Can we artificially do photosynthesis and get purified oxygen as a product?

Oxygen is one of the products of photosynthesis in plants and algae. The particular step occurs in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. Water is split to release electrons, protons (H+), and oxygen. The electrons are then excited by sunlight within photosystem II and then passed along the electron transport chain toward photosystem I in the thylakoid membrane. Along the way, more protons (H+) are pumped to the side of the membrane where the water is split, creating a proton gradient. The gradient is used to make ATP to fuel the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.

If you wanted to synthetically produce oxygen in a manner similar to photosynthesis, you would just need a device to split water into its components: hydrogen and oxygen. You can do this with electricity. You need a power source, an anode and a cathode (each connected to the power source), and salt to be dissolved in the water. The battery/power source will send electrons to the cathode and electrons will move from the anode toward the battery in this electrolytic cell.  

Hydrogen ions (H+) accumulate near the cathode and gain electrons, forming hydrogen gas. Oxygen ions, being negative, accumulate near the anode, give up their electrons, and form oxygen gas. Although the hydrogens are used differently in photosynthesis (to create a H+ gradient), the oxygen that is formed via photosynthesis is also the result of the splitting of water.

In To Kill a Mockingbird, how does Calpurnia fit into the social hierarchy in chapter three? Which characters have more power than she does?...

In chapter three of To Kill a Mockingbird, Calpurnia holds a significant amount of power in the Finch household. This chapter is set months before Aunt Alexandra comes to live with the family, so Calpurnia's word is law until that happens. Atticus sits at the top of the household hierarchy, Calpurnia comes in second, Jem is third, and of course, Scout is fourth. However, when Walter Cunningham comes to lunch on the first day of school, he sits higher than Scout on the hierarchy because he is a guest. Due to the code of hospitality, a guest's desires come before anyone who lives in the home. Therefore, when Walter asks for the syrup to drown his vegetables in, Calpurnia gives it to him. Scout is so shocked at Walter's behavior that she vocally questions him at the table. As a result, Calpurnia takes Scout into the kitchen and asserts her teaching authority by saying the following:

"Don't matter who they are, anybody sets foot in this house's  yo' comp'ny, and don't you let me  catch you remarkin' on their ways like you was so high and mighty! Yo' folks might be better'n the Cunninghams but it don't count for nothin' the way you're disgracin' e'em--if you can't act fit to eat at the table you can just set here and eat in the kitchen!" (24-25).

Not only does Calpurnia use her position as the Finch household motherly figure to teach Scout a lesson, but she brings up the Cunninghams and their social position in Maycomb as well. The Cunninghams are poor, white farmers, so they fall beneath the Finches socially, yet they are higher than Calpurnia because she is black. 

Another family that has more social power than Calpurnia is the Ewells. Scout meets her first Ewell in chapter three, and she learns that not only are they filthy, but they also have no manners, respect, or self-control. For example, Miss Caroline shrieks when she finds a louse in Burris' hair. Then she is mortified when Burris speaks to her disrespectfully as follows:

"Ain't no snot-nosed slut of a schoolteacher ever born c'n make me do nothing'! You ain't makin' me go nowhere, missus. You just remember that, you ain't makin' me go nowhere!" (28).

Burris gets away with talking to his teacher this way because he is part of the lowest social class in Maycomb. People just leave the Ewells alone because they are so unruly and unmanageable. The irony lies in the fact that Calpurnia is more educated (proven because she taught Scout to write) and more polite than any of the Ewells, but since she is black, she is treated as a second-class citizen even beneath the Ewells. 

Therefore, based on characters presented in chapter three, the social hierarchy would look something like this:

1. Atticus Finch, Jem, and Scout (financially stable, white landowner, professional, educated)

2. The Cunninghams (poor, white landowners)

3. Miss Caroline (educated and white)

4. The Ewells (poor, white and uneducated)

5. Calpurnia (educated, black)

As said before, Calpurnia has power and influence over Jem and Scout because she is supported by Atticus in the Finch household. For instance, when Scout attempts to get Calpurnia fired for sternly instructing her about manners during lunch, Atticus tells Scout the following:

"I've no intention of getting rid of her, now or ever. We couldn't operate a single day without Cal, have you ever thought of that? You think about how much Cal does for you, and you mind her, you hear?" (25).

Therefore, Calpurnia has power over Scout in the Finch home, but not so much in Maycomb where she doesn't have any social influence at all. Calpurnia's quality of life is better than that of the Cunninghams and Ewell's, though. She has a steady job and can live independently. However, socially, Calpurnia doesn't have much of a figurative leg to stand on because she is black. 

Was Salvador Dalí a significant artist?

Salvador Felipe Jacinto Dalí Domènech (normally referred to as Salvador Dalí) was a well-known twentieth-century artist whose work is displayed in many major museums and who is discussed in most works about art history concerning his period. Although the question of whether his work will prove to have the sort of enduring interest as artists often compared to him like Miró and Magritte remains open, Dalí will definitely remain important for those concerned with the surrealist movement in art and its role in international modernism.

Dalí was born on 1904 in Figueres, Spain, part of a region known as Catalonia. He died in 1989. Dalí showed early promise as an art student and was influenced by Renaissance art and cubism. His major works, such as The Persistence of Memory (showing melting clocks), combine almost hyper-realistic draftsmanship with dreamlike subject matter. In addition to painting, Dalí worked in other media, often in collaboration with other artists. Dalí's work included designing sets for plays, ballets, and department store windows. While some artists criticized Dalí for his commercialism, others regard his work as important in connecting surrealism with popular culture.

In "The Canterville Ghost," how does Oscar Wilde show the class disparity between the Americans and the English?

In "The Canterville Ghost," Wilde demonstrates the class disparity most clearly in the opening paragraphs. Through the character of Lord Canterville, for instance, Wilde depicts the English as keen to protect their traditions and heritage. This idea extends to his view of the ghost:

Lord Canterville himself, who was a man of the most punctilious honour, had felt it his duty to mention the fact to Mr. Otis.

Moreover, lineage is also a point of importance to the English and this is supported by the number of times that Lord Canterville mentions his family:

• We have not cared to live in this place ourselves…since my grand-aunt, the Dowager Duchess of Bolton…


• It…always makes an appearance before the death of any member of our family.

In contrast, the Americans are portrayed as materialistic and modern. They emphasise science over tradition, as seen in Mr Otis's view of the ghost:

I reckon that if there were such a thing as a ghost in Europe, we'd have it at home in a very short time. 

In addition, for Mr Otis, living in Canterville Chase is a status symbol, and not about demonstrating lineage (as it is for the English), and we see this through Mr Otis's emphasis on money:

I will take the furniture and ghost at a valuation.

This disparity between the English and the Americans creates a culture clash (as discussed in the reference link) and this sets the scene for the ensuing conflict between the ghost and the Otis family.   

How does the reticular formation relate to consciousness?

Introduction

The term “reticular formation” is used to refer to one of several so-called reticular structures of the central nervous system. A reticulum is a mesh or network, and reticular formation designates a specific grouping of more than ninety nuclei of interneurons that have common characteristics in the area of the brain stem. The nuclei are clusters of cell bodies of neurons that form a network of their dendritic and axonal cellular processes, those extensions that bring information into the cell and transmit information from the cell.

The mesh reaches throughout the brain stem, as well as to higher and lower regions of the central nervous system as far as the cerebral cortex and spinal cord, serving both sensory and integrative functions. Anatomically, the reticular formation is continuous from the medulla oblongata, the lowest part of the brain stem, through the pons to the midbrain. It connects with the intermediate gray region of the spinal cord and sends processes into the higher brain areas of the thalamus and hypothalamus.

Neurons of the reticular formation contain many dendritic processes, afferent cytoplasmic extensions that carry electrical stimuli toward the cell nucleus, arranged perpendicular to the central axis of the body. Each cell also contains a single long axon, with numerous collateral branches, that extends along the body’s axis, going to the higher or lower regions of the central nervous system. The axon carries impulses away from the nucleus of the neuron toward the synapse, where it passes information on to the next neighboring cell. The axons and dendrites, present in large numbers, make up the mesh, or reticulum, that gives the reticular formation its name. The many aggregated processes make it extremely difficult to identify the clustered groups of neurons (nuclei) to which the individual cells belong.

Information and Arousal

The reticular formation is a portion of an important informational loop in the brain that allows the modification and adjustment of behavior. This loop extends from the cerebral cortex to subcortical areas (lower brain regions), including the reticular formation, and then back to the cortex. The reticular formation makes connections with all the portions of the loop and plays an important role in exciting or inhibiting the functions of the lower motor neuron centers. This loop is important in practically all functions of the nervous system and behavior, particularly sleep/wakefulness, emotional stress, depression and distress, the induction of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and even sleepwalking.

The process of arousal appears to take place as the reticular formation sends impulses to an area of the thalamus occupied by the midline thalamic nuclei. These nuclei then pass the information on to the cortex, which is stimulated to become more aware that information is coming and more attentive to receiving the information. This is an oversimplification of the process, however, as other areas of the brain also seem to be involved in arousal. The neurotransmitters involved in the reticular formation’s connection to the cortex are thought to include both cholinergic and monoamine systems in the arousal process, although these are still not well understood.

The basic functions of the reticular formation are twofold: to alert the higher centers, especially in the cortex, that sensory information is coming into the processing areas and to screen incoming information being passed upward on sensory (afferent) pathways toward the higher centers of the brain, blocking the passage of irrelevant information and passing along the information that should be acted on by the higher brain. All sensory information must be passed through the lower regions of the brain before reaching the associative regions of the cerebral cortex. The cortex is unable to process incoming information unless it has been alerted and aroused and unless the information is channeled through the proper lower brain regions. Besides the reticular formation, the thalamus is also involved in this function, taking information from the reticular formation and passing it on to the cortex, where it is then processed and coordinated to produce motor behavior.

Information Inhibition

Because the reticular formation has so many pathways from each cell leading to many other cells, it is very quickly inhibited by anesthetics that act by inhibiting the transfer of information between cells at the synapse. This inhibition of activity leads to unconsciousness from a general lack of sensation and loss of alertness and arousal as polysynaptic pathways are shut down. Under proper medical control, use of anesthesia to turn off the reticular formation can be lifesaving, allowing surgical procedures that could not be tolerated without it.

Lesions of the brain stem may damage the reticular formation, producing the uncontrolled unconsciousness of coma if they occur above the level of the pons on both sides. Coma that results from drug overdose or drug reaction occurs mainly as the result of depression of the reticular formation. Any lesion of the brain stem that affects the reticular formation directly will also have a secondary effect on other structures on the brain stem, causing disappearance of its reflex reactions. Damage to ascending efferent pathways from the reticular formation to the cortex sometimes can also cause coma. Because the reticular formation aids the brain stem in regulating critical visceral vital functions such as breathing and blood circulation, damage to this area may threaten life itself.

The actions of alcohol on behavior also are the result of its effects on the reticular formation. Alcohol blocks the actions of this area, allowing a temporary loss of control over other brain regions. This lack of behavioral inhibition from higher brain centers produces a feeling of excitement and well-being at first. Later effects of continued alcohol intake lead to depression of emotions and behavior, followed by depression of basic body functions that can produce unconsciousness.

The production of unconsciousness through sleep is also associated with the reticular formation, particularly the part that is in the pons and another center in the lower medulla. The lower medullary sleep/waking center seems to work with the basal forebrain to modulate the induction of sleep. Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep may be controlled, at least in part, by specific nuclei in the pontine reticular formation.

Behavioral Effects

Stimulation of the reticular formation and other areas (the hippocampus and amygdala) improves memory retention (memory consolidation) if electrical current is applied directly to the reticular cells immediately after a training session. It is difficult to understand how this stimulation operates, however, since in some cases stimulating these same areas instead produces retrograde amnesia, causing the loss of memory retention. It is thought that the level of electrical stimulation may cause these different results. The highest and lowest stimulation levels reduce memory consolidation in some cases, and intermediate stimulation seems to be the most effective. The nature of the training process is also important in the results, as learning seems to be more difficult with high stimulation levels associated with aversive conditioning.

Another aspect of the reticular formation and its possible effects on behavior is the theory that many (or perhaps most) convulsive epileptic seizures originate there. Since this area can be stimulated by electrical impulses and by convulsive drugs to produce seizures, it is thought that the reticular formation may be the site from which stimulation of the cerebral cortex starts. It is difficult to establish the origins of epilepsy conclusively, since there are no adequate animal models for this disorder, but antiepileptic drugs are shown to depress neuron function in the reticular formation. The actual source of the convulsive behavior is thought to be the nonspecific reticular core of this formation.

Research and Experimentation

The reticular formation influences nearly all aspects of nervous system function, including sensory and motor activities and somatic and visceral functions. It is important in influencing the integrative processes of the central nervous system, acting on the mind and behavior. Included in this influence are the stimulatory aspects of arousal, awakening, and attentiveness, as well as the inhibitory aspects of drowsiness, sleep induction, and general disruption of the stimulatory functions. To understand how this region of the brain can be so important in such contradictory functions, it is important to consider the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs and the consolidation of their overall influences. Depending on which type of stimulus has the greatest effect, the net result on behavior can be alertness or drowsiness, active function or the inactivity of sleep.

Research on anesthetized cats in the late 1940s produced an increased understanding of the activities of the reticular formation. It was shown that electrical stimulation of the brain stem caused changes in the cats’ electroencephalograph (EEG) readings that were similar to changes occurring in humans when they were aroused from a drowsy state to alertness. From these observations and others, it has been concluded that the ascending reticular system of the brain stem acts as a nonspecific arousal system of the cerebral cortex.

In the 1950s, Donald Lindsley and his colleagues studied the reticular formation as the source of arousal. They showed that two discrete flashes of light shown to a monkey produced discrete electrical responses (evoked potentials) in the visual cortex. If the pulses were very close together, only one potential was evoked, showing that the cortex could not distinguish both within that time. If two electrical stimulations were applied directly to the reticular formation at the short interval, however, two discrete flashes were expressed in the cortex, showing the influence of the reticular formation on the threshold level of the cortex’s response to stimuli. J. M. Fuster, one of Lindsley’s coworkers, examined the behavioral responses that resulted from electrical stimulation of the reticular formation in monkeys trained to discriminate between two objects. Reducing the time of visual exposure to the objects also reduced the correct responses, but stimulation of the reticular formation at the same time as the visual exposure reduced the error level. This indicated that increased arousal and attentiveness to the visual stimuli were produced by electrical activation of the reticular formation.

J. M. Siegal and D. J. McGinty’s work on stimulation of the reticular formation in cats in the 1970s showed that individual neurons seem to have a role in controlling various motor functions of the body. Other studies show that various autonomic responses, such as vomiting, respiration, sneezing, and coughing, may also originate at least in part from the reticular formation.

It is thought that the period of sleep known as rapid eye movement sleep, or paradoxical sleep, is a time of memory consolidation. During this time, the reticular formation, the hippocampus, and the amygdala are stimulated to activate the higher brain centers, and arousal occurs. REM sleep is considered paradoxical because the brain waves produced during this time are similar to those produced during stimulation of the awake brain. Vincent Bloch and his colleagues have shown that laboratory animals and human subjects deprived of REM sleep display decreased memory consolidation. During this process, short-term memories are converted somehow into long-term memories, which withstand even disruptions of the electrical activities of the brain. The reticular formation is an important part of memory function, but much remains to be discovered about this and other reticular activities.

Bibliography

Carlson, Neil R. Physiology of Behavior. 10th ed. Boston: Allyn, 2009. Print.

Fromm, Gerhard H., Carl L. Faingold, Ronald A. Browning, and W. M. Burnham, eds. Epilepsy and the Reticular Formation: The Role of the Reticular Core in Convulsive Seizures. New York: Liss, 1987. Print.

Hobson, J. Allan, and Mary A. B. Brazier, eds. The Reticular Formation Revisited: Specifying Function for a Nonspecific System. New York: Raven, 1980. Print.

Klemm, W. R., and Robert P. Vertes, eds. Brainstem Mechanisms of Behavior. New York: Wiley, 1990. Print.

Mai, Juergen K., and George Paxinos. The Human Nervous System. Burlington: Elsevier Science, 2011. Print.

Romero-Sierra, C. Neuroanatomy: A Conceptual Approach. New York: Churchill, 1986. Print.

Sadock, Benjamin J., and Virginia Sadock, eds. Kaplan and Sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott , 2005. Print.

Siegel, Alln, and Hreday N Sapru. Essential Neuroscience. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 2011. Print.

Steriade, Mircea, and Robert W. McCarley. Brainstem Control of Wakefulness and Sleep. 2d ed. New York: Springer, 2005. Print.

Yogarajah, Mahinda, and Christopher Turner. Neurology. Edinburgh: Mosby, 2013. Print.

To what extent does Scout understand the hypocrisy in Chapter 24?

In Chapter 24, Scout participates in Aunt Alexandra's missionary circle. It is her first time experiencing an exclusively female social event, and she is quite nervous. Luckily, she has Miss Maudie to support and comfort her. Throughout the gathering, Scout listens intently as Mrs. Merriweather displays her prejudice towards foreign cultures by taking pity on the Mrunas in Africa. When Mrs. Merriweather comments, "Thing that church ought to do is help her lead a Christian life for those children from here on out," Scout asks if she is talking about Mayella Ewell (Lee 310). Grace Merriweather responds by saying, "No, child. That darky's wife. Tom's wife, Tom---" (Lee 310). Scout continues to listen to Mrs. Merriweather elaborate on how the community's African American population was bitter after Tom's trial. Merriweather then tells Gertrude that nothing is more distracting than a "sulky darky," and claims that she had to tell her maid, Sophy, that Jesus never went around grumbling and complaining. Scout is tired of hearing her talk and mentions, "Mrs. Merriweather had to run out of air..." (Lee 311).

After Mrs. Farrow comments that there is no lady safe in her bed, Mrs. Merriweather indirectly criticizes Atticus for defending Tom. Miss Maudie subtly accosts Grace by saying, "His food doesn't stick going down, does it?" (Lee 312). Scout notices Alexandra acknowledge Maudie by giving her a look of "pure gratitude." Scout is intrigued for the first time by the female world but feels more comfortable around men. Scout mentions that Atticus and the men she knew were not hypocrites like the females in Maycomb.

Scout if fully aware of the hypocritical nature of the females at the missionary circle. She tries her best to daydream about Finch's Landing and the river so that she doesn't have to listen to Mrs. Merriweather elaborate on the African American community. She understands that Grace's Christian persona is hypocritical because she is prejudiced towards African Americans and even refers to them individually as "darky." Scout also realizes that Merriweather's critical views of Atticus are considered hypocritical. After all, the missionary circle is being held at Atticus' home.

In what way might the election of Ralph to the position of chief be viewed as social criticism?

Social criticism is the examination of flaws in society and is often depicted through satirical works of literature which expose the hypocrisy of governments and societies as a whole. In the novel Lord of the Flies, Ralph was chosen to be the leader of the boys simply based on his appearance. Ralph was the tallest boy on the island and was rather attractive. He was also quietly holding the conch, which grabbed the attention of the boys when he became their elected leader. The boys who voted for Ralph did not have any particular reason to choose him to be their chief, other than his good looks. Golding writes,

"None of the boys could have found good reason for this; what intelligence had been shown was traceable to Piggy, while the most obvious leader was Jack" (22).

Ralph's election could be viewed as social criticism because it reflects the uninformed masses in today's society who vote for politicians based solely on their appearances. Many citizens do not analyze politician's specific policies or views and elect them based on their popularity or looks. Ralph turns out to be an ineffective leader, and the majority of the boys join Jack's tribe of savages. The same thing essentially happens in modern societies. Politicians are sometimes elected by uninformed individuals who fail to examine whether the person they are voting for is qualified to be a leader, and the politician fails to meet the needs of the society. Golding is criticizing the shallow, uninformed citizens who vote for inept politicians.

On what island was Odysseus trapped in The Odyssey?

In one sense, much of The Odyssey concerns the hero, Odysseus, being trapped on several different islands over the course of his adventures on his way back from the Trojan War. 

The first island on which he is trapped, and the captivity of the longest duration, is Ogygia, where the nymph Calypso traps him through her magical abilities. Her purpose in this is satisfying her lust, wishing him to be her husband. During the seven year period when he is trapped there, they do have a sexual relationship but Odysseus still wishes to return home to his wife, Penelope, and he asks Athena to petition Zeus to have him freed. Zeus sends the messenger god Hermes to command Calypso to free Odysseus. Calypso complains that this reflects a double standard, as Zeus himself has had affairs with many mortal women, but nevertheless, she lets Odysseus go. 

Odysseus and his men also are trapped on and escape from the islands of Circe, the Lotus-Eaters, and the Cyclopes. 

Which of the following would not affect the solubility of a solid in water? a. increasing the surface area of the solute b. stirring the solution...

Among the given options, option D is the right answer. Let us try to analyze each option in detail.

A solution results when a solute is mixed in a solvent (water in this case). When we increase the surface area of the solute, we are increasing the chances of collisions between the solvent and solute molecule and hence helping the solute dissolve more quickly. Try this at home by mixing sugar cubes with or without grinding them. Note that the maximum solubility will stay the same, only the rate of dissolution increases by increasing the surface area of a solute.

Stirring the solution also increases the collisions between solute and the solvent and hence increases the rate of dissolution (but not the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given volume of solvent). This is the reason we use a spoon to mix sugar in our tea before it gets too cold. 

Heating a solution provides kinetic energy to molecules and hence higher chances of collisions and more energy to break bonds. A hot solution has a higher solubility than a cold solution. Thus, unlike options A and B, heating also increases the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved.

The solvent is water and hence grinding will not work with it. Grinding works better with solids. 

Hence, option D is the answer.

Hope this helps. 

Do the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere experience the same season at the same time?

No, the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere do not experience the same season at the same time. To understand why this is so, one must understand that the earth sits on a tilted axis relative to the sun. The earth rotates around this axis throughout the year, causing one hemisphere to face the sun more directly, leading to more sunlight in that hemisphere, and longer days. At the same time, the other hemisphere is located further from the sun, leading to less sunlight, and shorter, colder days. In this example, if it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, then it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere. In regions very close to the equator, very little change is seen in temperature or in the amount of sunlight these regions receive over the course of the year. As such, these regions experience roughly the same amount of sunlight and warm temperatures year round.

Hope this helps!

What is an idea for a fun board game centered around plate tectonics?

What a fun project! Let me suggest how I would tackle this project.

Okay, so you have a Monopoly board that you need to turn into Plate Tectonicsopoly. Cover the middle of the board with solid colored paper and then draw the name of the game on it in huge letters (“Plate Techtonicsopoly”).

Print out some cool pictures related to the topic and tape those neatly onto the board. Let me suggest these images:

http://f.tqn.com/y/geography/1/W/Y/c/1/graben.jpg

http://i.huffpost.com/gen/1694659/images/n-PLATE-TECTONICS-CONTINENTS-628x314.jpg

They are, no doubt, copyrighted, but I don’t think their creators will mind if you use them for a school project.

Keep the dice from the game box, but set aside the play pieces and quickly make your own (and score creativity points) by creating little representations of important people in the field of plate tectonics: Harry Hess, Alfred Wegener, Arthur Holmes, and Sir Edward Bullard.

To make these, fold an index card into thirds, draw your guy on one of the segments and label him with his name, fold up your figure into a little standing triangular prism, and tape the edges closed. Keep your drawings really simple—no need for photorealism here!

Now you need to cover the play spaces (the squares) with your own designs so that they match the theme of the game. I suggest cutting out individual squares that are the right size, adding your content to them, and THEN taping them onto the board. That way you aren’t trying to write or draw over any taped portions. Here’s a tip: you can make your own squares larger than the ones that are actually on the board; it’ll make your work go faster, and you don’t necessarily need as many game spaces as Monopoly has.

Start with the “GO” space. Just cover this with a simple image of two land masses and an arrow to show the direction that they’re moving as well as the direction of game play on the board. Using a very thick marker and a steady hand will help your images appear simple and neat rather than hasty and basic. Now cover the “GO TO JAIL” space. Make it say “GO TO THE INNER CORE.” Likewise, cover the “JAIL” space with an image of the earth’s inner core and a label that says “INNER CORE.” Then, cover the “FREE PARKING” space with a simple image of a hill and make it say “RELAX ON THE EARTH’S CRUST.” When you type up your game play instructions, just indicate that “When you land on ‘Go,’ ‘Inner Core,’ or ‘Crust,’ all you have to do is say a true fact about whatever is on the picture.”

Before we move on to covering the rest of the game spaces, consider how you’ll play the game. Keep things simple. Real Monopoly has two systems going at once: you try to buy up property cards, and you periodically draw cards from the other two decks to initiate random events. There’s no need for both systems for your own game.

Let’s simply imagine that the goal of the game is to earn the most “knowledge cards” and that the game is over when all the knowledge cards have been drawn. So, go around the board spaces and label lots of them “Draw 1 card.” Label some of them “Draw 2 cards.” Label others “Lose a Turn,” “Roll Again,” “Steal a Card,” “Donate a Card,” and whatever else you might think of to make the turns a little more lively than just answering plate tectonics questions!

Once you've gotten your board completely designed, you're ready to write up the instructions for the game. Just keep it simple: describe who goes first (how about the youngest player?), how to roll the dice and advance to a space, how to perform the action for each space, how to keep a knowledge card only if you got it right, and how you know the game is over (the knowledge cards are gone) and how to determine the winner (whoever has the most cards).

Now all you need is your deck of 40 cards. I’d use index cards for this—there’s no need for extra cutting and folding if you can avoid it. We want a question on the front of a card and the answer on the back, and if you have time, try to spruce up your cards by adding an earthquake-inspired spiky border around the edges.

To make the cards, open your textbook to the section on plate tectonics, find some facts, and turn them into questions. I’ll write a bunch of them to get you started, but really, this is the easy part.

If you run out of material, go back to some questions you’ve already written and ask them in a different way or reverse them. For example, instead of asking what a geologist studies, ask what type of scientist studies forces that make and shape the planet.

Question: What does a geologist study?

Answer: A geologist studies forces that make and shape the planet.

Question: What is geology?

Answer: Geology is the study of the planet Earth.

Question: What do constructive forces do?

Answer: They shape the Earth's surface by building up mountains and land masses.

Question: What do destructive forces do?

Answer: They slowly wear away mountains and other features on Earth's surface.

Question: Define “continent.”

Answer: A continent is a land mass surrounded by ocean.

Question: What are the names of all 7 continents?

Answer: 1. North America 2. South America 3. Africa 4. Europe 5. Asia 6. Australia 7. Antarctica.

Question: What do you call the force pushing on a surface or area?

Answer: Pressure.

Question: The outermost layer of the earth is called what?

Answer: The crust.

Question: What is the crust made out of?

Answer: Solid rock.

Question: Made of basalt rock, this layer is located beneath the ocean. What’s it called?

Answer: The oceanic crust.

Question: Where is the continental crust?

Answer: It’s located beneath the continents.

Question: What is the continental crust made of?

Answer: Granite rock.

Question: The thickest layer of the earth is called what?

Answer: The mantle.

Question: Is the mantle made of hot rock or cold rock?

Answer: Hot rock.

Question: The lithosphere and the asthenosphere are located in which layer of the earth?

Answer: The mantle.

Question: What part of the earth is made if iron and nickel?

Answer: The core.

Question: What did Wegner call his super continent?

Answer: Pangaea.

What are the weakness of the non-state actors whether they are IGO or INGO?

The major weakness of non-state actors is that they do not have the legal power, combined with the actual “physical” ability, to coerce individuals or countries that do not do as they wish.  This often makes them ineffective when they try to change the world for (as they see it) the better.

States have both the authority and (in almost all cases) the actual power to coerce individuals and groups within their own borders.  This means that they can force individuals, companies, and others to change in ways that they think best.  For example, if the Chinese government wants to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases, it can simply order people within its borders to drive less or to shut down factories that emit too much gas.  It has this legal right (unless it takes that right away from itself) and it has the power to force people to comply if it cares enough.

By contrast, IGOs and INGOs do not have this combination of power.  IGOs do often have the legal authority to coerce countries.  For example, the UN has the legal power to coerce Iran to make it stop its nuclear program because Iran signed a treaty giving up its right to have such a program.  However, the UN does not have the physical capability of enforcing this.  It can levy economic sanctions and even go to war with Iran, but only if enough of its member countries are willing to play along.  The UN does not have its own army or police force to coerce Iran into dropping its nuclear program.  INGOs do not even have the legal power to force a country to do anything.  If there is an INGO dedicated to stopping global warming, it cannot require any country or any company to reduce its emissions.  It has to try to persuade countries or companies to do these things.  This makes an INGO even weaker than an IGO.

States have the legal right and the actual power to coerce individuals and groups within their own borders.  Non-state actors lack one or both of these characteristics.  This is the major reason why such groups are, to some degree, weak. 

From To Kill a Mockingbird, what are some passages containing literary elements and themes?

There are a couple of passages that contain literary elements as well as major themes from Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird. They are based off of what something Atticus says because he is the major role model in which wisdom resides. Since the story is written from Scout's point of view, too, she tends to get much of her guidance and advice from her father. One of the first pieces of advice she receives is after her first day of school. Things didn't go well with her teacher or among her classmates. Atticus tells his daughter the following:

"First of all. . . if you can learn a simple trick, Scout, you'll get along a lot better with all kinds of folks. You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view--until you climb into his skin and walk around in it" (30).

Atticus uses the visual image and metaphor of climbing into someone else's skin, then walking around in it, to make a point that also becomes a guiding theme in the novel. That theme could be phrased as follows: Never jump to any conclusions about a person until you have considered "things from his point of view." Atticus works with Scout throughout the story to help her overcome her hotheadedness and she refers back to this advice often to remind her of how to handle difficult situations.

The next theme has to do with the title of the book. When the children receive air rifles for Christmas in chapter nine, Atticus refuses to teach them how to shoot. Apparently, he doesn't believe in guns; but by chapter ten, Atticus makes sure to lay down one major rule, as follows:

"I'd rather you shot at tin cans in the back yard, but I know you'll go after birds. Shoot all the bluejays you want, if you can hit 'em, but remember it's a sin to kill a mockingbird" (90).

Atticus means what he says literally, but there is also an analogy being used here because Boo Radley and Tom Robinson are symbols of mockingbirds. Mockingbirds are innocent and harmless just like these two men are in their respective places in Maycomb society. Yet, people treat them with disrespect and prejudice. The theme is not to hurt the innocent and the harmless--especially when you have more opportunity and advantages over them.

What are death and dying's effects on mental states?

Introduction

People are unique while they are alive, and that uniqueness extends to death and dying. The manner in which people encounter and cope with a terminal disease and the dying process holds endless variations.

The Hippocratic philosophy of medicine declares that a physician must act in the best interests of the patient seeking care. The goal of medical care is to overcome sickness and relieve suffering, thus preserving life. Sometimes, however, it is necessary to add to a patient’s suffering to achieve ultimate relief, as with cancer treatments such as chemotherapy and radiation, and surgery that may result in periods of debilitation. These treatments are generally acceptable if there is a reasonable promise that they may ultimately reduce or eradicate a disease or condition. When only a small possibility of survival exists, however, patients may decide to end or forgo a particular course of treatment. That decision is generally made by the patient and the family in conjunction with the medical team. Religious and philosophical factors as well as age, family values, and family history may enter into the decision. Generational differences may also affect how the patient and the family approach or ultimately accept a terminal diagnosis.

Advance Directives

Death is a natural event, but end-of-life experiences are often shaped by medical, demographic, and cultural trends. Medical professionals have a duty to keep terminally injured or ill patients alive as long as possible by powerful medicines, machines, and aggressive medical care unless the patient desires otherwise. Often, however, patients have not expressed their desires in advance of becoming terminally ill or injured. If patients can no longer speak for themselves, other people must make decisions for them, frequently contrary to what the patients themselves would have wanted. This dilemma can be solved if a person writes a living will or advance directive, a document in which a person’s desires in the case of a terminal illness or injury are recorded in advance of entering such a state.

Advance directives, including durable powers of attorney (DPOA) for health care and do-not-resuscitate orders (DNR), allow legally competent individuals to express their wishes for future health decisions in the event that they are unable to participate directly and actively in medical decisions regarding their care. Patients can also designate a person or surrogate to act as decision maker. Advance directives are valuable because most family members find it difficult, if not overwhelming, to make complex choices about end-of-life care for a loved one. If patients have communicated their wishes about end-of-life care, however, their wishes can be respected. Advance directives are recognized in all fifty states in the United States and are legally binding if executed in accordance with state guidelines.

Advance directives are applicable only in situations in which patients are unable to participate in decisions regarding their health care. Decisions by legally competent patients always supersede written directives. In addition, people may revise or revoke advance directives as long as they remain able to participate in making medical decisions.

Legally competent
patients have certain rights, including the right to refuse treatment, the right to discontinue unwanted treatment that has already begun, the right to refuse nutrition and hydration even if that hastens death, and the right to change physicians. If the patient is incompetent, the proxy decision maker can inform the medical team about the patient’s wishes as enunciated in the advance directive.

Dying and the Hospice Movement

Most people do not die in a way of their choosing. During the fifteenth century, the Roman Catholic Church introduced a body of literature called ars moriendi, or the “art of dying,” which centered on the concept that people must be aware of and prepare for death during their entire life (this view held that a person’s entire lifetime is a preparation for death). People believed that the only possible attitude toward death was to let it happen once symptoms appeared. The only choice in death was to die in the best way possible, having made peace with God. Over centuries, that concept has evolved into the idea of a “good death,” and programs such as hospices have developed to manage the process of dying and make it as tranquil as possible. Evidence indicates that if they retain their awareness, the dying wish to be treated as human beings until the moment of their death. Preserving the dignity of the dying often means including them in discussions about the decision-making process surrounding their deaths and including them as family members. For a “good death,” or death with dignity, the dying should be treated with compassion, tenderness, dignity, and honesty.

Medical professionals are taught that listening is an important way of gathering information and assessing a patient’s physical and psychological condition. Moreover, listening also is a means of providing comfort. Even when the dying can no longer speak, it is widely believed that they can hear, so continuing to speak to the dying may provide physical or spiritual comfort.

The hospice movement, which began in the late 1980s, provides
palliative care (comforting rather than curing) for the dying. The dying are given humane and compassionate care with the goal of keeping the patient pain-free and alert as long as possible. The focus of palliative care is not on death but on compassionate, specialized care for the patient’s remaining life. Palliative care may be delivered in a hospital setting while treatments are being given or in a hospice or home setting. Both hospice and palliative care are individualized to suit the particular patient.

The Aging Process and Death

The aging process is explained by two main theories: the wear-and-tear theory, which attributes aging to the progressive damage to cells and organs through the process of carrying out their normal everyday functions, and the genetic theory, which holds that aging involves the existence of a genetically predetermined life span that controls the longevity of individual cells, organs, and entire organisms. Environmental factors such as pollutants and toxins in the atmosphere are believed to slowly damage genetic information transmitted by cells, resulting in errors in a cell’s function and leading to its death. Such mutations and cell death are also thought to be caused by free radicals in the atmosphere (unstable compounds that can damage cells) and impeded linkages in people’s deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). These changes in the organism manifest themselves as aging.

As people age, their bodies change and decrease in complexity, becoming less efficient at carrying out basic processes. For example, as arteries narrow, they begin to lose their ability to carry oxygen and nutrients, and they are less resilient after injury. The ultimate cause of death is generally the result of a progression that involves the entire body: the aging process.

Infection (often in the form of pneumonia) is exceeded only by atherosclerosis (commonly referred to as “hardening of the arteries”) as the leading cause of death of people eighty-five years of age or older. Alzheimer’s disease (a form of dementia) is the progressive degeneration and loss of large numbers of nerve cells in those portions of the brain associated with memory, learning, and judgment. Striking more than 12 percent of the United States population over the age of sixty-five, Alzheimer’s disease is projected to reach staggering proportions and strain resources. Other leading causes of death are cancer and stroke.

Dying

An innate life force compels the body to continue living, despite the ravages of disease. Ultimately, however, this life force diminishes until it stops completely and irreversibly. As the body begins the dying process, sleeping increases, food and beverage intake gradually decrease, breathing becomes labored and shallow (dyspnea), and periods of apnea (the absence of breathing) become longer and more frequent. Cyanosis, or a bluish discoloration of the skin due to the lack of oxygen and an increase of carbon monoxide, may indicate an impaired circulatory system. Convulsions may also occur as blood pressure falls, oxygen supply to the brain diminishes, and brain cells malfunction. Decaying flesh may also emit an odor, and fever and sweating may occur. The patient may become restless as an increased heart rate attempts to compensate for the lack of oxygen. The exhausted heart ultimately slows and then stops completely. Hearing and vision decrease, and brain activity slows. The so-called death rattle and foaming at the mouth are also indications of the shutting down of the body.

When death has occurred, the person will no longer respond to word or touch. The eyes will be fixed and the eyelids slightly open, the jaw will be relaxed and slightly open, and the skin will assume a dull and lifeless appearance. Medical or clinical death, when the heartbeat and respiration cease, is the oldest means of determining death. Brain death is the newest criterion for determining that death has occurred. Tiny electrodes are placed on the patient’s scalp to detect electrical activity in the brain through means of an electroencephalogram (EEG). A flat EEG indicates that brain cells are dead. When deprived of oxygen, brain cells die within four to six minutes. A person can live indefinitely in a persistent vegetative state if the brain stem is still functioning, although there is much debate about whether that condition constitutes life.

Despite many signs, it sometimes remains difficult for physicians to declare unequivocally that death has occurred. For that reason, in 1968, the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School published what has become known as the “Harvard Guidelines.” It is recommended that a patient be declared dead only after having been monitored twice during a twenty-four-hour period in which no changes appear: unresponsiveness of vital signs, no movement or spontaneous breathing, no motor reflexes (pupils unresponsive to light), and a flat EEG.

Kübler-Ross Stages of Death

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, a Swiss psychiatrist, revolutionized care of the terminally ill. Credited with helping to end the taboo in Western culture regarding open discussions and studies of death, she helped change the care of many terminally ill patients by making death less psychologically painful. She encouraged health care professionals to speak openly to dying patients about their experiences in facing death, thereby learning from them. This was a revolutionary step because dying was equated with failure by the medical profession.

In her best seller On Death and Dying (1969), Kübler-Ross identified five stages of death based on interviews with patients and health care professionals. The first stage, denial and isolation, occurs when patients are first confronted with a terminal diagnosis and declare that it just cannot be true. Despite overwhelming medical evidence to the contrary, patients will rationalize, thinking that X rays or pathology reports were mixed up and that they can get a more positive diagnosis elsewhere. Patients seek examination and reexamination. Denial acts as a buffer, allowing patients time to collect themselves and digest the shocking news. Denial as a temporary defense is gradually replaced by partial acceptance.

The second stage involves anger, when patients question why they have a terminal condition and feel resentment, envy, and rage. They begin to face reality and direct hostility toward family, friends, and doctors.

The third stage involves bargaining; patients seek to extend their lives in exchange for doing good deeds. Bargaining is an attempt to postpone death, according to Kübler-Ross, and must include a prize “for good behavior.” Most bargains are made with higher powers (God, in the case of Christians and Jews) and generally remain secret or mentioned only to a chaplain or other religious leader.

The fourth stage involves depression, when people become despondent because they realize that death is imminent and bargaining is unrealistic. Anger and rage are soon replaced by a sense of great loss. Depression involves past losses as well as impending losses (anticipatory grief).

The fifth stage is acceptance, reached when people admit that everything possible has been done. Patients assume a “so-be-it” attitude, neither depressed nor angry. They typically are able to express previous feelings, such as envy for the living and healthy, and anger at those who do not have to face their destiny so soon. Having already mourned meaningful people and places, patients are able to contemplate the coming end of life with quiet and often detached expectation. Acceptance is almost void of feelings, and as peace comes to patients, their interests diminish. Nonverbal communication between family members, patients, and staff assumes a greater significance. Reassurance that the dying person is not alone is important.

Developed initially as a model for helping to understand how dying patients cope with death, the Kübler-Ross model and its five phases have been adopted by many as the stages that survivors experience during the grieving process. The concept also provides insight and guidance for adjusting to personal trauma and change, and for helping others cope with emotional upheaval, whatever the cause.

However, controversy surrounds the categorization of death and dying proposed by Kübler-Ross. Sherwin B. Nuland, in How We Die: Reflections on Life’s Final Chapter (1994), states that experienced clinicians know that many patients do not progress overtly beyond the denial stage and that many patients actually continue denying the inevitable despite repeated attempts by physicians to clarify the issue. Other critics (such as Edward Schneidman) fault Kübler-Ross’s interviewing techniques, claiming that they rely on intuition, and argue that her conclusions are highly subjective. Others claim that one process does not apply universally to everyone and that patients do not progress smoothly from one stage to the next.

Thanatology

Thanatology
is the science that studies the events surrounding death and the social, legal, and psychological aspects of death. Health professionals including psychiatrists, forensic pathologists, advanced practice nurses, veterinarians, sociologists, and psychologists are the main members of the thanatology community. Thanatologists may study the cause of deaths, the legal implications of death such as autopsy requirements, and the social aspects surrounding death. Grief, burial customs, and social attitudes about death are frequent subjects. Thanatology also overlaps with forensics when it focuses on the changes that occur in the body in the period near death and afterward.

Some social issues explored by thanatologists, such as euthanasia and abortion, are subject to ethical and legal controversy. Laws set burial, cremation, and embalming requirements and determine rights over the bodies of the deceased. Clinical autopsies are generally required in cases of unexplained or violent death, when suicide or drug overdose is suspected, or when requested by the deceased’s family when a medical error is suspected or to confirm certain diseases.

Bibliography

Beresford, Larry. The Hospice Handbook: A Complete Guide. Boston: Little, 1993. Print.

Daoust, Ariane, and Eric Racine. "Depictions of 'Brain Death' in the Media: Medical and Ethical Implications." Jour. of Medical Ethics 40.4 (2014): 253–59. Print.

Despelder, Lynne Ann, and Albert Lee Strickland. The Last Dance: Encountering Death and Dying. 5th ed. Mountain View: Mayfield, 1999. Print.

Green, James W. Beyond the Good Death: The Anthropology of Modern Dying. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 2008. Print.

Kelly, Christine M. J. "What is a Good Death?" New Bioethics 20.1 (2014): 35–52. Print.

Kessler, David. The Needs of the Dying: A Guide for Bringing Hope, Comfort, and Love to Life’s Final Chapter. 10th ed. New York: Harper, 2007. Print.

Knox, Jean. Death and Dying. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2001. Print.

Kübler-Ross, Elisabeth. On Death and Dying. 1969. Reprint. New York: Routledge, 2009. Print.

L., G. "Death." New Scientist 20 Oct. 2012: 32–36. Print.

Mappes, Thomas A., and David DeGrazia. Biomedical Ethics. 6th ed. Boston: McGraw, 2006. Print.

Nuland, Sherwin B. How We Die: Reflections on Life’s Final Chapter. New York: Knopf, 1994. Print.

Parnia, Sam. What Happens When We Die: A Groundbreaking Study into the Nature of Life and Death. Carlsbad, Calif.: Hay House, 2006. Print.

Wanzer, Sidney H., and Joseph Glenmullen. To Die Well: Your Right to Comfort, Calm, and Choice in the Last Days of Life. Cambridge: Da Capo, 2007. Print.

In Night, why did all of this happen?

The Holocaust and the cruelty behind it were the reasons that everything in Wiesel's narrative happens.

When Adolf Hitler ascended to German political power, he was able to set in motion his plan for genocide.  This plan became known as the Holocaust, a genocide of Jewish people as well as anyone deemed an enemy of the Third Reich.  The 1944 Nazi entry into Sighet was intended to move the Jewish people there into work and concentration camps.  This marks the start of Wiesel's narrative. Wiesel's entry into Auschwitz- Birkenau and the work camp of Buna, as well as his struggle to survive are because of the Holocaust. He clearly establishes how human cruelty enabled the Holocaust to happen. This is seen in the way Wiesel depicts high-ranking Nazi officials like Dr. Mengele who acted "like a conductor" in the way he orchestrated the murder of millions to the guards like Idek, who took sadistic pleasure in beating prisoners.  Wiesel also shows how this tendency was replicated in the way some victims treated one another.  Moshe the Beadle and Madame Schachter are treated cruelly by fellow victims.  In being able to show the way in which dehumanization is a sadly human trait, Wiesel clearly demonstrates that one of the worst crimes perpetrated in human history was the result of cruelty against one another.  The entire book takes place against this historical and emotional backdrop.

Review the idea of locus of control. Who in our society has demonstrated a great level of external locus of control? What are some qualities of...

Locus of control refers to people's ideas about whether internal or external factors determine the outcome of a situation. Some people believe their locus of control is internal, meaning the outcome of a situation is contingent on their behavior. These people tend to try to control situations and tend to be more motivated to achieve success. Other people believe that external factors are at work in producing the outcome of a situation. These people have a high external locus of control, and they often react with passivity to situations. They believe factors such as fate or destiny control the outcome of situations. People are often on a spectrum between external and internal locus of control and do not fall neatly into one category or another. 

Research cited in Kirkpatrick, Stant, & Downes, 2008, suggests higher performing students have a high internal locus of control. They believe their success is a result of their abilities and efforts. Students who are lower-performing or have learning differences have a higher external source of control, attributing their outcomes to factors such as fate or the challenging nature of the test. Perhaps you know someone with a high internal locus of control who has a committed and strategic approach to doing well in class. That person does his or her homework, meets with teachers, and asks a lot of questions in class, as he or she believes academic performance is under one's control. 

According to research by Shieman (2001), older people often have a high external locus of control. This research suggests people's experiences with aging and retirement often lead them to have a higher external locus of control. Education and financial well-being, on the other hand, are associated with a higher internal locus of control. Slagsvold and Sorensen (2008) found women generally possess a lower internal locus of control than men but this gap is closing because of more equal educational opportunities for women. People with a high external locus of control may be more seemingly passive about achieving professional or financial success and pursuing academic and professional opportunities because they feel the outcome of situations is beyond their control. 

References:

Kirkpatrick, M.A., Stant, K., & Downes, S. (2008). Perceived locus of control and academic performance: broadening the construct’s applicability. Journal of College Student Development, Vol. 49 (5), 486-496.

Schieman, S. (2001). Age, education, and the sense of control: a test of the cumulative advantage hypothesis. Research on Aging vol. 23 (2), 153-178.

Slagsvold, B. & Sorensen, A. (2008). Age, education, and the gender gap in the sense of control. International Aging and Human Development, Vol. 67(1), 25-42.

What are childhood disorders?

Introduction

The concept of mental disorder, like many other concepts in science and
medicine, lacks a consistent operational definition that covers all situations. A
useful tool to evaluate mental disorders is the American Psychiatric Association’s

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders
(DSM). The DSM is coordinated with the
International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health
Problems (ICD), developed by the World Health
Organization for all diseases. A comprehensive manual, the
DSM conceptualizes a mental disorder as a syndrome characterized by clinically
significant disturbance in an individual's cognition,
emotional regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the
psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental
functioning. These disturbances must be more than expected and culturally
sanctioned responses to a particular event, for example, the death of a loved one.

Mental disorders that are predominantly diagnosed during childhood or
adolescence include intellectual disability,
learning
disorders, motor skills disorders, pervasive developmental
disorders, attention-deficit disorders, feeding
and eating
disorders, tic disorders, and elimination
disorders, among others. Other disorders are associated with
adults, but children may have them as well. This second group includes neurocognitive disorders;
mood
disorders; anxiety disorders; somatic symptom
disorders; factitious disorders; dissociative
disorders; sleep-wake disorders; disruptive,
impulse-control, and conduct disorders; and adjustment disorders. In the fifth
edition of the DSM (DSM-5), each diagnostic chapter is organized by chronological
order, with diagnoses most applicable to infancy and childhood listed first,
followed by diagnoses more common to adolescence and early adulthood, and ending
with diagnoses most relevant to adulthood.

Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability (also know as intellectual developmental disorder and
formerly known as mental retardation) involves impairments of general mental
abilities that affect adaptive functioning in three main areas: the conceptual
domain, which includes skills in language, mathematics, reasoning, and
memory; the social domain, which relates to empathy,
interpersonal communication skills, and social judgment; and the practical domain,
which involves self-management in areas such as personal care, job
responsibilities, money management, and organization. On an intelligence quotient
(IQ) test, intellectual disability is defined as two standard deviations or
more below the mean, corresponding to an IQ score of 70 or below. A common
misconception regarding intelligence tests is the assumption that these tests
represent an absolute trait. A low score on an intelligence test might reflect
below-average intellectual functioning, but it might also reflect illness,
distraction, or a native language or sociocultural background that differs from
that of the examiner or test creators, among other reasons. For this reason, the
DSM-5 emphasizes both clinical assessment of impairments in adaptive functioning
and standardized testing of intelligence when diagnosing intellectual disability.

There are four degrees of intellectual disability: mild, moderate, severe, or
profound. The severity of intellectual disability is determined by impairments in
adaptive functioning rather than by IQ score. Mild intellectual disability
characterizes more than 80 percent of individuals with intellectual disabilities.
By late adolescence, most individuals with mild intellectual disability can
function up to about a sixth-grade academic level. As adults, these individuals
typically live self-sufficiently in the community, although they may need
assistance when they are in unusual, complex, or stressful situations. People with
moderate intellectual disabilities have sufficient communication skills but may
struggle with social cues. These individuals profit from vocational training and,
with some support and instruction, can attend to personal care on their own.
Severe intellectual disability is characterized by limited communication skills
and the need for assistance in most activities of daily living. Most individuals
with several intellectual disabilities benefit from residence in supportive
housing. Individuals with profound intellectual disability typically require
twenty-four-hour care, have very limited communications skills, and often have
co-occurring sensory or physical disabilities. Individuals in this range account
for only 1 to 2 percent of persons with intellectual disabilities.

There are many causes of intellectual disabilities, but psychiatrists identify
a specific cause in only about 25 percent of cases. Causes for intellectual
disability include genetics, metabolic conditions such as phenylketonuria
(PKU) and congenital hypothyroidism, early
problems in embryonic or perinatal development, environmental influences such as
nutritional
deficiencies in infancy or exposure to toxins in utero, and
trauma.

Specific Learning Disorder

In specific learning disorders, a child’s academic achievement is substantially below that expected
for age, schooling, and level of intelligence. In children with learning
disorders, the specific learning difficulty persists for at least six months
despite intervention and instruction targeting the area of difficulty.
Approximately 5 to 15 percent of school-aged children worldwide have a learning
disorder. Learning disorders are different from normal variations in academic
achievement and from learning deficits caused by lack of opportunity, poor
teaching, or cultural factors. Impaired vision or hearing may affect learning
ability, so vision and hearing should be assessed by a health care provider if a
learning disorder is suspected. In order for an individual to fit the diagnostic
criteria for a specific learning disorders, the learning difficulties must occur
in the absence of intellectual disability, visual or hearing impairments, mental
disorders such as anxiety or depression, neurological disorder, psychosocial
difficulties, language differences, and lack of access to quality instruction.

Learning disorders can involve problems with reading, mathematics, written
expression, or some combination of these areas. In reading disorder, a family
pattern is often present. In mathematics and written expression disorder, parents
or teachers typically notice a problem as early as the second or third grade but
not earlier, because few children are exposed to mathematics or formal writing
instruction before then.

Motor Disorders

Motor disorders include developmental coordination disorder, stereotypic movement
disorder, Tourette syndrome, persistent (chronic) motor or vocal
tic
disorder, provisional tic disorder, other specified tic
disorder, and unspecified tic disorder. Motor disorders are typically diagnosed in
childhood. Motor disorders involve abnormal and involuntary movements and are
often characterized by marked delays in motor development.

A tic is a sudden, rapid, recurrent, nonrhythmic, stereotyped
motor movement or vocalization. For example, the person may have an eye tic that
involves small, jerky, involuntary movement of the muscles surrounding the eye.
All children and adults experience mild tics, but a tic disorder means that the tics are frequent, recurrent, and not due to
substances or medical conditions.

Communication Disorders

Communication disorders include problems with expressive or receptive language, phonology,
stuttering, or some combination of these areas. Aspects of
these problems vary depending on their severity and the child’s age.

When the problem involves expressive language, the features may include limited
speech, limited vocabulary, difficulty acquiring new words, and simplified
sentences. Nonlinguistic functioning and comprehension, however, are within normal
limits. When the problem involves difficulties with both expressive language and
receptive language, the child also has difficulty understanding words, sentences,
or specific types of words. When the problem involves phonology, the child fails
to use developmentally expected speech sounds. Severity ranges from a limited
vocabulary to completely unintelligible speech. Lisping may
also be present. When the problem involves stuttering, the child has a disturbance
in the normal fluency and time patterning of speech.

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by impaired social interactions or communication
skills and by restricted or repetitive behaviors, interests, and activities. As of
the DSM-5, ASD encompasses four diagnoses that were previously categorized as
separate disorders in the fourth edition of the DSM: autistic disorder (autism),
Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, and childhood disintegrative disorder. ASD is
usually evident in the first years of life and may be associated with some degree
of intellectual disability. ASD is sometimes observed with a diverse group of
other general medical conditions, including chromosomal abnormalities, congenital
infections, and structural central nervous system abnormalities.

ASD involves abnormal social interactions and communication and a
restricted repertoire of activity and interests. The child may fail to maintain
eye-to-eye contact or to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements spontaneously
with others and may develop no age-appropriate peer relationships. The child also
shows qualitative impairment in communication, such as delay in developing spoken
language, inability to initiate or sustain a conversation, or repetitive use of
language. Children with this disorder may be uninterested in other children,
including siblings. In recent decades, major headway has been made in treating
children with ASD through behavioral management therapy and cognitive behavioral
therapy, particularly those children with ASD who benefit
from early intervention.

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) involves persistent inattention
or hyperactivity and impulsivity that is more severe than is typical for the
child’s age. Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms must be present
before the age of twelve, persist for at least six months, and be present in at
least two settings, such as school and home. Most children with ADHD show a
combined set of problems, including both inattention and hyperactivity. Symptoms
of ADHD include failure to pay close attention to details, difficulty organizing
tasks and activities, excessive talking, fidgeting, an inability to remain seated
in appropriate situations, and frequent interruptions or intrusions.

Feeding and Eating Disorders

These disorders include persistent feeding and eating disturbances. They
include pica, rumination, feeding disorder, anorexia, and bulimia.

Pica involves persistently eating one or more nonnutritive substances, such as
paint or dirt. The behavior is developmentally inappropriate and not part of a
culturally sanctioned practice.

Rumination involves repeated regurgitation and rechewing of food after feeding.
Infants may develop rumination after a period of normal functioning, and it lasts
for at least one month. The infant shows no apparent nausea, retching, disgust, or
associated gastrointestinal disorder. Age of onset is between three months and
twelve months.

Feeding disorder involves persistent failure to eat adequately without a
gastrointestinal or other general medical explanation. Infants with this disorder
may be more irritable and difficult to console during feeding than other infants.
Age of onset is before six years.

Anorexia
nervosa, often called simply anorexia, involves refusing to
maintain a minimally normal body weight (85 percent less than expected), being
intensely afraid of gaining weight, and having a distorted body image. Teenaged
girls with anorexia may have such a low body weight that they stop having
menstrual periods.

Bulimia
nervosa, often called simply bulimia, involves binge eating
and inappropriate compensatory methods to prevent weight gain, such as purging or
using laxatives excessively. Episodes of binging and purging occur at least twice
a week for at least three months. Individuals with this disorder experience a lack
of control over eating, and their self-evaluation is unduly influenced by body
shape and weight. Bulimia is also most typical of adolescent girls from
industrialized societies.

Elimination Disorders

Elimination disorders involve age-inappropriate soiling (encopresis) or wetting
(enuresis). Most often the behavior is involuntary, but occasionally it may be
intentional. The incontinence must not be due to substances or a general medical
condition.

Encopresis involves passage of feces into inappropriate places such as clothing or the floor that occurs at least once a month for at least three months. The child must be at least four years old. Most commonly, there is evidence of constipation and feces are poorly formed. Less often, there is no evidence of constipation and feces are normal. Encopresis is more common with boys than with girls.

Enuresis involves repeated voiding of urine into bed sheets or clothes that
occurs at least twice per week for at least three months or else causes clinically
significant distress or impairment. The child must be at least five years old.
Nocturnal enuresis occurs only at night and is most common. Diurnal enuresis occurs
only during the day and more often with girls than with boys. It is uncommon after
age nine.

Other Childhood Disorders

A few other disorders are more characteristic of children than adults. They
include separation anxiety disorder, selective mutism, reactive attachment
disorder, and stereotypic movement disorder.

Although most children experience some transient anxiety when separated from a
loved one, children with separation anxiety disorder have excessive anxiety when
separated from the home or from their attachment figures. The anxiety lasts for at
least four weeks, begins before age eighteen years, and causes clinically
significant distress or impairment.

Children with selective mutism persistently fail to speak in specific social
situations (such as school or with playmates) where speaking is expected, despite
speaking in other situations. The disturbance interferes with educational or
occupational achievement or with social communication and bonding. Selective
mutism lasts for at least one month and is not limited to the first month of
school, when many children may be shy and reluctant to speak.

Reactive attachment disorder involves markedly disturbed and developmentally
inappropriate social relatedness in most contexts. It begins before age five and
is associated with grossly pathological care, such as child abuse or
neglect. In inhibited attachment, the child persistently
fails to initiate and respond to most social interactions in a developmentally
appropriate way. In disinhibited attachment, the child shows indiscriminate
sociability or a lack of selectivity in the choice of attachment figures. Thus,
the child has diffuse attachments and shows excessive familiarity with relative
strangers.

Stereotypic movement disorder involves motor behavior that is repetitive,
seemingly driven, and nonfunctional. For example, the child may repeatedly strike
a wall. The motor behavior markedly interferes with normal activities or results
in self-inflicted bodily injury that would require medical treatment if
unprotected.

Adult Disorders in Children

In addition to disorders associated with infancy, childhood, or adolescence,
children may have behavioral or psychological disorders that are typically
associated with adults. They include schizophrenia, mood disorders, anxiety,
somatic symptom disorders, factitious disorders, dissociative disorders, sleep
disorders, impulse-control disorders, and adjustment disorders.

Schizophrenia involves delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech and behavior, with
symptoms lasting for at least six months. Onset is typically late teens to
mid-thirties.

Depression involves loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities.
Additional symptoms include changes in appetite, sleep, or activity; decreased
energy; feelings of worthlessness or guilt; difficulty thinking, concentrating, or
making decisions; and recurrent thoughts of death or suicide. Bipolar disorder
involves at least one episode of mania as well as at least one episode of
depression.

Anxiety disorders include panic disorder, agoraphobia, specific phobias, social anxiety disorder,
and generalized anxiety disorder. Trauma- and stressor-related disorders include
posttraumatic stress disorder and adjustment disorder. Obsessive-compulsive and
related disorders include obsessive-compulsive disorder, body dysmorphic
disorder, trichotillomania, and hoarding
disorder.

Somatic symptom disorder is characterized by one or more chronic symptoms about
which the patient is excessively concerned, preoccupied, or fearful, causing
significant distress or dysfunction. Illness anxiety disorder is characterized by
heightened bodily sensations and intense anxiety about the possibility of having
an undiagnosed illness; patients with illness anxiety disorder may spend excessive
amounts of time worrying about and researching health concerns, and they are not
easily reassured about their health status.

Factitious disorders are characterized by intentionally produced physical or
psychological symptoms. The motivation is to assume the sick role.

Dissociative disorders involve disruptions in consciousness, memory, identity, or perception that are more than ordinary
forgetfulness. One dissociative disorder is psychogenic amnesia, which involves an
inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or
stressful nature. Another is dissociative identity disorder, formerly called multiple personality
disorder, which is characterized by two or more distinct identities.

Sleep-wake disorders may be due to other mental disorders, medical conditions,
or substances. Sleep-wake disorders arise from abnormalities in the ability to
generate or maintain sleep-wake cycles. Symptoms of sleep disorder may include
insomnia
(difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep), hypersomnia (excessive sleepiness),
narcolepsy
(irresistible attacks of sleep), nightmares, sleep terror, or sleepwalking.

Disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders are characterized by
problems in emotional and behavioral self-control. The essential feature of
impulse control disorders is a failure to resist an impulse, drive, or temptation to
perform an act that is harmful to self or others.

Adjustment disorders involve a psychological response to an identifiable stressor that results in
emotional or behavioral symptoms. As with other disorders, one must consider
cultural setting in evaluating for the possibility of this disorder.

Bibliography

Barkley, R. A.
“Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.” Scientific
American 279.3 (1998): 66–71. Print.

Costello, Charles
G. Symptoms of Schizophrenia. New York: Wiley, 2000. Print.

Davis, Andrew S., ed.
Psychopathology of Childhood and Adolescence: A
Neuropsychological Approach. New York: Springer, 2012.
Print.

Glasberg, Beth A.
Functional Behavior Assessment for People With Autism: Making
Sense of Seemingly Senseless Behavior. Bethesda: Woodbine House,
2000. Print.

Howlin, Patricia.
Autism: Preparing for Adulthood. 2d ed. London:
Routledge, 2004. Print.

Levy, Terry M., and
Michael Orlans. Attachment, Trauma, and Healing: Understanding and
Treating Attachment Disorder in Children and Families.
Washington: Child Welfare League of America, 1998. Print.

Mash, Eric J., and Russell A. Barkley.
Child Psychopathology. 3rd ed. New York: Guilford, 2014.
Print.

Parritz, Robin Hornik, and Michael F.
Troy. Disorders of Childhood: Development and
Psychopathology. 2nd ed. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2012. Print.

Schwartz, S.
Abnormal Psychology: A Discovery Approach. Mountain
View: Mayfield, 2000. Print.

What is the overall message of the poem "Dulce Et Decorum Est" by Wilfred Owen?

"Dulce Et Decorum Est" is an anti-war poem by Wilfred Owen, a soldier in the British Army during World War I. The title of the poem is derived from a poem by Horace, an ancient Roman, who claimed that it was "sweet and fitting (dulce et decorum)" to die for one's country. This statement was being echoed by many British politicians in Owen's day, and it is his intent with this poem to prove that it was, as he flatly says, a "lie." He describes the drudgery and misery of war, opening the poem by describing soldiers slogging through mud "knock-kneed, like old beggars under sacks," coughing "like hags." As they are slowly marching along, a gas shell explodes nearby, and as the men fumble to put on their gas masks, they are horrified to realize that one of their number has failed to get his mask on. Owen then describes, in equally vivid language, the horrors of the man's death struggle as he thrashes about "like a man in fire or lime" and drowns as his lungs fill with fluid. The scene is terrifying, and Owen tells the reader that if they had witnessed such carnage, they would not tell the "old lie" that it was sweet and fitting to die for one's country. With these lines, he sends a powerful antiwar message through the eyes of one who has witnessed the worst of war.

What does Timothy do to prepare Phillip for fishing in Theodore Taylor's The Cay?

In Theodore Taylor's The Cay, Timothy makes many preparations to teach Phillip how to fish, and learning to fish becomes critical when Timothy is afflicted with malaria. Though he gets better, there is a great chance he could be afflicted again due to his old age.

Timothy's first preparation is to shape many nails into fish hooks for Phillip to use and to attach those hooks to strands of a life line from the raft to use as fishing lines. A second preparation Timothy undertakes is finding an excellent fishing hole that is also very safe because it is on the reef. Every two feet along the reef, Timothy had "driven a piece of driftwood deep into the coral crevices so that [Phillip] could feel them as [he] went along" (p. 94). Another important preparation is teaching Phillip to get used to the fishing hole. He teaches Phillip how large it is and lets him feel along the ledge. He also teaches him what to do should he fall in to the hole.

To fish, Timothy teaches Phillip how to grab mussels, open the shells, and use a knife to pull out the mussel meat to use as bait on the hooks. Phillip then drops the line and baited hook into the water of the hole and, within a moment, he feels a "sharp tug" and flips the fish over his shoulder onto the reef (p. 96).

How does Lady Macbeth play a crucial role in the play Macbeth?

Lady Macbeth plays a crucial role throughout the play by planning and convincing her husband to murder King Duncan. Although Macbeth is an ambitious person, it is Lady Macbeth's will to become queen that drives her to influence Macbeth. Macbeth is initially unsure about committing regicide until his wife begins to ridicule and criticize him. Lady Macbeth questions her husband's manhood and challenges him to take control of his own destiny. She then explains the plan to murder Duncan and assures Macbeth that everything will work out perfectly. After Macbeth murders Duncan, Lady Macbeth enters his room and plants the daggers on Duncan's chamberlains. She then tells Macbeth to wash his hands and begin acting friendly as if nothing happened. Her role is critical throughout the play because she convinces her husband to murder Duncan which sets into motion a series of unfortunate events that lead to Macbeth's downfall. 

`int sqrt(5 + 4x - x^2) dx` Evaluate the integral

`intsqrt(5+4x-x^2)dx`

Rewrite the integrand by completing the square: 

`=intsqrt(-(x-2)^2+9)dx`

Now apply the integral substitution,

Let u=x-2,

`=>du=dx`

`=intsqrt(9-u^2)du`

Now using the standard integral:

`intsqrt(a^2-x^2)dx=(xsqrt(a^2-x^2))/2+a^2/2sin^(-1)x/a+C`  

`intsqrt(9-u^2)du=(usqrt(3^2-u^2))/2+3^2/2sin^(-1)u/3`

`=(usqrt(9-u^2))/2+9/2sin^(-1)u/3`

Substitute back u=x-2,

`=((x-2)sqrt(9-(x-2)^2))/2+9/2sin^(-1)((x-2)/3)`

Add a constant C to the solution,

`=((x-2)sqrt(9-(x-2)^2))/2+9/2sin^(-1)((x-2)/3)+C`

What are the four main incidents in The Story of My Life?

Helen Keller detailed the events of her life from her birth to her early twenties in her autobiography, The Story of My Life.  She detailed many important events in her life.  The following are four very important ones:

- Helen Keller lost her sight and hearing when she was almost two years old.  She had what doctors called "acute congestion of the stomach and brain."  They thought that Helen might not live.  She did live, but the sickness caused her to become deaf and blind.

-  Annie Sullivan came to live with the Keller family.  She became Helen's teacher and her constant companion.  Miss Sullivan was a determined woman.  She did not give up on Helen.

-  After many attempts, Annie helped Helen to discover language.  Helen had a breakthrough moment when Miss Sullivan held her hand under a waterspout.  As the water poured over Helen's hand, Miss Sullivan spelled "w-a-t-e-r" into the girl's palm.  Helen made the connection that those letters meant the cool liquid.  After that, she began to learn how to communicate through fingerspelling.  Helen later said that the word "water" "awakened [her] soul, gave it light, hope, joy, set it free!"

-  Miss Sullivan taught Helen how to communicate and learn.  Helen was able to go to school.  She attended school beginning in 1894.  Helen studied mathematics, literature, history, and many other subjects.  She learned to write using a special typewriter.  Helen also made attempts to learn how to speak.  Helen even went to college.