring out through the open window with a dazed horror in her eyes.

He immediately turns to look in the same direction, and:

In the deepening twilight three figures were walking across the lawn towards the window, they all carried guns under their arms, and one of them was additionally burdened with a white coat hung over his shoulders. A tired brown spaniel kept close at their heels.

This is the image that Vera has set Nuttel up to react to with terror. We can imagine how spooky it would look to see the three men in "the deepening twilight" and all carrying guns. These two images--Vera's "dazed horror" and the three hunters--lead to Framton's flight, which is understood to be seen from the omniscient narrator's point of view.

Framton grabbed wildly at his stick and hat; the hall door, the gravel drive, and the front gate were dimly noted stages in his headlong retreat. A cyclist coming along the road had to run into the hedge to avoid imminent collision.

How and why does Robert Louis Stevenson explore the duality of human nature in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde?

Stevenson explores the duality of human nature, meaning that we have the capacity for both good and evil, by presenting Dr. Jekyll, a man who has struggled in vain with the darker side of himself that he wishes to suppress or eliminate. Unable to conquer it through the force of his own willpower, Dr. Jekyll has determined to try to separate his less scrupulous side out so that it can be eliminated and he will feel no longer feel a compulsion to do the immoral things it has previously driven him to do. Tellingly, however, the evil side of Dr. Jekyll proves to be more powerful than the good side, and it becomes impossible for him to control it.

Dr. Jekyll tries to look for an easy way out: he doesn't want to struggle with his baser impulses, he just wants them to disappear altogether. Stevenson seems to be making a statement about the necessity of the struggle and the terrible things that can happen when we feel the need to hide this part of ourselves. The incredible repression of this era, sexual and otherwise, only forces people to find new ways to gratify their less acceptable desires. It is better, perhaps, to accept that our baser natures are as necessary to us as human beings as our better natures are.

How do cells derive energy from the food we eat?

The food that we eat is broken down into simpler chemicals and the cells end up with glucose molecules. They use these glucose molecules to generate energy through a process known as cellular respiration. Chemically this process can be represented by the following equation:

`C_6H_12O_6 + 6O_2 -> 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + ATP`

In this process, each mole of glucose reacts with 6 moles of oxygen and generates 6 moles of carbon dioxide, 6 moles of water and (most importantly) ATP molecules. These ATP or adenosine triphosphate molecules are the energy of the cell.

The breakdown of glucose can be done both aerobically (in the presence of oxygen) as well as anaerobically (in the absence of oxygen). However, a much higher quantity of ATP molecules is generated when the reaction takes place in the presence of oxygen as compared to its absence.

Hope this helps. 

What are Escherichia?

Definition

Escherichia are gram-negative, facultative anaerobic
bacteria that ferment lactose and other sugars.
Escherichia is found in humans and animals, and some
Escherichia species can cause mild to serious infections.

Natural Habitat and Features

Escherichia is found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals, particularly cattle and humans. They are also found in soil, sand, and water.
E. coli
has been found in some marine animals. Different species are identified by their similarities to
Shigella
,
Salmonella
, and
Klebsiella
(O), motility by flagella (H), capsular antigens (K), and enterotoxin strains (CFAII, CRAIII). They are also differentiated by the sugars they do or do not ferment, by whether or not they produce toxins, and by how their disease mechanisms work to cause illness. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequencing of E. coli has been extensive, and several subtypes of the species have been identified.

Microscopically, Escherichia appear as straight rods either nonmotile or motile with flagella. E. coli can be grown in a nutrient-rich Luria or Lennox broth at a temperature of 37° Fahrenheit (2.8° Celsius) or higher for twenty-four hours. A cloudy, fecal-smelling mix will result, which can be plated on clear agar; this will produce visible white colonies. Clinically, tests for Escherichia infections are cultured on a sorbital-MacConkey medium with a typing antiserum to check for the appearance of gram-negative rods. DNA analysis using the polymerase chain reaction method is also used to differentiate Escherichia species.

Pathogenicity and Clinical Significance

There are six main strains of E. coli, for example, that
attack the human gut, each strain with distinct qualities. Enterohemorrhagic
E. coli (EHEC) includes the most lethal strain of E.
coli (that is, strain 0157:17), which produces a Shiga-toxin. EHEC is
extremely virulent and can cause hemolytic-uremic syndrome in children and
postdiarrheal thrombotic purpura in the elderly. Infantile diarrhea in developing
countries can be caused by, primarily, three main species of E.
coli: enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enterotogenic
E. coli (ETAC), and enteroaggregative E. coli
(EAEC). ETEC is a major cause of travelers’ diarrhea. Enteroinvasive
E. coli (EIEC), also seen in developing countries, causes a
type of mucus-filled diarrhea called bacillary dysentery.

Uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) causes 90 percent of all
urinary tract
infections. Women are fourteen times more likely than men to
get a UPEC infection. Gram-negative neonatal sepsis or meningitis caused by
cross-contamination of maternal genital E. coli during birth can
develop in neonates.

E. albertii has five strains and has been identified as a cause
of diarrhea in Bangladeshi children. E. albertii is believed to
act like the attaching and effacing gene that is typical of enterpathogenic
E. coli.
E. fergusonii is an emerging pathogen and little is known about
its natural habitat. It has been found in wound infections, urinary tract
infections, diarrhea, and pleural infections. Naturally found in water and soil,
E. hermanii acts as an infectious agent in wounds, sputum, and
stool. E. hermanii is never the primary cause of an infection;
for example, in an infected wound, a culture may show five bacteria present, two
of which might be E. hermanii and C. botulinum.
Treatment will focus on the virulent C. botulinum because the
rest of the bacteria are secondary. Another species of
Escherichia, E. vulneris
(vulneris is Latin for “to wound”) is also found in wounds,
often with other bacteria present.

In 1988, Richard Lenski began long-term evolution experiments using E. coli by directly observing a major evolutionary shift of the organism in the laboratory. He observed one population of E. coli unexpectedly evolve the ability to aerobically metabolize citrate, a capacity that is extremely rare in E. coli. The inability to grow aerobically is normally used as a diagnostic criterion to differentiate E. coli from other, closely related bacteria such as Salmonella.

E. coli has continued to have significant clinical relevance in
the laboratory for biochemists and geneticists and is frequently used as a model
organism in microbiology studies. The ability to use plasmids and restriction
enzymes to create recombinant DNA was instrumental in creating the field of
biotechnology. E. coli is considered to be
one of the most versatile organisms, enabling researchers to facilitate these
procedures. Researchers manipulate the genes of E. coli to change
its nature, leading to the creation of biotech products such as human insulin and
vaccines. Cultivated strains of E. coli such as E.
coli K12, which is used in the laboratory, are no longer pathogenic.

Drug Susceptibility

Antibiotic
resistance is a major issue for all species of
Escherichia; however some infections are still susceptible to
certain kinds of antibiotics. EIEC and ETAC are usually treated with
trimethoprim-sultramethoxazole or flouroquinolones. Urinary tract infections are
treated with a three-day course of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole or a
fluoroquinoline. Treatment for neonatal meningitis and sepsis is antibiotic
therapy with ampicillin and an aminoglycoside, or with an expanded-spectrum
cephalosporin.

E. fergusononii is a multi-drug-resistant pathogen. Both E. hermanii and E. vulneris are more resistant to antibiotics than the majority of community acquired E. coli infections.

Bibliography

Abbott, S. L., et al. “Biochemical Properties of Newly Described Escherichia Species Escherichia albertii.” Journal of Clinical Microbiology 41 (2003): 4852–854. Print.

Ash, Caroline. "The Benefits of Escherichia coli." Science 350.6260 (2015): 524–26. Print.

Bush, Larry M. "Escherichia coli Infections." Merck Manuals Consumer Version. Merck, 2015. Web. 30 Dec. 2015.

Donnenberg, Michael S., ed. Escherichia coli: Pathotypes and Principles of Pathogenesis. 2nd ed. Boston: Academic, 2013. Print.

Pien, F. D., et al. “Colonization of Human Wounds by Escherichia vulneris and Escherichia hermannii.” Journal of Clinical Microbiology 22 (1985): 283–85. Print.

Savini, V., et al. “Multi-drug Resistant Escherichia fergusonii: A Case of Acute Cystitis.” Journal of Clinical Microbiology 46 (2008): 1551-1552.

Snyder, Larry, and Wendy Champness. Molecular Genetics of Bacteria. 4th ed. Washington, DC: ASM, 2013. Print.

Thielman, N. M., et al. “Acute Infectious Diarrhea.” New England Journal of Medicine 350 (2004): 38–47. Print.

Zimmer, C. Microcosm: “E. coli” and the New Science of Life. New York: Pantheon, 2008. Print.

How has this society evolved?

In the short story "Harrison Bergeron," society has "evolved" to make everyone more or less equal to everyone else. Because in the past equality had been so valued, the people in power thought it best to make some changes which would ensure that everybody would be equally represented in society. In this case, they took it to mean that nobody could be considered "better" than anyone else or be given an unfair advantage, even if the culprit were simply being born better-looking, or with a higher intelligence than someone else. In the story, their society thought it best to create a government agency which would be responsible for enforcing these "handicaps." The woman in charge of it is known as the "Handicapper General." 

For example, if a person were considered highly intelligent and capable of advanced thought, they would be handicapped so as to bring them down to a more acceptable level of functioning. In the relationship between Harrison's parents, Hazel and George, George is the extremely intelligent one, and so he has to wear headphones which emit loud, obnoxious noises that inhibit his ability to form complete thoughts. This was done in order to bring him down to Hazel's level. She doesn't have to wear the headphones, because she is already of below-average intelligence.

When Hazel and George watch the ballet on TV, they can tell which ballerinas must have been the most beautiful, because they are forced to wear masks so that they will not be given preferential treatment over anyone else. Those who have very attractive voices must develop a stutter or wear a voice-changing machine to mask their beautiful cadence. Also, those people who are tall and strong must be weighed down by heavy objects so as not to award them any physical advantages over others. In this way, everyone is considered to be kept on an "equal" level. They considered this an "evolved" way of living. 

Should we replace "God" in the national anthem with "Flying Spaghetti Monster," as the FSM is more current and evident in today's scientific era?

First of all, I wonder if you really mean to refer to the national anthem in this question.  The word “God” does not appear in the first verse of “The Star-Spangled Banner,” which is the only verse that is usually sung and the only verse that most people even know about.  The word “God” is used in the last verse, but this is so obscure that it is unlikely that many people would care about removing it.

It seems more likely, then, that this question would be about removing “God” from our currency (Motto: In God We Trust) and/or from the Pledge of Allegiance (one nation, under God).  It is certainly possible to argue that we should remove the word “God” from these things.  However, there is no rationale under which it is logical to insert “Flying Spaghetti Monster” in place of “God.”

The case for taking “God” out of the motto and the Pledge is that those things represent an establishment of religion under the First Amendment.  In other words, when we use the word “God” in those two places, it shows that the government approves of religion.  This is unconstitutional (we can argue) because the First Amendment says that the government may not give official support to religion.

However, even if we accept this argument, there is no reason to put the Flying Spaghetti Monster in the motto or the Pledge.  If we accept the FSM as a deity, then putting it in the motto and Pledge would violate the Establishment Clause just as much as the word “God” does.  The government would be supporting Pastafarianism, which would be just as wrong as supporting Christianity.

The Supreme Court has ruled that the word “God” in the motto and Pledge does not violate the First Amendment.  It has said that “God” is used there for patriotic or ceremonial reasons and not for religious reasons.  We can invoke God in these instances because we are so used to doing so that it is hardly a religious reference.  (This is similar to the idea that I could wish you a “Merry Christmas” even if I do not believe in Christ.  I can do that simply because Christmas has become so secularized that it has lost much of its religious significance.)  This is why putting the FSM in place of “God” would not be permissible.  There is no tradition of belief in that being in our society.  There is no way in which invoking the FSM could be seen as a patriotic, secular reference.

For these reasons, it would not make sense, and would not be legal, to replace “God” with “Flying Spaghetti Monster” in things like the Pledge, the motto, or even the national anthem.

What is Ponyboy’s opinion of Darry?

At the beginning of the novel, Ponyboy does not like the fact that Darry treats him like he is "six instead of fourteen" and believes that Darry is way too hard on him. Pony also mentions that Darry is continually criticizing him, and thinks that Darry acts too old for his age. Ponyboy views his brother with contempt and favors Sodapop over Darry. Pony understands that Darry works a lot of hours but doesn't like his strict and abrasive attitude. After Ponyboy narrowly escapes the church fire, Darry shows up at the hospital, and Ponyboy understands for the first time in his life that Darry truly cares about him. For the remainder of the novel, Pony and Darry bicker about school and Pony's attitude until Sodapop says he's finally had enough of their fighting. Pony and Darry smooth things out at the end of the novel and admit that they love each other. Darry promises to stop yelling at Ponyboy, and Pony promises to be more understanding and appreciative of what Darry does for him. Ponyboy realizes that Darry is if faced with the difficult task of keeping the family together and he is appreciative to have Darry as an older brother.

In the opening stage directions, what does the reader learn about each of the characters present in Act I of An Inspector Calls by J. B....

In the opening stage directions, the reader obtains information about the social status of the various characters present, as well as a little about their attitudes.

The play opens with the four members of the Birling family and Gerald Croft seated at a substantial table where the parlor maid moves the dinner dishes to the sideboard. The family and their guest are in evening dress--the men in tails, and the women in gowns. The port is poured and Mr. Birling is quite pleased with himself and the present situation of Gerald Croft's engagement to his daughter, as Croft is a "well-bred man" of a higher social class than Mr. Birling, who apparently has risen in financial class because of his industry. Birling is described as having "fairly easy manners" and is "provincial in speech," as opposed to his more sophisticated and urbane wife, "a cold woman" who is described as her husband's social superior.

From the stage directions, also, the reader learns that the Birlings' children, Shiela and Eric, have been protected from the vicissitudes of life. Eric is described as shy and "ill at ease" in the company of the well-bred Croft. His sister Sheila has obviously been sheltered from many realities, as she is "pleased with life" and excited about little things as a child would be. 

In the opening scene focusing on a contented family (only with the discomfort of Eric is there any hint of something else) that seems typical of the upper social and economic classes of Victorian/Ewardian England, Beasley sets a tone that leads to the irony of the situation later presented to them by Inspector Goole. 

The 9/11 attacks seem to contradict the primacy of the state in international relations that was established by the Peace of Westphalia. How do...

One of the main theoretical perspectives in the study of international relations is called realism.  According to this theory, states (laypeople would call these countries) are the only really relevant actors in international relations.  We can say that the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 contradict this particular tenet of realism because they were carried out by actors who were not part of a state.

For a long time, realism was the dominant theory in international relations (IR).  Realism looks only at states as the major actors in IR.  This perspective argues that larger organizations, like the UN, and non-state actors, like NGOs, are largely irrelevant.  All states exist in an anarchic world in which they have to gain and hold enough power to survive. 

The terrorist attacks of 9/11 were a very important event.  They changed the way that the US engaged with the world.  On September 10, 2011, Afghanistan and Iraq were not major concerns of US foreign policy.  Two days later, Afghanistan certainly was and Iraq soon would be.  Even though the attacks had this much of an impact, they were not carried out by state actors.  No country’s military attacked the US that day.  Instead, the attacks were carried out by a terrorist group, Al-Qaeda.  In other words, the actions of a relatively few people unaligned with any state changed the course of world history and the way in which the US interacted with the rest of the world.  This contradicts the idea that states are the primary actors in IR.  

How long did the police search for the murder weapon?

I scoured through this story in an attempt to find an exact amount of time that the police spent searching for the murder weapon.  There is no stated amount of time that the police spent looking for the murder weapon.  I can put forth a fairly accurate guess though.  

The story says that Mary Maloney was waiting for Patrick to get home.  She looked at the clock and it said 4:50.  

When the clock said ten minutes to five, she began to listen, and a few moments later, punctually as always, she heard the tires on the gravel outside, and the car door slamming, the footsteps passing the window, the key turning in the lock. She laid aside her sewing, stood up, and went forward to kiss him as he came in.

For the sake of simplicity, let's round the time off.  Patrick came home at 5 in the evening.  He comes in the door.  Sits down.  Finishes his first drink really quickly.  Gets a second drink.  Then he begins telling Mary that he is leaving her, which didn't take long. 

And he told her. It didn’t take long, four or five minutes at most, and she say very still through it all, watching him with a kind of dazed horror as he went further and further away from her with each word.

I figure that it is probably 5:15 at the latest.  Mary operates in a daze for a bit until Patrick tells her he is going out again.  Then she clubs him over the head with the leg of lamb and kills him.  After that, Mary cleans herself up, rehearses her grocery store exchange with Sam, and leaves for the grocery store.  The text tells readers that it was just before 6 o'clock at this point.  

It wasn’t six o’clock yet and the lights were still on in the grocery shop.

Mary gets the groceries that she needs and heads home.  She is "shocked" to see her husband dead on the floor, so she calls the police. The police "came very quickly."  I figure 6:30 at the earliest.  From that point forward, I have to assume that the police began to look for potential murder weapons.  

At 9 that night, Mary offered to feed the remaining officers.  They all sat down to eat the murderous leg of lamb.  It's possible that the police kept searching after their meal, but the story ends.  By my calculations, the police searched for the murder weapon for about two and a half hours.   

What are cervical, ovarian, and uterine cancers?

Causes and Symptoms

Although people commonly talk about cancer as a single disease, it actually includes more than one hundred different diseases. These diseases do appear to have a common element to them. All cancer cells divide without obeying the normal control mechanisms. These abnormal cells have altered deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that causes them to divide and form other abnormal cells, which again divide and eventually form a neoplasm, or tumor.

If the neoplasm has the potential to leave its original site and invade other tissues, it is called malignant. If the tumor stays in one place, it is benign. One major difference between these tumors is that
malignant cells seem to have lost the cellular glue that holds them to one another. Therefore, they can metastasize, leaving the tumor and infiltrating nearby tissues. Metastatic cells can also travel to distant sites via the blood or lymph systems.

Medical scientists do not know exactly what causes a cell to become cancerous. In fact, it is likely that several different factors in some combination cause cancer. Genetic, viral, hormonal, immunological, toxic, and physical factors may all play a role. Whatever the cause, cancer is a common disease, resulting in one out of five deaths in the United States. Tumors of the reproductive tract occur in relatively high rates in women. Cervical cancer accounts for 6 percent, ovarian cancer 5 percent, and cancer of the lining of the uterus (endometrial cancer) 7 percent of all cancers in women.

Cervical cancer is most frequently found in women who are between forty and forty-nine years of age, but the incidence has been steadily increasing in younger women. Several factors appear to be involved in initiating this cancer: young age at first intercourse; number of sexual partners (as well as the number of the partner’s partners); infection with sexually transmitted diseases such as herpes simplex type 2 and human papillomavirus; and cigarette smoking. Since most patients do not experience symptoms, regular checkups are necessary. The Pap (Papanicolaou) testing performed in a physician’s office will detect the presence of cervical cancer. In this procedure, the physician obtains a sample of the cervix by swabbing the area, then places the cells on a microscope slide for examination.

Ovarian cancer accounts for more deaths than any other cancer of the female reproductive system. While the cause of ovarian cancer is unknown, the risk is greatest for women who have not had children. Researchers recently discovered that the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2,
usually associated with hereditary forms of breast cancer, are also connected to an increased rate of ovarian cancer. About 5 to 10 percent of ovarian cancers appear to have a strong hereditary association, particularly in patients who develop the cancer at a young age. Its incidence is slightly decreased in women who use oral contraceptives for many years. Ovarian tumors generally affect women over fifty years of age.

There are two major types of ovarian cancer: epithelial and germ cell neoplasms. About 90 percent of ovarian cancers are epithelial and develop on the surface of the ovary. These tumors often are bulky and involve both ovaries. Germ cell tumors are derived from the eggs within the ovary and, if malignant, tend to be highly aggressive. Malignant germ cell neoplasms tend to occur in women under the age of thirty.

Ovarian cancer is generally considered a silent disease, as the signs and symptoms are vague and often ignored. Abdominal pain is the most obvious symptom, followed by abdominal swelling. Some patients also report gastrointestinal disorders such as changes in bowel habits. Abnormal vaginal bleeding may occur, but like the other symptoms this is not specific for the disease. Diagnosis is made using imaging techniques such as ultrasound, computed tomography (CT) scanning, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The presence and identification of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes also allows a woman to aggressively monitor her health, even though her predisposition for ovarian cancer cannot be changed.

Uterine cancer, also known as
endometrial cancer, most frequently affects women between the ages of fifty and sixty-five. Like most cancers, the cause of endometrial cancer is not clear. Nevertheless, a relatively high level of estrogens has been identified as a risk factor. For example, obese women, women who have an early onset of their first period (menarche), and women who never became pregnant tend to have high
estrogen levels for longer durations than those without these conditions. Medical scientists believe not only that it is estrogens that are important but also that the other ovarian hormone, progesterone, must be lower than normal for the cancer to develop. Therefore, progesterone appears to have a protective effect in endometrial cancer. Detection of endometrial cancer is accomplished by having a physician take a small tissue sample (biopsy) from the lining of the uterus. The sample can be examined under the microscope to determine if the
cells are cancerous.

Treatment and Therapy

A variety of treatments are available for patients with cancers of the reproductive tract: surgical removal of the organ, hormonal therapy, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy.

The treatment of cervical cancer depends on the size and location of the tumor and whether the cells are benign or malignant. If the patient is no longer capable of or interested in childbearing, then she may choose to have her uterus, including the cervix, removed in the procedure known as
hysterectomy. The physician may also use a laser, cryotherapy (use of a cold instrument), or electrocautery (use of a hot instrument) to destroy the tumor without removing the uterus. Malignant tumors may require a total hysterectomy and removal of associated lymph nodes, which can trap metastatic cells. This surgery may be followed by radiation or chemotherapy if there is a possibility that all cancer cells have not been removed.

Cervical cancer diagnosed in a pregnant patient can complicate the treatment. Fortunately, only about 1 percent of cervical cancers are found in pregnant women. If the cancer is restricted to the cervix (that is, it has not metastasized), treatment is usually delayed until after childbirth. It is interesting to note that a normal vaginal delivery may occur without harming the mother or the infant. Malignant cervical cancer must be treated in a similar way as in nonpregnant women. If the cancer is found in the first trimester, a hysterectomy or radiation therapy or both is used to help eradicate the malignancy. Obviously, these approaches terminate the pregnancy. During the second trimester, the uterus must be emptied of the fetus and placenta, followed by radiation therapy or removal of the affected reproductive organs. In the third trimester, the physician will typically try to delay treatment until he or she believes that the fetus has developed sufficiently to stay alive when delivered by cesarean section. A vaginal delivery is not recommended, as it has been shown to lower the cure rate of
malignant cervical cancer. Treatment after delivery consists of surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.

The prognosis in patients who have elected surgical removal of the tumor is a five-year survival rate of up to 90 percent. Cure rates for patients undergoing radiation therapy are between 75 and 90 percent. Chemotherapeutic agents have not had as much effect, as they significantly reduce only 25 percent of tumors. It is important to note that the best outcomes are achieved with early diagnosis.

Ovarian cancers are treated with a similar approach. Surgery may involve the removal of the ovaries, uterine tubes, and uterus, as well as associated lymph nodes depending upon the extent of malignancy. Radiation and chemotherapy are usually employed but oftentimes are not effective. The drug taxol is a relatively new agent which shows some promise in treating ovarian cancers. This drug was isolated from the bark of the yew tree and shows some specificity for ovarian tumors. Taxol prevents cell division in ovarian tumors, slowing the progression of the disease.

The outcome for ovarian cancer is usually not as good as for cervical and endometrial cancers, since the disease is usually in an advanced stage by the time that it is diagnosed. The overall survival rate without evidence of recurrence in patients with epithelial ovarian cancers is between 15 and 45 percent. The more uncommon germ cell ovarian cancers have a much more variable
prognosis. With early diagnosis, aggressive surgery, and the use of newer chemotherapeutic agents, the long-term survival rate for all ovarian cancer patients approaches 70 percent.

Surgery is often the treatment of choice for
endometrial cancer. As with cervical cancer, however, treatment depends upon the extent of the disease and the patient’s wishes relative to reproductive capabilities and family planning. A hysterectomy—removal of the uterine tubes, ovaries, and surrounding lymph nodes—is usually indicated. Chemotherapy and radiation therapy are occasionally utilized as adjunctive therapy, as is progesterone. Progesterone (medroxyprogesterone or hydroxyprogesterone) may benefit patients with advanced disease, as it seems to cause a decrease in tumor size and regression of metastases. In fact, progesterone therapy in patients with advanced or recurrent endometrial cancer leads to regression in about 40 percent of cases. Progesterone therapy also has produced regression in tumors that have metastasized to the lungs, vagina, and chest cavity.

The outcome of
endometrial cancer is influenced by the aggressiveness of the tumor, the age of the woman (older women tend to have a poorer prognosis), and the stage at which the cancer was detected. Almost two-thirds of all patients live without evidence of disease for five or more years after treatment. Unfortunately, 28 percent die within five years. For cancer identified and treated early, almost 90 percent of patients are alive five years after treatment.

Perspective and Prospects

Even though medical science has advanced the ability to detect and treat cancers much earlier, many lives are still lost to cancer each year. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that among women in the United States in 2009, 12,357 were diagnosed with cervical cancer and 3,909 died of the disease; 20,460 were diagnosed with ovarian cancer and 14,436 died of the disease; and 44,192 were diagnosed with uterine and 7,713 died of the disease. According to the World Health Organization, cervical cancer was the seventh most deadly cancer worldwide in 2008, accounting for 275,000 deaths. Therefore, as with most diseases, prevention may be a significant way to reduce one’s chances of getting cancer, as well as of reducing the effects of cancer itself.

The National Institutes of Health and the American Cancer Society have made several suggestions which can be followed to reduce the risk of cancer. The dietary guidelines include reducing fat intake to less than 30 percent of total calories, eating more high-fiber foods such as whole-grain breads and cereals, and eating more fruits and vegetables in general, and in particular those high in vitamins A, C, and E.

Scheduling regular checkups with a health care provider may increase the likelihood of detecting cervical, ovarian, and uterine cancers early, even if no symptoms are present. Pelvic examinations should be performed every three years for women under the age of forty and yearly thereafter. Pap testing for cervical cancer should be undertaken yearly from the time that a woman becomes sexually active. Some physicians will take an endometrial tissue biopsy from women at high risk and at the time of the menopause.

Some data suggest that modifying lifestyle may help reduce the incidence of cervical cancer. The cervix is exposed to a variety of factors during intercourse, including infections and physical trauma. Having multiple sexual partners increases the risk of sexually transmitted diseases which may predispose the cervix to cancer. This factor is compounded by the fact that infectious agents and other carcinogens can be transmitted from one individual to another. Therefore, theoretically the cervix can be exposed to carcinogens from a partner’s sexual partners. Regular intercourse begun in the early teens also predisposes one to cervical cancer, as the tissue of the cervix may be more vulnerable at puberty. Barrier methods of contraception, mainly the condom, reduce the risk of developing cervical cancer by reducing the exposure of the cervix to potential carcinogens. Smoking increases the risk of cervical cancer, perhaps because carcinogens in tobacco enter the blood, which in turn has access to the cervix. Thus, such lifestyle changes as safer sexual practices, quitting smoking, and dietary changes would be beneficial to someone wanting to reduce the chance of having cervical cancer.

Women who are twenty or more pounds over ideal body weight are twice as likely to develop endometrial cancer, and the risk increases with increased body fat. Some estrogens are produced in fat tissue, and this additional estrogen may play a role in the development of endometrial cancer. Therefore, reduction of excess body fat through diet and exercise may be important for a woman who wishes to reduce her chances of developing uterine cancer.

In May 2013, investigators from the Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network reported the results of their comprehensive genomic analysis of close to four hundred endometrial tumors. Their findings, published in the journal Nature, suggest that molecular characteristics can help determine the type of endometrial cancer and possibly yield insights into effective treatment strategies. The investigators also found four new tumor subtypes and identified similarities between endometrial cancer and other types of cancers.

Also in 2013, Dr. Devansu Tewari of Southern California Permanente Medical Group presented the results of a long-term study he authored on the effectiveness of using intraperitoneal chemotherapy to treat ovarian cancer. The study demonstrated that intraperitoneal chemotherapy, in which the patient's stomach area is bathed in chemotherapeutic agents, significantly increased survival rates for patients with advanced ovarian cancer. Patients who received intraperitoneal treatment were 17 percent more likely to survive longer than patients who received conventional intravenous therapy.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "Gynecological Cancers: Uterine Cancer." CDC, Aug. 8, 2012.

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In Woolf's "A Room of One's Own," what belief is implied in the "old gentleman's" statement that it is "impossible for any woman . . . to have the...

Simply put, the belief implied in the statement you reference is that women are inferior to men in all aspects of life, including the creation of literature. Since women are inferior to men (the old gentleman claims), they cannot produce anything as masterful as Shakespeare's plays. 

It is this belief that Virginia Woolf is primarily critiquing in her essay "A Room of One's Own." By employing impeccable logical reasoning, historical analysis, and literary examination, Woolf explores the rampant misogyny that has oppressed women through the ages and prevented them from pursuing any kind of independent activity, including the production of art and literature. Woolf ultimately agrees with the old gentleman, asserting that, back in Shakespeare's time, it would have been impossible for a female artist to have done what Shakespeare did. However, Woolf does not make this claim because she believes that women are inferior to men; rather, she says that a woman in Shakespeare's time could not have been a prolific artist because she would have been prevented from gaining employment, living independently, and using her time to create art. Instead, the patriarchy would have subjected her to cruel toil in the home and stripped her of the privilege of working and owning property. As such, by partially agreeing with the old gentleman's statement, Woolf brilliantly dismantles the implied misogyny behind it.  

today, the earths atmosphere contains a small, almost constant amount of carbon dioxide. Burning fossil fuels releases huge amounts of carbon...

The level of carbon in the atmosphere varies throughout the year, with a maximum typically occurring in the winter months in the Northern Hemisphere. The amount of carbon in recent geologic time has been around 300 parts per million (ppm). However, within the last 150 years the amount has increased to close to 400 parts per million. Note that as a percent of the atmosphere this is a small change (from .03% to .04%) even though the amount of carbon increased by 100 ppm.

Another thing to consider is that not all carbon released into the atmosphere remains in the atmosphere. The ocean absorbs a lot of the carbon, contributing to ocean acidification. Also, there can be an increase in algae and plankton which sequesters more carbon.

There is also a sequestration effect in terrestrial environments as plants take up a lot of carbon -- in long lived plants the carbon is held out of the atmosphere (at least until the plant dies and rots or is burned).

What are some pros and cons of globalization?

The major pro of globalization is that it has helped the overall world economy and, in many ways, has helped the economies of specific countries.  When globalization occurs, free trade thrives.  This has allowed many countries to become much richer than they had been. The most prominent example of this has been China.  Before the latest round of intensive globalization, China was a very poor country. Now, China is still not a rich country, but its economy has grown tremendously, pulling millions out of poverty. This sort of thing has happened around the world.  According to the link below, a billion people worldwide have been pulled out of poverty in the last 20 years or so, largely due to globalization.  This is clearly a very important positive aspect of globalization.

The major con of globalization is that it hurts specific parts of various countries.  When free trade increases, there is greater competition between people in different countries for jobs.  Inevitably, people in some businesses in some countries are hurt.  In rich countries, for example, blue-collar workers tend to lose out to cheaper labor overseas.  This can devastate specific industries and specific regions of the countries that lose out.  This is a major reason why populist politicians like Donald Trump can get so much political traction railing against free trade.

There are many other pros and cons of globalization. For example, globalization exposes us all to a greater diversity of cultures.  We can now watch soccer from England or cricket from India no matter where we live.  We can hear music or watch movies from other countries.  This enriches our lives.  On the other hand, globalization, in some people’s minds, kills indigenous cultures. Certain cultures, they argue, come to dominate the world and unique cultural traditions are lost. In other words, economic globalization is not the only kind of globalization, but it is the kind that gets the most attention.

Globalization has helped the world and its people in many ways, but it has also contributed to various problems that did not previously exist.

What is the true story of Christopher Columbus compared to the legend?

The legend of Christopher Columbus is that he believed, against everyone else in the world at the time, that the Earth was round.  He therefore believed that he could sail to Asia from Europe by going west.  He bravely set sail into the unknown and thereby discovered the New World.  For this reason, he is a hero of world history.

As to what is true, there is a great deal of controversy today and different people will give you different versions of the truth about Columbus.  My own view is that Columbus was a brave man, but not necessarily a hero.  First, it is clearly not true that Columbus defied conventional wisdom to hold that the world was round.  This was a fact known by all educated Europeans.  What Columbus believed that was different was that the world was much smaller than it is.  He thought that it was a very short distance (relatively speaking) from Europe to the eastern shores of Asia.  He believed that he could easily reach Asia by sailing to the west.  He was clearly wrong about this.

Columbus did “discover” the New World for all practical purposes.  It is true that the Vikings got there before he did, but they did not stay and they did not pass down their discovery.  It is true that the Americas were populated and their people did not need to be discovered, but Columbus “discovered” them from a European perspective.  He was, therefore, clearly a man who made history.

Is Columbus a hero?  I would say not.  He was brave and ambitious.  He managed something that no one had done before.  However, bravery and ambition do not make heroes.  There are plenty of people who are brave, ambitious, and evil.  Moreover, Columbus did not even realize what he had done.  He died insisting that he had found Asia.  In short, he was a man who had a fortunate accident while bravely chasing his ambitions.  This does not, in my mind, make him the hero that legend says he is.