What are attitude formation and change?

Introduction

An attitude is a person’s positive or negative evaluation of an object or thought; examples include “I support gun control,” “I dislike brand X,” and “I love the person next door.” Much research finds that attitudes can influence a broad range of cognitive processes, such as social inference, reasoning, perception, and interpretation, and can thereby influence behavior. In general, people favor, approach, praise, and cherish those things they like and disfavor, avoid, blame, and harm those things they dislike. Given that attitudes can have pervasive effects on social behavior, it is important to understand how they are formed and changed.

Attitudes can be formed directly through observation of one’s own behavior or through experience with the attitude object. They may also be formed by exposure to social influences such as parents, peers, the mass media, schools, religious organizations, and important reference groups. William McGuire notes that attitudes are one of the most extensively studied topics in social psychology. Much of this research has centered on the question, Who says what to whom, with what effects?

For example, research has varied the source (the “who”) of a message and found that people tend to be most persuaded by credible, trustworthy, attractive, and similar communicators. Research on message characteristics (the “what”) has shown that appeals to fear increase persuasion if accompanied by specific recommendations for how to avoid the fear; that there is a tendency for arguments presented first to have more impact, especially if there is a delay between hearing the arguments and making an evaluation; and that messages that present only one side of an issue are most effective when the recipient lacks the skills or motivation to process the information. In general, research has shown that an audience (the “whom”) is less persuaded if the message is wildly discrepant from their original beliefs; such research also finds that an audience is less persuaded if they have been forewarned about the persuasion attempt and take steps to prepare a counterargument. The effects of social influence are usually described in terms of compliance (attitude change, often short-lived, as a result of wanting to obtain rewards or avoid punishment), identification (change as a result of seeking to be similar to or distinguished from the source of a message), and internalization (change as a result of accepting a position on the basis of its merits).

Early Research

The learning model, perhaps social psychology’s first theory of persuasion, is based on the research of Carl Hovland
and his colleagues at Yale University in the 1950s. According to this model, a message is persuasive when it rewards the recipient at each of the following stages of psychological processing of a message: attention, comprehension, message learning, and yielding. For example, a highly credible source is persuasive because people find it rewarding to attend to and comprehend what he or she says and then to act on it.

One problem with the learning model of persuasion is that subsequent research in the 1960s found that persuasion could occur even if the message was only minimally comprehended and the message’s content was forgotten or never learned. To account for these results, the cognitive response approach posited that the key determinant of persuasion was not message learning but the thoughts running through a person’s head as that individual received a communication. Effective communications are ones that direct and channel thoughts so that the target thinks in a manner agreeable to the communicator’s point of view.

Later research reversed the causal sequence of the learning model from one of “attitudes cause behavior” to “behavior causes attitudes.” Two theories that use this counterintuitive approach are cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory. According to consistency theories such as cognitive dissonance theory, people attempt to rationalize their behavior and to avoid a state of dissonance, or simultaneously holding two contradictory cognitions (ideas, beliefs, or opinions). Persuasion occurs as a result of resolving this dissonance. For example, fraternity and sorority pledges often must perform embarrassing behavior to gain admission to the organization. The thoughts “I just ate a plate of grasshoppers as an initiation rite” and “It is stupid to eat grasshoppers” are dissonant with a positive view of the self. One way to reduce this dissonance is to reevaluate the fraternity or sorority more positively: “I ate those grasshoppers because I wanted to join a great club.”

Self-perception theory states that attitudes are based on observing one’s own behavior and then attributing the behavior to underlying beliefs. For example, suppose a man is at a dinner party and is served brown bread, which he then eats. When asked if he likes brown bread, he observes his eating behavior and concludes that he does (unless there is some other plausible reason, such as coercion or politeness). Although dissonance theories serve to explain attitude change when existing attitudes conflict with a person’s current behavior, self-perception theory proposes that when there is no better available explanation for a person’s behavior, observing what the person does is the best indication of his or her attitudes.

Social judgment theory attempts to explain how attitude formation and change occur within a single social context. Attitude change can occur when the context for making judgments is changed. For example, in one study, men rated photographs of women as much less attractive after viewing the 1970s television show Charlie’s Angels. In other words, the very attractive female stars of Charlie’s Angels provided a highly positive context in which to rate the photographs and thus made women of average attractiveness appear much less attractive.

Dual-Mode Processing Models

In an effort to synthesize the vast amount of persuasion research, psychologists proposed a dual-mode processing approach to attitude formation and change. Dual-mode processing models emphasize two factors that influence the success of a persuasion attempt: the recipient’s motivation and the recipient’s ability to process an argument.

Richard Petty and John Cacioppo have suggested that there are two routes to persuasion. In the peripheral route, recipients give little thought to a message, perhaps because they have little motivation to think about it or lack the necessary skills. Persuasion via this route is based less on the arguments made and more on simple persuasion cues or heuristics such as the credibility of the source and the number of other people who agree with the message. Cognitive dissonance, self-perception, and social judgment theory models of attitude change often emphasize peripheral routes, as anxiety reduction, the lack of alternative explanations, and contextual cues are the important determinants of persuasion, rather than careful analysis of the message.

In the central route, where people are motivated and able to process the message, recipients carefully scrutinize the communication, and persuasion is determined by the quality and cogency of the arguments. The central route is emphasized in cognitive response theories of persuasion. Although cognitive responses can vary on a number of dimensions, two of the most important ones are evaluation and elaboration. Most cognitive responses to a message are either positive evaluations (support arguments) or negative evaluations (counterarguments) of the message’s conclusion. Studies have shown that disrupting these cognitive responses and decreasing the recipient’s ability to process the argument using a mild distraction, such as background noises or difficult-to-read print, results in more persuasion when the recipient’s natural tendency would be to make arguments against the message and less persuasion when the recipient normally would have supported the message. Elaboration refers to how much thought a recipient gives to a message. Recipients who are highly motivated to analyze an argument are likely to give it more thought.

Dual-process models of attitude change have led researchers to examine when and why recipients are motivated to process a message carefully. Three such motivations have been suggested: to make sense of themselves and their world, to protect or defend existing self-perceptions or worldviews, and to maintain or enhance their social status. When the message corresponds to an individual’s immediate motivations, persuasion attempts are more effective. For example, individuals who are more image conscious and motivated to enhance their social status are more likely to be persuaded by arguments that emphasize the social consequences of a behavior, while messages that emphasize the personal benefits of a behavior are more effective with those who are more internally guided.

Functional theories of attitude change incorporate these motivational goals. Functional theories posit that attitude formation and change are made when such change would function to serve a recipient’s needs. For example, consider someone who is prejudiced against an ethnic group. This negative attitude helps the person interpret, often incorrectly, social reality (“Members of this ethnic group can do no good and often are the cause of problems”) and maintain a positive view of self (“I am better than they are”), and it may also enhance the person’s social status (“I am a member of a superior social group”). Advertisers make use of functional theories when they market products to appeal to self-images; in such cases, a product is used in order to obtain a desired image, such as appearing to be sophisticated, macho, or a modern woman.

History of Persuasion Research

In an article published in 1935, Gordon Allport declared that attitude is social psychology’s “most indispensable construct.” Research on attitudes began in the 1920s in the United States as a response to changing social conditions. The period was marked by the rise of new mass media such as radio and mass-circulated magazines, the development of large-scale consumer markets, and the changing nature of political activity. Such developments required that citizens' attitudes and opinions regarding a variety of issues be measured and tracked. Academic researchers responded by developing techniques of attitude scaling and measurement and by laying the foundation for survey methodology. The first empirical research on attitudes sought to address questions such as “How are movies changing Americans’ attitudes and values?” and “Has modern life changed traditional cultural attitudes?”

World War II changed the focus of attitude research from measurement to understanding attitude change and persuasion. Many of the post–World War II attitude researchers had either fled Nazi Germany or worked for the Allies in an attempt to defuse Nazi propaganda and bolster their fellow citizens’ attitudes toward the war effort. After the war, in the 1950s, many researchers attempted to explain the propaganda and attitude-change tactics used during the war and later increasingly employed in the mass media. This research resulted in the development of learning, functional, social judgment, and cognitive consistency theories of persuasion.

Practical Applications

Research and theorizing on attitude change have led to the development of numerous tactics and principles of persuasion. These principles are useful for interpreting persuasion effects, such as those that occur in mass media and interpersonal or organizational settings, and for directing persuasion attempts. Three of the more popular tactics will be discussed here.

One of the simplest and most surefire ways to ensure positive cognitive responses is to induce the target to argue for the message conclusion, a tactic known as self-generated persuasion. For example, in one study during World War II, women were asked to “help” a researcher by coming up with reasons that other women should serve organ and intestinal meats (brains, kidneys, and so on) to their families as part of the war effort. These women were eleven times as likely to serve such meats as those who were merely lectured to do so. In another study, some consumers were asked to imagine the benefits of subscribing to cable television, while others were simply informed about those benefits. Those who imagined subscribing were two and a half times as likely to subscribe as those who were merely told why they should.

The foot-in-the-door technique makes use of cognitive dissonance theory. In this tactic, the communicator secures compliance with a large request by first putting his or her “foot in the door” by asking for a small favor that almost everyone will typically do. For example, in one study, residents were asked to place in their yards a large, ugly sign that read “Drive Carefully.” Few residents complied unless they had been “softened up” the week before by an experimenter who got them to sign a petition favoring safe driving. For those residents, putting the ugly sign in the yard helped avoid cognitive dissonance: “Last week I supported safe driving. This week I will be a hypocrite if I do not put this ugly sign in my yard.”

Another effective tactic is to add a decoy, or a worthless item that no one would normally want, to a person’s set of choices. For example, a real-estate agent may show customers overpriced, run-down homes, or a car dealer may place an old clunker of a used car on his or her lot. Consistent with social judgment theory, such decoys create a context for judging the other “real” alternatives and make them appear more attractive. An unsuspecting consumer is then more likely to select and buy these more attractive items.

Attitude research since the 1960s has sought to test and develop the major theories of attitude change, to refine the principles of persuasion, and to apply these principles to an ever-expanding list of targets. For example, research on the relationship between attitude change and memory of a communication led to the development of a cognitive response analysis of persuasion in the late 1960s. Many of the compliance techniques described by Robert Cialdini and by Anthony Pratkanis and Elliot Aronson were first elaborated in this period. As knowledge of persuasion improves, the principles of persuasion are increasingly applied to solve social problems. Prosocial goals to which theories of persuasion have been applied include decreasing energy consumption and increasing waste recycling, slowing the spread of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) by changing attitudes toward safe-sex practices, lowering the automobile death toll by increasing seat-belt use, improving health by promoting practices such as good dental hygiene and regular medical checkups, improving worker morale and worker relationships, and reducing intergroup prejudice.

Bibliography

Allport, Gordon W. “Attitudes.” Handbook of Social Psychology. Ed. Carl Allanmore Murchison. Worcester: Clark UP, 1935. 798–844. Print.

Chen, Frances S., et al. "In the Eye of the Beholder: Eye Contact Increases Resistance to Persuasion." Psychological Science 24.11 (2013): 2254–61. Print.

Cialdini, Robert B. Influence: Science and Practice. 5th ed. Boston: Pearson, 2009. Print.

Crano, William D., and Radmila Prislin, eds. Attitudes and Attitude Change. New York: Psychology, 2008. Print.

Eagly, Alice H., and Shelly Chaiken. The Psychology of Attitudes. Fort Worth: Harcourt, 1993. Print.

Jay Frye, G. D., Charles G. Lord, and Sara E. Brady. "Attitude Change following Imagined Positive Actions toward a Social Group: Do Memories Change Attitudes, or Attitudes Change Memories?" Social Cognition 30.3 (2012): 307–22. Print.

Perloff, R. M. The Dynamics of Persuasion. New York: Erlbaum, 2008. Print.

Petty, Richard E., and John T. Cacioppo. Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches. Boulder: Westview, 1996. Print.

Petty, Richard E., and Duane T. Wegener. “Attitude Change: Multiple Roles for Persuasion Variables.” Handbook of Social Psychology. Ed. Daniel T. Gilbert, Susan T. Fiske, and Gardner Lindzey. 4th ed. Vol. 1. New York: McGraw, 1998. 323–90. Print.

Pratkanis, Anthony R., and Elliot Aronson. Age of Propaganda: The Everyday Use and Abuse of Persuasion. Rev. ed. New York: Freeman, 2001. Print.

Pratkanis, Anthony R., Steven J. Breckler, and Anthony G. Greenwald, eds. Attitude Structure and Function. Hillsdale: Erlbaum, 1989. Print.

Rudman, Laurie A., Meghan C. McLean, and Martin Bunzl. "When Truth Is Personally Inconvenient, Attitudes Change: The Impact of Extreme Weather on Implicit Support for Green Politicians and Explicit Climate-Change Beliefs." Psychological Science 24.11 (2013): 2290–96. Print.

Seo, Kiwon, James Price Dillard, and Fuyuan Shen. "The Effects of Message Framing and Visual Image on Persuasion." Communication Quarterly 61.5 (2013): 564–83. Print.

Zimbardo, Philip G., and Michael R. Leippe. The Psychology of Attitude Change and Social Influence. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1991. Print.

How is the initial rebellion in George Orwell's Animal Farm ironic in light of its ending?

The animals end up working harder under the pigs than under the people. 

Irony is when the opposite of what you expect happens.  Old Major shares a vision of a perfect world, an animal utopia where the animals are only beholden to themselves and live a life of comfort and leisure.  They assume that after they oust the humans, such a dream can be realized. 

When Jones and his men get drunk and don’t feed or take care of the animals, they rebel and the humans are run off the farm.  The animals expect that everything will be wonderful now that the humans are gone.  They make plans to change the way the farm is run, so that the animals can live comfortably and take care of everything on the farm themselves. 

The first sign that this is not to be is when the pigs take charge.  They immediately begin appointing special privileges to themselves, including special food like the milk and apples.  Squealer, the pigs’ mouthpiece, has a justification for every liberty the pigs take. 

"You do not imagine, I hope, that we pigs are doing this in a spirit of selfishness and privilege? Many of us actually dislike milk and apples. I dislike them myself. … Milk and apples (this has been proved by Science, comrades) contain substances absolutely necessary to the well−being of a pig. (Ch. 3) 

The pigs even begin wearing clothes and sleeping in the house.  They learn to walk on two legs.  Napoleon also secretly trains a special force of guard dogs.  The other animals are forced to work more and more.  There are no days off and retirements like promised. 

Throughout the spring and summer they worked a sixty−hour week, and in August Napoleon announced that there would be work on Sunday afternoons as well. This work was strictly voluntary, but any animal who absented himself from it would have his rations reduced by half. (Ch. 6) 

Animals who do not go along with things are run off, like Snowball, or mysteriously confess to imagined wrongdoing and are then killed.  With all of the scapegoats, the animals are living in fear.  No one has the will or initiative to oppose Napoleon and his minions.  This is ironic, of course, because the animals thought that when they ousted the humans they would be happy on their own, but the other animals were even more abusive to them.

What negative reviews did The Adventures of Tom Sawyer receive?

In reading book reviews of the time period, I found three that had at least a slightly negative comment about some aspect of the novel.

• 
  Hartford Daily Times (December 20, 1876) 

(a general paraphrase) If there is any defect, it is the love scenes where a boy of Tom Sawyer's size wanders off to be an outlaw. This is a bit "overdrawn."

• 
  New York Times (January 13, 1877)

In general, at the very end of the review, the writer states he would have liked Tom Sawyer better without so much Injun Joe, murder, revenge, and the slitting of women's ears--so much violence and brutality.

• 
  Hartford Christian Secretary (May 17, 1877)

"The last few chapters are extremely sensational and ... too remarkable to be natural adventures for little boys."  The reviewer further stated that he regrets that Tom lies and smokes--but the intention of the book was not to describe a model boy.

What is the ionic and chemical formula for copper sulfate?

Copper sulfate commonly refers to copper (II) sulfate or cupric sulfate. This chemical compound is made up of two ions- a copper (II) ion and sulfate ion. Copper (II) ion or cupric ion is denoted by Cu2+ and sulfate ion has an ionic formula of SO4^2-. The overall ionic formula of copper (II) sulfate is CuSO4.

The chemical formula of an ionic compound contains the cation first, followed by the anion. Both cations and anions are followed by the number of atoms of each ion. Using these guidelines, the chemical formula of copper (II) sulfate can be written as CuSO4. We can similarly write the chemical formula of copper (I) sulfate or cuprous sulfate as Cu2SO4. 

Generally, ionic equations and chemical equations are used for chemical reactions, when two or more chemical compounds react with each other, rather than for individual chemical compounds.

Hope this helps. 

What is the custom in the short story The Lady or the Tiger?

The unusual custom in the society of Frank R. Stockton's The Lady or the Tiger? is the arbitrary legal system referenced in the title. When someone in this society commits a crime, their trial consists of picking between two soundproofed, identical doors. Behind one of the doors, there is a woman chosen specifically by the king to suit the accused, and behind the other door there is a starving tiger. If the accused chooses the door with the woman behind it, he is declared innocent and must marry the woman immediately. If he chooses the door with the tiger, he is declared guilty and killed by the tiger. The system is entirely based on chance, with the guilt of the accused determined randomly.

Does Macbeth offer a moral lesson?

Shakespeare's Macbeth can be viewed as a study of human nature and its corruption. The play explores various themes, such as appearance versus reality and the perils of unrestrained ambition. We could argue the play does provide us with a moral lesson. Macbeth seems to warn us that one must not succumb to one's perilous "black and deep desires" because if we do, we are likely to put aside all the values we should stand by. 

Macbeth, the main character of the play, is guided by his unchecked ambition to become the king of Scotland at any cost. He knows murdering his relative and benevolent king would be a great sin, but he is willing to risk anything in order to gain power and control. 

When Macbeth obtains the supremacy he desperately wants, he is hungry for more. He cannot stop. He believes others will endanger his position, so he must eliminate anyone who could potentially harm or usurp him. He starts having hallucinations as a result of resorting to murdering innocent people to maintain his power.

Shakespeare shows us that, once Macbeth gains power unlawfully, he triggers the beginning of his own demise. By embracing evil, Macbeth rejects humanity and his life becomes meaningless, as we can see from his confession in Act V. Soon after that, his death becomes inevitable.

What is acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL)?

Related conditions:
Acute myeloid leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia

Definition:


Acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) is a cancer of the white blood cells. A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell made in the bone marrow that helps fight infection. In this fast-growing type of cancer, for unknown reasons, the bone marrow begins to make lymphocytes that develop abnormally. “Acute” means that the disease affects lymphocytes before they are fully formed and that it progresses rapidly if not treated.

Risk factors: Few risk factors exist for ALL. Receiving high doses of radiation, usually as treatment for another type of cancer, is one risk factor. Exposure to benzene may also be a factor. Risk increases in people with certain other diseases, such as Down syndrome, Fanconi anemia, Bloom syndrome, and some other genetic diseases. In about 25 percent of ALL cases, the patient has a chromosome mutation in which parts of chromosome 9 and chromosome 22 have changed places. Having a sibling, especially a twin, with ALL also increases the risk for this disease. Researchers are exploring lifestyle or environmental relationships, but it appears that many factors, including a combination of genetic and environmental factors, may be involved in developing ALL.

Etiology and the disease process: Through a genetic process that is not completely understood, cells in bone marrow begin to form abnormally. ALL can begin in two different types of lymphocytes, either B cells or T cells. As the abnormal lymphocytes quickly grow, they crowd out the red and white blood cells and platelets that the body needs and that are also created in the bone marrow. The symptoms of ALL come from the crowding out of these normal, healthy cells. These cells may then spread into the lining of the spine and brain.

Incidence: The American Cancer Society estimates that about 6,020 people in the United States were diagnosed with ALL in 2014. It is slightly more common in men than in women, and slightly more common in white children than in children of other races. ALL occurs in people of all ages but has a peak incidence in children between the ages of two and five. After age five, risk decreases, then increases again in people over age fifty. It is the most common type of leukemia in children under the age of fifteen, accounting for about 75 to 80 percent of childhood leukemias, according to the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute. It occurs more often in developed countries and in people with higher socioeconomic status.

Symptoms: Symptoms of ALL include anemia, body aches, bone pain, bruises without any injury, enlarged lymph nodes, an enlarged spleen, excessive bleeding from minor injuries, fever with no illness or lasting low-grade fever, frequent infections, headaches, joint pain, nosebleeds, paleness, shortness of breath during activity, tiredness, vomiting, and unexplained weight loss.

Screening and diagnosis: There is no screening test for ALL. Blood and bone marrow tests are necessary to diagnose ALL. These tests look for abnormal lymphocyte cells. A bone marrow aspirate test and a bone marrow biopsy are two possible tests. The bone marrow aspirate test looks for abnormal cells in the bone marrow and can also be used for other types of analysis. A bone marrow biopsy can show how much disease is already in the bone marrow. The results of these tests help determine which type of drug therapy to use and how long treatment should last.

If a patient has been diagnosed with ALL, a lumbar puncture may be performed to see if the abnormal cells have moved into the fluid surrounding the spine and brain. Chest X rays, ultrasounds, or additional blood tests may also be used to determine the spread of the disease.

Depending on where the cancer started and the results of testing, ALL may be categorized into early pre-B-cell ALL, common ALL, pre-B-cell ALL, mature B-cell ALL, pre-T-cell ALL, or mature T-cell ALL. The type of ALL helps determine which therapy to use and how long treatment should last. According to the American Cancer Society, about 85 percent of ALL cases begin in B cells, and these cases are generally classified as lower risk.

ALL may also be classified or staged using the French-American-British (FAB) classification system. In this older system, ALL is classified according to the type of abnormal cells as follows:

• ALL-L1: small, uniform abnormal cells





• ALL-L2: large, varied abnormal cells





• ALL-L3: large, varied, bubble-like cells

This system, however, has largely been replaced, as newer tests allow for more accurate classification.

Treatment and therapy: Patients diagnosed with ALL should start treatment immediately. The course and length of treatment chosen depend on the results of the patient’s bone marrow tests, the patient’s age, the number of ALL cells in the blood, whether certain chromosomal changes have already happened, whether ALL cells began in the B cells or the T cells, and whether ALL has spread to the brain covering or spinal cord. During therapy, bone marrow tests may be done again to make sure the treatment is destroying the cancer cells.

The first part of treatment for ALL is called induction therapy. This therapy helps kill ALL cells and get a patient’s blood counts back to normal (remission). Some of the drugs used in induction therapy are given by mouth. Others are given in a vein, usually through the patient’s chest. Most often, this chemotherapy for ALL involves combining drugs to improve the effects of the drugs. Often, ALL spreads into the lining of the spinal cord and the brain. To kill these ALL cells, drugs are injected directly into the spinal fluid. Radiation therapy may be used on the spine and brain either with or without the injected drugs.

Post-induction therapy, the second part of treatment for ALL, begins when a patient has reached remission. This type of therapy is needed because usually some ALL cells that cannot be detected by tests remain in the body. Post-induction therapy usually happens in two- or three-year cycles. The drugs used in post-induction therapy are usually different from those used in induction therapy, and the type of drugs used depends on how the patient responded to induction therapy and whether the patient has certain chromosome abnormalities. A patient may also need maintenance therapy after post-induction therapy to prevent the cells from regrowing.

T-cell ALL, infant ALL, and adult ALL are all forms of high-risk ALL. These types of ALL are usually treated with higher doses of drugs during both induction and post-induction therapy. Some patients with high-risk types of ALL may respond well to bone marrow or cord blood transplant therapy.

A bone marrow or cord blood transplant may be used when high doses of drugs are given to kill the ALL cells. These high doses of drugs may also kill healthy cells in the bone marrow. This transplant gives a patient healthy cells to replace the killed bone marrow cells. A transplant is a high-risk procedure and will probably not be used unless a patient does not have a good possibility of long-term remission with chemotherapy. High-risk ALL patients are more likely to have a transplant. The timing of a transplant is important; a patient has a better chance of a successful transplant when he or she is in remission at the time of transplant.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: There is no known way to prevent ALL. Most children with ALL can be cured of this disease with proper treatment. In 2012, the American Cancer Society announced that children diagnosed with ALL between 2000 and 2005 had a five year survival rate of 90.4 percent, up from 83.7 percent for those diagnosed between 1990 and 1994.

Most adults also improve with treatment; the number of adults who have remissions has increased, and the length of adult remissions has improved. The overall survival rate for adults after chemotherapy is about 40 percent, according to the American Cancer Society, and adults with low-risk ALL have even higher survival rates.

Abeloff, M. D., et al. Clinical Oncology. 3d ed. Orlando: Churchill Livingstone, 2004. Print.

Advani, Anjali S., and Hillard M. Lazarus. Adult Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia: Biology and Treatment. New York: Humana, 2011. Print.

Angelescu, Silvana, et al. "Value of Multifaced Approach Diagnosis and Classification of Acute Leukemias." Maedica - A Journal of Clinical Medicine 7.3 (2012): 254–60. Print.

Hillman, Robert S., et al. Hematology in Clinical Practice. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2011. Print.

Hoffman, R., et al. Hematology: Basic Principles and Practice. 4th ed. Orlando: Churchill Livingstone, 2005. Print.

Lichtman, M. A., et al., eds. William’s Hematology. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006. Print.

Pui, C-H, ed. Childhood Leukemias. 2d ed. New York: Cambridge UP, 2006. Print.

Why will the Tucks never return to Treegap?

After The Man in the Yellow Suit threatens to kidnap Winnie and to sell the life-giving water from the spring to the public, Mae Tuck hits The Man over the head with Angus' shotgun. A constable who has just arrived on the scene witnesses this act of violence and has Mae arrested. The Man in the Yellow Suit dies later that night and Mae receives her punishment: she will be hanged on charges of murder. 

The Tucks know that if Mae is publicly hanged, their darkest secret will be revealed: their immortality. Mae will not be able to die in the noose, and the family will most likely be captured or forced to reveal the truth behind their everlasting life. It is for this reason that the Tucks will never be able to return to Treegap.

Thankfully, the Tucks and Winnie are able to rescue Mae from her fate before the truth comes to light; unfortunately, this means that the Tuck family are all fugitives of the law and must flee the town. Returning to Treegap would simply land them all back in trouble and, once again, cause far too much public interest in monetizing the spring water that made them immortal. 

Summarize Chapters 5 and 6 from The Magic of Thinking Big by David J. Schwartz.

The Magic of Thinking Big is a self-help book written by David J. Schwartz in 1959. It is meant to inspire the reader to achieve greater things and rise above being average. Chapter Five is titled "How to Think and Dream Creatively." The chapter asks the reader to consider new ways of doing things and inspires the reader to think differently. The chapter outlines six methods for creative thinking.

• You must believe that the new way of doing something can be done. If you believe it can be done your mind will act differently and your actions will reflect this new way of thinking.  


• Transform yourself to be open to new ideas. Abandon traditional thought and action and allow yourself to try new things.


• In the different areas of your life, ask yourself how things can be done differently. Reflect on the ways that you can be better and explore new avenues for growth.


• Reflect on how you can do more. Doing more requires better organization of your time. In what ways can you attempt to become more efficient in some areas of your life that will benefit the new responsibilities.


• Do not be afraid to ask for advice from others and actively listen to their responses. The successful person listens more than he/she speaks. Frame your questions around areas you would like to see improvement in yourself.


• The last step is to stretch your mind. Record notes of your experiences with others. Do not be afraid to research. Be sure to review your notes regularly. Do not restrict yourself to the company of people who think and act like you. Be sure to broaden your horizons.

Chapter Six is titled "You are What You Think You Are." Its main focus is how the limitations that you harbor in your own mind affects your ability to be successful. In fact, the limitations that you have placed on yourself have a dramatic effect on how others treat you as well. The chapter asks the reader to take a strengths inventory of yourself. What are your positive attributes and skills? How are you an asset to others? Schwartz believes that you should make a list of these attributes. Create a propaganda piece that illustrates your strengths. After the inventory has been written, it should be reviewed daily. Read it to yourself in front of a mirror and keep it with you to be reviewed throughout the day.

What effect did Rome's expansion have on its economy?

Rome's expansion was both a blessing and a curse to its economy.  New lands brought under Roman control brought the Romans into contact with new goods and new markets.  Bread became cheaper as "softer" wheat from the Eastern part of the empire replaced the spelt that was commonly found in Italy.  This made flour easier to grind, thus making bread cheaper.  Other areas of the empire produced citrus fruits, fine metal products, and wine.  Rome was also able to assimilate technological innovations of conquered people as well.  

However, the expansion was a double-edged sword for Rome.  The roads connecting the empire required upkeep, and this meant taxation.  Also, the larger empire meant more land to protect from barbarians--again, this meant a greater tax burden as many of these assimilated people did not feel much loyalty to the government in Rome.  The Western empire fell into decadence as it soon produced little and consumed much compared to other parts of the empire--this is what led to the fall of the Western Empire.  

If Jill starts out at 20 m/s, and in 10 seconds speeds up to 40 m/s, what is her acceleration?

Hello!

The acceleration is probably considered constant (uniform). Denote it as `a(m/s^2).`

Then during each second Jill's speed `V` becomes more by `a m/s.` Therefore for any time `t` after the start the speed is `V(t) = V_0 + a t,` where `V_0 = 20 m/s` is the initial speed.

It is given that for the final moment `t_1 = 10 s` the speed is `V_1 = 40 m/s.` Therefore `V_1 = V(t_1) = V_0 + a t_1,` and we can easily find `a = (V_1-V_0)/t_1.`

In numbers it is equal to `(40-20)/10 = 2 (m/s^2).` This is the answer.

That said, `40 m/s` and even `20 m/s` is too high speed for running, probably Jill used some equipment, for example a bicycle. Also note that the same speeds could be reached within non-constant acceleration, but there are infinitely many non-constant functions `a(t)` which satisfy the given conditions.

How do you make your paintings look realistic ?

There are many books and Internet sites giving advice in detail on how to paint realism; the centers of the techniques are attention to “value” (the ratio of light to darkness), shadow color (many amateurs think that all shadows are grey), and brush stroke choice (the variations in the application techniques of the paint, by choosing brush type, pressure, direction, etc. to duplicate the textures of the subject). A good series of courses on the Internet is “Draw, Mix, Paint” by James Carder, in which he teaches how to judge color relationships by using visual aids, how to light your subject, and how to mix paint to achieve subtle realistic color variation.  As William Saroyan said, “Art is looking at things carefully.”  That is where realistic painting begins – a careful eye with attention to detail.

What is a disease?

Types of Disease

It is difficult to answer the question “What is disease?” To the patient, disease means discomfort and disharmony with the environment. To the treating physician or surgeon, it means a set of signs and symptoms. To the pathologist, it means one or more structural changes in body tissues, called lesions, which may be viewed with or without the aid of magnifying lenses.

The study of lesions, which are the essential expression of disease, forms part of the modern science of pathology. Pathology had its beginnings in the morgue and the autopsy room, where investigations into the cause of death led to the appreciation of “morbid anatomy”—at first by gross (naked-eye) examination and later microscopically. Much later, the investigation of disease moved from the cold autopsy room to the patient’s bedside, from the dead body to the living body, on which laboratory tests and biopsies are performed for the purpose of establishing a diagnosis and addressing proper treatment.

Diagnosis is the art of determining not only the character of the lesion but also its etiology, or cause. Because so much of this diagnostic work is done in laboratories, the term “laboratory medicine” has increased in popularity. The explosion in high technology has expanded the field of laboratory medicine tremendously. The diagnostic laboratory today is highly automated and sophisticated, containing a team of laboratory technologists and scientific researchers rather than a single pathologist.

The lesions laid bare by the pathologist usually bear an obvious relation to the symptoms, as in the gross lesions of acute appendicitis, the microscopic lesions in poliomyelitis, or even the chromosomal lesions in genetically inherited conditions such as Down syndrome. Yet there may be lesions without symptoms, as in early cancer or “silent” diseases such as tuberculosis. There may also be symptoms without obvious lesions, as in the so-called psychosomatic diseases, functional disorders, and psychiatric illnesses. It is likely that future research will reveal the presence of “biochemical lesions” in these cases. The presence of lesions distinguishes
organic disease, in which there are gross or microscopic pathologic changes in an organ, from functional disease, in which there is a disturbance of function without a corresponding obvious organic lesion. Although most diagnoses consist largely of naming the lesion (such as cancer of the lung or a tooth abscess), diseases should truly
be considered in the light of disordered function rather than altered structure. Scientists are searching beyond the presence of obvious lesions in tissues and cells to the submicroscopic, molecular, and biochemical alterations affecting the chemistry of cells.

Not every disease has a specific etiology. A syndrome is a complex of signs and symptoms with no specific etiology or constant lesion. It results from interference at some point with a chain of body processes, causing impairment of body function in one or more systems. A specific biochemical molecular derangement caused by yet undiscovered agents is usually found. An example is Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), for which a specific human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) agent is now accepted as the etiologic agent.

Some diseases have an acute (sudden) onset and run a relatively short course, as with acute tonsillitis or the common cold. Others run a long, protracted course, as with tuberculosis and rheumatoid arthritis; these are called chronic illnesses. The healthy body is in a natural state of readiness to combat disease, and thus there is a natural tendency to recover from disease. This is especially true in acute illness, in which inflammation tends to heal with full resolution of structure and function. Sometimes, however, healing does not occur, and the disease overwhelms the body and causes death. Therefore, a patient with acute pneumonia may have a full recovery, with complete healing and resolution of structure and function, or may die. The outcome of disease can vary between the extremes of full recovery and death and can run a chronic, protracted course eventually leading to severe loss of function. The accurate diagnosis of disease is essential for its treatment and prognosis, a forecast of what may be expected to happen.

There are four aspects to the study of disease. The first is etiology, or cause; for example, several viruses cause the common cold. The second is pathogenesis, or course, which refers to the sequence of events in the body that occurs in response to injury and the method of the lesion’s production and development. The relation of an etiologic agent to disease, of cause to effect, is not always as simple a matter as it is in most acute illnesses; for example, a herpesvirus causes the development of fever blisters. In many illnesses, indeed in most chronic illnesses, the concept of one agent causing one disease is an oversimplification. In tuberculosis, for example, the causative agent is a characteristic slender microbe called tubercle bacillus (Mycobacterium tuberculosis). Many people may be exposed to and inhale the tuberculosis bacteria, but only a few will get the disease; also, the bacteria may lurk in the body for years and become clinically active only as a result of an unrelated, stressful situation that alters the body’s immunity, such as prolonged strain, malnutrition, or another infection. In investigating the causation and pathogenesis of disease, several factors—such as heredity, sex, environment, nutrition, immunity, and age—must be considered. That is why there is no simple answer to questions such as “Does cigarette smoking cause cancer?” and “Does a cholesterol-rich diet cause hardening of the blood vessels (atherosclerosis)?” The third aspect to the study of disease relates to morphologic and structural changes associated with the functional alterations in cells and tissues that are characteristic of the disease. These are the gross and microscopic findings that allow the pathologist to establish a diagnosis. The fourth aspect to disease study is the evaluation of functional abnormalities and their clinical significance; the nature of the morphologic changes and their distribution in different organs or tissues influence normal function and determine the clinical features, signs and symptoms, and course and outcome (prognosis) of disease.

All forms of tissue injury start with molecular and structural changes in cells. Cells are the smallest living units of tissues and organs. Along with their substructural components, they are the seat of disease. Cellular pathology is the study of disease as it relates to the origins, molecular mechanisms, and structural changes of cell injury.

The normal cell is similar to a factory. It is confined to a fairly narrow range of function and structure dictated by its genetic code, the constraints of neighboring cells, the availability of and access to nutrition, and the disposal of its waste products. It is said to be in a “steady state,” able to handle normal physiologic demands and to respond by adapting to other excessive or strenuous demands (such as the muscle enlargement seen in bodybuilders) to achieve a new equilibrium with a sustained workload. This type of adaptive response is called hypertrophy. Conversely, atrophy is an adaptive response to decreased demand, with a resulting diminished size and function.

If the limits of these adaptive responses are exceeded, or if no adaptive response is possible, a sequence of events follows that results in cell injury. Cell injury is reversible up to a certain point, but if the stimulus persists or is severe, then the cell suffers irreversible injury and eventual death. For example, if the blood supply to the heart muscle is cut off for only a few minutes and then restored, the heart muscle cells will experience injury but can recover and function normally. If the blood flow is not restored until one hour later, however, the cells will die.

Whether specific types of stress induce an adaptive response, a reversible injury, or cell death depends on the nature and severity of the stress and on other inherent, variable qualities of the cell itself. The causes of cell injury are many and range from obvious physical trauma, as in automobile accidents, to a subtle, genetic lack of enzymes or hormones, as in diabetes mellitus. Broadly speaking, the causes of cell injury and death can be grouped into the following categories: hypoxia, or a decrease in the delivery of available oxygen; physical agents, as with mechanical and thermal injuries; chemical poisons, such as carbon monoxide and alcohol, tobacco, and other addictive drugs; infectious agents, such as viruses and bacteria; immunological and allergic reactions, as with certain sensitivities; genetic defects, as with sickle cell disease; and nutritional imbalances, such as severe malnutrition and vitamin deficiencies or nutritional excesses predisposing a patient to heart disease and atherosclerosis.

Causes of Disease

By far the most common cause of disease is infection, especially by bacteria. Certain forms of animal life known as animal parasites may also live in the body and produce disease; parasitic diseases are common in low-income societies and countries. Diseases can also be caused by viruses, forms of living matter so minute that they cannot be seen with the most powerful light microscope; they are visible, however, with the electron microscope. Viruses have attracted much attention for their role in many diseases, including cancer.

Bacteria, or germs, can be divided into three morphologic groups: cocci, which are round; bacilli, which are rod-shaped; and spirilla or spirochetes, which are spiral-shaped, like a corkscrew. Bacteria produce disease either by their presence in tissues or by their production of toxins (poisons). They cause inflammation and either act on surrounding tissues, as in an abscess, or are carried by the bloodstream to other distant organs.
Strep throat is an example of a local infection by cocci—in this case, streptococci. Some dysenteries and travelers’ diarrheas are caused by coliform bacilli.
Syphilis is an example of a disease caused by a spirochete. The great
epidemics of history, such as bubonic plague and cholera, have been caused by bacteria, as are tuberculosis, leprosy, typhoid, gas gangrene, and many others. Bacterial infections are treatable with antibiotics, such as penicillin.

Viruses, on the other hand, are not affected by antibiotics; they infect and live within the cell itself and are therefore protected. Viruses cause a wide variety of diseases. Some, such as many childhood diseases, the measles, and the common cold, run a few days’ course. Others, such as poliomyelitis and AIDS, can cause serious body impairment. Still others are probably involved in causing cancer and such diseases as multiple sclerosis.

Of the many physical agents causing injury,
trauma is the most obvious; others relate to external temperatures that are either too high or too low. A high temperature may produce local injury, such as a burn, or general disease, such as heatstroke. Heatstroke results from prolonged direct exposure to the sun (sunstroke) or from very high temperatures, so that the heat-regulating mechanism of the body becomes paralyzed. The internal body temperature shoots up to alarming heights, and collapse, coma, and even death may result. Low temperatures can cause local frostbite or general hypothermia, which can also lead to death.

Other forms of physical agents causing injury are
radiation and atmospheric pressure. Increased atmospheric pressure can cause the “bends,” a
decompression sickness that can affect deep-sea divers. The pressure of the water causes inert gases, such as nitrogen, to be dissolved in the blood plasma. If the diver passes too rapidly from a high to a normal atmospheric pressure, the excessive nitrogen is released, forming gas bubbles in the blood. These tiny bubbles can cause the blockage of small vessels of the brain and result in brain damage. The same problem can occur in high-altitude aviators unless the airplane is pressurized.

The study of chemical poisoning, or toxicology, as a cause of disease is a large and specialized field. Poisons may be introduced into the body by accident (especially in young children), in the course of suicide or homicide, and as industrial pollution. Lead poisoning is a danger because of the use of lead in paints and soldering. Acids and carbon monoxide are emitted into the atmosphere by industry, and various chemicals are dumped into the ground and water. Such environmental damage will eventually affect plants, livestock, and humans.

Hypoxia (lack of oxygen) is probably the most common cause of cell injury, and it may also be the ultimate mechanism of cell death by a wide variety of physical, biological, and chemical agents. Loss of adequate blood and oxygen supply to a body part, such as a leg, is called
ischemia. If the blood loss is very severe, the result is hypoxia or anoxia. This condition may also result from narrowing of the blood vessels, called atherosclerosis. If this narrowing occurs in the artery of the leg, as may be seen in patients with advanced diabetes, then the tissues of the foot will eventually die, a condition known as gangrene. An even more critical example of ischemia is blockage of the coronary arteries of the heart, resulting in a myocardial infarction
(heart attack), with damage to the heart muscle. Similarly, severe blockage of arteries to the brain can cause a stroke.

Nutritional diseases can be caused either by an excessive intake and storage of foodstuffs, as in extreme obesity, or by a deficiency. Obesity is a complex condition often associated with hereditary tendencies and hormonal imbalances. The deficiency conditions are many. Starvation and malnutrition can occur because of intestinal illnesses that prevent the delivery of food to the blood (malabsorption) or because of debilitating diseases such as advanced cancer. Even more important than general malnutrition as a cause of disease is a deficiency of essential nutrients such as
minerals, vitamins, and other trace elements. Iron deficiency causes
anemia, and calcium deficiency causes
osteoporosis (bone fragility). Vitamin deficiencies are also numerous, and deficiency of the trace element iodine causes a thyroid condition called
goiter.

Genetic defects as a cause of cellular injury and disease are of major interest to many researchers. The results of genetic disorders may be as visible as the physical characteristics seen in patients with Down syndrome or as subtle as molecular alterations in the coding of the hemoglobin
molecule that causes sickle cell disease.

Cellular injuries and diseases can be induced by immune mechanisms. The anaphylactic reaction to a foreign protein, such as a bee sting or drug, can actually cause death. In the autoimmune diseases, such as
lupus erythematosus, the
immune system turns against the cellular components of the very body that it is supposed to protect.

Finally, neoplastic diseases, or cancers, are presently of unknown etiology. Some are innocuous growths, while others are highly lethal. Diagnosing cancer and determining its precise nature can be an elaborate, and elusive, process. The methods involve clinical observations and laboratory tests; a biopsy of the involved organ may be taken and analyzed.

Perspective and Prospects

It is sometimes said that the nature of disease is changing and that more people are dying of heart failure and cancer than was once the case. This does not mean that these diseases have actually become more common, although more people do die from them. This increase is attributable to a longer life span and vastly improved diagnostic methods.

For primitive humans, there were no diseases, only patients stricken by evil; therefore, magic was the plausible recourse. Magic entails recognition of the principle of causality—that, given the same predisposing conditions, the same results will follow. In a profound sense, magic is early science. In ancient Egypt, priests assumed the role of healers. Unlike magic, religion springs from a different source. Here the system is based on the achievement of results against, or in spite of, a regular sequence of events. Religion heals with miracles and antinaturals that require the violation of causality. The purely religious concept of disease, as an expression of the wrath of gods, became embodied in many religious traditions.

The ancient Greeks are credited with attempts at introducing reason to the study of disease by asking questions about the nature of things and considering the notion of health as a harmony, as the adjustment of such opposites as high and low, hot and cold, and dry and moist. Disease, therefore, was a disharmony of the four elements that make up life: earth, air, fire, and water. This concept was refined by Galen in the second century and became dogma throughout the Dark Ages until the Renaissance, when the seat of disease was finally assigned to organs within the body itself through autopsy studies. Much later, in the nineteenth century, the principles espoused by French physiologist Claude Bernard were introduced, whereby disease was considered not a thing but a process that distorts normal physiologic and anatomic features. The nineteenth-century German pathologist Rudolf Virchow emphasized the same principle—that disease is an alteration of life’s processes—by championing the concept of cellular pathology, identifying the cell as the smallest unit of life and as the seat of disease.

As new diseases are discovered and old medical mysteries deciphered, as promising new medicinal drugs and vaccines are tested and public health programs implemented, the age-old goal of medicine as a healing art seems to be closer at hand.

Bibliography

Biddle, Wayne. A Field Guide to Germs. 2d ed. New York: Anchor Books, 2002.

Bliss, Michael. The Making of Modern Medicine: Turning Points in the Treatment of Disease. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011.

Boyd, William. Boyd’s Introduction to the Study of Disease. 11th ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1992.

Frank, Steven A. Immunology and Evolution of Infectious Disease. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002.

Grist, Norman R., et al. Diseases of Infection: An Illustrated Textbook. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Hart, Michael N., and Agnes G. Loeffler. Introduction to Human Disease. Burlington, Mass.: Jones & Bartlett, 2011.

Kumar, Vinay, Abul K. Abbas, and Nelson Fausto, eds. Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2010.

McCance, Kathryn L., and Sue M. Huether. Pathophysiology: The Biologic Basis for Disease in Adults and Children. 6th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier, 2010.

Shaw, Michael, ed. Everything You Need to Know About Diseases. Springhouse, Pa.: Springhouse Press, 1996.

Strauss, James, and Ellen Strauss. Viruses and Human Disease. 2d ed. Boston: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2008.

World Health Organization. "Disease Outbreaks." World Health Organization, 2013.

What is Behçet's disease?

Causes and Symptoms

Behçet’s disease, or Behçet’s syndrome, usually appears in early adulthood with painful aphthous ulcers
(similar to canker sores) in the mouth and genitals. These ulcers generally subside after one to two weeks, but they recur throughout the course of the disease. Some patients also have painful skin nodules known as erythema nodosum. Brief periods of joint pain are also common. Rarely, the ulcers of Behçet’s disease are found in the gastrointestinal tract. Involvement of the central nervous system causes a variety of symptoms ranging from mild confusion to paralysis. However, the most serious complication of Behçet’s disease is involvement of the eyes, since this may progress to blindness. Patients also have an increased predisposition for the formation of blood clots, usually in the venous system. These clots can be
life-threatening if they migrate to the lungs.

The common factor underlying these diverse manifestations of Behçet’s disease is inflammation of the small blood vessels, but it remains unclear what environmental or genetic factors trigger this inflammation. Rare reports have been made of familial forms of the disease, raising the possibility of a genetic basis, but this remains under investigation. Diagnosis is made on clinical grounds.

Treatment and Therapy

Behçet’s disease is a chronic condition, but the severity of the disease generally lessens over time. Ulcers are first treated with topical glucocorticoids, in the form of either mouthwash or paste. Refractory cases may require thalidomide, a drug that must be used with extreme caution because of its ability to cause birth defects. Because of the risk of blindness, ocular and central nervous system disease is managed more aggressively with oral steroids (such as prednisone), along with azathioprine or cyclosporine.

Apart from the above complications, the long-term prognosis of Behçet’s disease is quite good, and the life expectancy of patients is comparable with that of the general population.

Perspective and Prospects

The first description of Behçet’s disease appears in the writings of Hippocrates in the fifth century b.c.e., but it was first recognized in the modern era by the Turkish physician Hulusi Behçet in 1937. Although Behçet’s disease is seen throughout the world, the highest prevalence is in countries along the ancient Silk Road, a trading route extending from the Far East to the Mediterranean Sea.

Bibliography:

"Behçet’s Disease." National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, Apr. 2012.

"Behçet’s Syndrome." MedlinePlus, Mar. 14, 2013.

"Common Symptoms and Signs of Behçet’s Disease." American Behçet’s Disease Association.

Lee, Sungnack, et al., eds. Behçet’s Disease: A Guide to Its Clinical Understanding. New York: Springer, 2001.

Parker, James N., and Philip M. Parker, eds. The Official Patient’s Sourcebook on Behcet’s Disease. San Diego, Calif.: Icon Health, 2002.

Plotkin, Gary R., John J. Calabro, and J. Desmond O’Duffy, eds. Behçet’s Disease: A Contemporary Synopsis. Mount Kisco, N.Y.: Futura, 1988.

Zeis, Joanne. Essential Guide to Behçet’s Disease. Uxbridge, Mass.: Central Vision Press, 2002.

Who is the tragic hero of Shakespeare's Julius Caesar?

The tragic hero of William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar is Brutus. Brutus is the character who most fulfills Aristotle's definition of a tragic hero.

First, he is a noble character, of high station, whose actions have a certain grandeur. He is morally admirable; Anthony states of him that he is "the noblest Roman of them all." Rather than being motivated by jealousy or love for power or personal gain, as the other conspirators, Brutus is an idealist, who acts solely from the patriotic desire to restore the Republic. 

The main flaw of Brutus as a character is poor judgment. He lacks the common touch and as a speaker is honest and rational rather than manipulative. His dedication to his ideals lead him to kill Caesar, a man whom he genuinely likes and admires. He also trusts the other conspirators to much, rather than realizing that their motives are less pure than his own. 

What is the scientific revolution and how did it influence the world?

The scientific revolution (~1550 to 1700) is the emergence of modern science; the advance of scientific thought during this time transformed society's views regarding science and the scientific process. This revolution was intellectual in nature - it changed the way people thought about science and nature.

During this time, European scholars were taking huge steps forward in physics, astronomy, and medicine. The church was slowly losing power and academia was developing alongside changes in philosophy. Nicholas Copernicus shook society when he suggested a heliocentric (sun-centered) universe, which contrasted the long-standing Earth-centered mentality. His book on the subject, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), began to circulate in 1543.

Of course, religious leaders assumed a different way of thinking based on ancient religious texts. After some serious attempts to stifle scientific progress, including the persecution of scientists and scholars, the church eventually gave way (WIRED, link). The shift from "belief" to "knowledge" drastically changed approaches to politics, medicine, and philosophy. Today, there is still some amount of contention between religious leaders and scientists on even the most basic of issues.

For example, in 2015, one of the leading GOP presidential candidates, Ben Carson, suggested that the Earth was created in six days - not metaphorical days, but literal days (Mother Jones, link). Of course, scientists have many ways of inferring how the Earth first formed and the approximate timeline of Earth's birth from a solar nebula. Additionally, some religious leaders argue that the planet is only a few thousand years old, but scientists have dated the approximate age of Earth to about 4.5 billion years (NASA, link).

Although some groups are slower to adopt the scientific process (and scientific thought), the scientific revolution created a space in society where scholars could challenge authority and communicate scientific knowledge. This revolution was able to kick start scientific progress in mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, medicine, and astronomy. The knowledge born out of the scientific revolution is the foundation for modern science in the western world.

How is the issue of objectivity central to social research?

Objectivity is a value that is important to some social researchers because it ensures social research is reporting the material reality of a social phenomenon rather than conveying the biases, opinions, or personality of the researcher. One example of objectivity in social research is cultural relativism, or the concept that social phenomena observed in a specific culture should be analyzed and understood according to that culture. This is considered objective because it forces the researcher not to make judgement calls on the basis of the researcher's own cultural bias or understanding.

Some social researchers believe total objectivity is not possible. Even researchers aiming for objectivity may not realize how their own biases and opinions influence their choice of topic, focus, or analysis. Even sociological perspective can influence how a social researcher interprets social phenomena; for example, one supporting a functionalist perspective may perceive social harmony where a Marxist researcher would see inter-group struggle. Both may be examining the same community, but by using different frameworks they can emphasize different parts of a society to draw conclusions in line with their perspectives.

What are the figures of speech in the poem "A Mile with Me" by Henry Van Dyke?

The entire poem is an extended metaphor, or analogy, comparing the speaker's lifetime to a journey of "a mile." To describe this long journey as a mere mile is an understatement. This journey is sometimes a "merry way" and sometimes a "weary way," which are further represented by the metaphors "summer sunshine" and "winter rain," respectively. In describing the happy seasons of life, the speaker wraps together personification, a simile, and pathetic fallacy. The speaker wants the desired friend to let his "frolic fancy play," that is, the friend's imagination (fancy) is personified as being able to play "like a child," which is a simile, "through the flowers gay." Ascribing emotions to parts of nature is a pathetic fallacy, a figure of speech that is like personification but specifically uses nature to reflect the emotion the author wants to convey. Flowers can't literally be "gay" or happy, but describing them as such helps the author create the desired mood. 

In the second stanza, the speaker melds together symbolism and metaphor to describe the "weary way," or the difficult periods of life during which he desires companionship. First, "heart" is used in its symbolic sense as the seat of the emotions. The heart of the desired friend will have "eyes to see." This is a metaphorical way of describing insight and understanding. However, describing a heart having eyes is an unusual paradox if taken literally; hearts can't have eyes. The speaker wants his friend to have emotional understanding of "stars [that] shine out o'er the darkening lea." This phrase is also symbolic; the stars represent hope, and the dark meadow (lea) represents misfortune or despair. Thus the speaker wants a friend who can help him find hope in the midst of despair or during a life crisis.

In addition to the plethora of figures of speech in the poem, the poem also uses a consistent iambic rhythm with similar line lengths that support the idea of a long and steady walk. The rhyme scheme uses only two rhymes for the first two stanzas, interwoven, which gives the poem an even greater feeling of consistency--the type of consistency the speaker is looking for in his friend for life. 

In The Wednesday Wars, what are some events that happen in October?

The novel The Wednesday Wars is organized into months, spanning the whole of Holling's academic year from September to June.

In October, for the sake of his father's job, Holling behaves in a quiet, helpful manner with Mrs. Baker, keeping the chalk boards and the coat room clean. He carries trays of pastries for her up from Mrs. Bigio's kitchen, but then he accidentally lets the dust from the erasers he's cleaning float up and settle on the pastries, which ruins them. Because the chalk dust just looks like sugar, no one notices until they try to eat them, and Holling never actually gets in trouble for this incident.

Holling's sister, though, gets in trouble with her parents for trying to be a "flower child" who protests the Vietnam War, and Holling's friends get angry at him for being the only kid who got to take one of the cream puff pastries from the trays he carried. They don't realize that Holling didn't actually eat the pastry. He knew it had chalk dust on it.

Mrs. Baker decides to make Holling read Shakespeare with her instead of doing chores. But before they start, Holling has to clean the pet rats' cage--and he accidentally lets them loose and they both escape into the walls. The school staff makes Holling swear to keep the rats' escape a secret from the other students (presumably so they don't go nuts about it).

Holling and Mrs. Baker then read Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, which Holling assumes will be boring, but he actually enjoys it.

In James Joyce's story "Araby," how does Mangan's sister represent Ireland?

Before talking specifically about Mangan's sister in James Joyce's "Araby," it's worth mentioning that Irish literature has a long history of using female characters as symbols and personifications of Ireland. One of the most famous examples of this trope can be found in W.B. Yeats and Lady Gregory's play, Cathleen ni Houlihan. In this play, the main character (the eponymous Cathleen) begins as an old woman wandering the countryside and lamenting the loss of her four green fields. This character is often read as a symbol of occupied Ireland, as Cathleen's four green fields roughly correspond to Ireland's traditional four provinces. Furthermore, Cathleen's transformation at the end of a play into a young woman can be seen as a symbol of Ireland's projected rebirth, one that occurs once she regains her sovereignty from Great Britain.

Let's consider this trope in conjunction with "Araby." In Cathleen ni Houlihan, the character Michael Gillane becomes infatuated with the old woman (who represents Ireland), and this infatuation drives him to join a band of Irish rebels fighting for freedom. In "Araby," the main character is similarly obsessed with Mangan's sister, and the thought of her is enough to rouse him to some pretty dramatic emotion: "her name was like a summons to all my foolish blood" (30). Like Michael, the unnamed narrator of "Araby" is infatuated with a girl, and, also like Michael, this infatuation drives the narrator to perform deeds to win over said girl. The difference is that, instead of heading off to war, the narrator goes to Araby in an attempt to buy Mangan's sister a trinket. Through these parallels with the classic personification of Ireland as a female character, we can see Mangan's sister as potentially symbolic of the island itself. 

If we take this symbolism to be the case, then the end of the short story becomes very interesting indeed. At the end, the narrator fails to buy anything at the bazaar, and he realizes the foolishness of his actions and obsession. As such, it would appear that Joyce is throwing an element of disillusionment over Ireland's classic symbolic form. Perhaps, Joyce seems to be saying, it's not wise to allow metaphorical infatuation to govern our lives and drive us to perform deeds to prove our love/patriotism. In this sense, Joyce takes a step toward dismantling the symbolic female as Ireland trope.    

In Shakespeare's Much Ado About Nothing, what are Beatrice's feelings about marriage?

At the beginning of the play, Beatrice is strongly opposed to marrying. Her uncle Leonato laments that she will never marry because she is too picky and harsh, and she cheerfully agrees. First, she says that a perfect man would be a combination of the sour Don John and the talkative Benedick, but she raises the standard even further by adding a number of other qualities. Beatrice says the fact that she has no husband is a blessing from God, “for the which blessing I am at him upon my knees every morning and evening.”

She goes on to say that she wants neither a bearded man (“I had rather lie in the woollen”) nor an unbearded one (“What should I do with him? dress him in my apparel and make him my waiting-gentlewoman?”).  Beatrice wishes to remain single and go to heaven a maid, “where the bachelors sit, and there live we as merry as the day is long.” She continues to give all sorts of reasons against marriage, such as that men are made of dust (referring to Adam, the original man) and that all men are technically her kin, whom she refuses to marry.

Beatrice’s final criticism of marriage in this debate compares it to a jig, which begins in haste, proceeds in modesty, and then leads to repentance and exhaustion. She is indeed a hard critic of marriage, but, in the end, she falls for and marries her playful nemesis Benedick.

According to Kipling's poem of the same name, what was the "White Man's Burden?"

Although Rudyard Kipling’s poem “The White Man’s Burden” never explicitly defines the white man’s burden, we can clearly see what that burden is from the poem.  The burden that the white man must bear is the burden of trying to civilize the non-white people in the countries that make up his empire.  The white man has to leave his home country to go elsewhere and try to pull these people up into the modern world even though they do not want to be helped and even though they are so ignorant and lazy that they will destroy everything he tries to do.

According to Kipling, taking an empire is a selfless act on the part of the white man.  The white man’s burden is the burden of helping all the people in this empire.  Kipling tells us in the first stanza that the white men will have to “wait in heavy harness” on these people.  In the next stanza, he says that the white men will have “to seek another’s profit/and work another’s gain.  This is because all of the work that the white man is doing will help others.  The white man will be making “ports (he) shall not enter” and “roads (he) shall not tread.”  All of this is being done for the colonized people, not for the white man.

As the white man works for “another’s gain,” that other person or group of people will not appreciate his efforts.  They will resent the white man for forcing them to change their ways.  They will hate him for bringing them out of “bondage” and their “loved Egyptian night” as he tries to bring them “(Ah, slowly!) toward the light.”  Moreover, all of the white man’s work is likely to be wasted.  He will work to try to improve the colonized people, but when the “goal is nearest,” he will have to “watch sloth and heathen Folly/Bring all (his) hopes to nought.”

All of this, then, makes up the white man’s burden.  Overall, his burden is that he has to leave his own home and go out to other countries to work hard to help other people who do not want to be helped and who are so lazy and ignorant that they will ruin his efforts.  The white man’s burden is the burden of trying to help the non-white people who populate the empire that he has conquered.

What are the pros and cons of elected judges?

The majority of U.S. states incorporate some form of judicial election via partisan contested elections, non-partisan contested elections, or retention elections. Each of these types of election of judges presents advantages and disadvantages over a pure judicial appointment system. 

The primary advantage of having some form of election in the selection and/or the retention of judges is that such systems provide a community with a voice regarding the judges who sit in that community. In some systems, this includes community selection of judges via contested election, and in others it only involves community retention of appointed judges. In either type of system, contested election or retention election, if a judge is a problem, the community has a mechanism for removing that judge. Conversely, in an appointment system, removal of a judge often requires specific kinds of wrongdoing on the judge's part and action by one or both of the other branches of government in the state.

Another advantage sometimes discussed with respect to having some form of election of judges is that such systems promote a more dynamic, responsive judiciary. In many appointment systems, judges either have life tenure or their reappointment is determined by the other branches of government. Such systems may result in a long serving, and perhaps stagnant, judiciary. Having some form of election, however, is seen as a way to promote change in the judiciary through the election of new judges or the non-retention of siting judges, as well as possibly ensuring a more responsive judiciary as elected judges or judges subject to retention election are believed to be more aware of the community ramifications of their decisions.

Many opponents of the election of judges, however, believe that the negatives of such systems far outweigh the positives. The common criticism across all mechanisms for electing/retaining judges is that such systems create a judiciary that is beholden to the whim of the public and to political interests rather than to the law. Judges should be able to make difficult decisions regarding the application of the law without fear of political reprisal if the decision is unpopular. If the judge is subject to re-election or retention, then there may be pressure on the judge to make his or her decisions based not on the law, but what he or she believes will win the next election. Critics of judicial elections argue that such situations impinge on the duty of the courts to be fair and impartial.

The above negative is most often cited with respect to systems in which judges stand for contested election, either partisan or non-partisan. A contested election requires a sitting judge to devote some of her or his time to campaigning and raising money. Both of these activities are seemingly at odds with the impartiality of the courts. To combat this, states that hold contested judicial elections include strict campaigning rules in their codes of judicial conduct. However, even adherence to these rules does not remove the political pressures of raising money and campaigning.

This problem is exacerbated in jurisdictions that hold partisan rather than non-partisan judicial elections. Given the nature of partisan politics, it is more difficult for judges to remain insulated from the policies of their parties if they must run as members of a party. Further, local partisan elections can often hinge on larger national trends, and critics of the partisan election of judges point out that good judges who are not members of the party popular in the moment may not win re-election while candidates who are members of the popular party may win seats to which they are less qualified. In other words, partisan election of judges leads to the election or re-election of judges not based on the qualifications of the judge or candidate, but based on party affiliation.

States that employ a retention election system are attempting to mitigate the liabilities of both the election system and the appointment system by keeping what are perceived to be the strengths of both systems while eliminating some of the problems. Retention systems often include a merit based appointment system for selecting judges, thus eliminating the politics and uncertainty of judicial selection via contested election. The judge then stands for at least one retention election, which gives the community a chance to remove problem judges while simultaneously insulating sitting judges from the politics of having to run a re-election campaign. In recent years, however, some of the benefit of retention election systems has been lessened by coordinated, and often well-funded, campaigns against retaining judges who have made politically unpopular decisions, regardless of whether those decisions were merited under the law.

There is no perfect system for the selection and retention of judges. Having some form of election involved ensures that the community has a role in the selection and retention of judges, and thus it appeals to the majoritarian philosophy inherent in U.S. politics. However, the election of judges and, to a lesser extent, the popular retention of judges subjects those judges to political pressures that are often not compatible with the desired impartiality of the judicial branch.

What makes our government a democracy?

In order to understand what makes our government democratic, let us look at what characteristics a democracy has.

The first characteristic of a democracy is that it has to have popular sovereignty.  That is, the people have to have the ultimate power in the government. Our government has this because we have competitive elections for positions of real power. We participate in real elections to select people for offices like the president.  The government does not control who gets to run in the elections, allowing candidates like Donald Trump or Bernie Sanders to run even though their beliefs do not fit entirely into the platform of the Republican or Democrat parties.  Once we elect people, they have real power.  The members of Congress that we elect go and actually make laws that govern us. We are not just electing a sham government that has no real power.  We have popular sovereignty, which is one characteristic of democracy.

A second aspect of democracy is political equality. In a true democracy, everyone must potentially have the same amount of say in government. In our government, everyone has the same ability to vote.  No one's vote counts for more than anyone else’s.  Everyone has the same right to run for office once he or she reaches the age specified in the Constitution. In this way, we have political liberty, which helps make us a democracy.

Another characteristic of democracy is that people have political liberty, meaning people have the right to express themselves on political issues. In the United States, we have this because people can say or write whatever they want about political issues. People are free to criticize the government and individual political leaders as harshly as they want. This shows that we have political liberty, which is another aspect of democracy.

In addition to political liberty, people in a democracy must also have personal liberty.  The people have to be able to do more or less whatever they want in their personal lives.  In the United States, we have this type of liberty.  The government cannot tell us what race of person we may or may not marry.  It cannot tell us where we may or may not live. It does not tell us what religion we may or may not belong to.  In these ways, the government respects our personal liberties.

Because our government meets all of these criteria, we have a democracy.  It is true the United States government is not perfect in all of these areas; however, it is still a democracy because it generally meets the criteria listed above.

What are models of addiction?

Addiction Models

There are two predominant models to explain addiction: the disease model of addiction and the life-process model of addiction. The disease model considers addiction to be a life-long affliction arising from altered genetic and biological mechanisms. The life-process model considers addiction to be a learned behavior and source of gratification that can be explained through the context of social experiences and relationships.

Disease Model of Addiction

The disease model of addiction stresses the idea that addicts are born, not made. This model gained acceptance in scientific and government circles in the early 1960s when E. M. Jellinek discussed the model in his book The Disease Concept of Alcoholism (1960). Jellinek suggested that the disease model should be used because of the lack of clarity in the psychological pathologies that psychiatrists suggested were behind addiction. The model is now recognized by the World Health Organization and the American Medical Association and is utilized by both Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Narcotics Anonymous (NA) in their treatment and recovery plans.

Four stages of addiction comprise the disease model. In the presymptomatic stage, the use of the substance is not associated with any significant problems. In the prodromal stage, there is an increase of problems caused by the use of the substance, problems including psychological duress and increased consumption. In the crucial stage, the person attempts to control the substance abuse but fails; consequences increase with continued substance use. Finally, in the chronic stage, the addict consumes large amounts of the substance with great psychological and physiological repercussions.

The underlying neuronal mechanism implicated in the disease model of addiction is the dysregulation of the dopaminergic and glutamatergic pathways in the brain. These systems influence drug reward, dependence, and craving. In addition, long-term neuroadaptation to drug abuse can lead to drug tolerance. Withdrawal from drugs is characterized by depression, anxiety, irritability, and sleep disturbances, all of which lead to cycles of relapse. Withdrawal becomes a serious medical issue because of severe somatic symptoms associated with the withdrawal.

One of the fundamental aspects of the disease model of addiction is that a person cannot control his or her use of alcohol or drugs; furthermore, the person will feel compelled to consume the substance. The duration of time in which the person becomes addicted is variable (days or months). As evidenced by the results of the AA and NA programs, treatment is specific and can be generalized to the whole population. However, the best recourse for the addicted person is abstinence.

Life-Process Model of Addiction

The life-process model of addiction directly opposes the disease model by stressing that the addiction can be controlled by the person addicted. Proponents of this model argue that specific biological mechanisms for addiction, as claimed by the disease model, have not been identified.

Addiction as explained through the life-process model is a way of coping with life experiences. Each person’s addiction is singular to that individual and can be explained only through the context of each person’s respective situation. In other words, a person becomes an addict for his or her own reasons, be it psychological or social. Reasons include stress, abuse, and an inability to cope. No specific or outlined progression of addiction exists. Consequently, the life-process model emphasizes treatments that are specific to the person and that stress changing the person’s behavior and environment.

Individualized treatment employed in the life-process model varies greatly from those provided by group therapies like AA and NA. The individual, perhaps with the help of a therapist or mentor, discovers the source of the addiction and applies a specialized remedy. Unlike the disease model, the life-process model suggests that the individual does not need to indefinitely abstain from the addictive substance.

Summary

As a chronic disease, addiction is the culmination of biological, psychological, and social maladjustments. It is a complex disorder shaped by substance exposure, genetic susceptibility, and environmental influences. Therefore, better understanding of the neurobiological factors and analysis of cognitive and social learning models would aid in the development of novel therapeutic interventions for drug-dependent persons.

Bibliography

Brandon, Thomas H., et al. “Cognitive and Social Learning Models of Drug Dependence: Implications for Assessment of Tobacco Dependence in Adolescents.” Addiction 99.1 (2004): 51–77. Print.

Erickson, Carlton. The Science of Addiction: From Neurobiology to Treatment. New York: Norton, 2006. Print.

Everitt, Barry J., et al. “Neural Mechanisms Underlying the Vulnerability to Develop Compulsive Drug-Seeking Habits and Addiction.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363 (2008): 3125–35. Print.

Feltenstein, M. W., and R. E. See. “The Neurocircuitry of Addiction: An Overview.” British Journal of Pharmacology 154 (2008) 261–74. Print.

Koob, George F. “The Neurobiology of Addiction: A Neuroadaptational View Relevant for Diagnosis.” Addiction 101.1 (2006): 23–30. Print.

Nestler, Eric J. "Cellular Basis of Memory for Addiction." Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 15.4 (2013): 431–43. MEDLINE Complete. Web. 30 Oct. 2015.

Schaler, Jeffrey. Addiction Is a Choice. Peru: Carus, 2000. Print.

West, Robert, and Jamie Brown. Theory of Addiction. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014. Digital file.

What do the boys do in the square in "The Lottery"?

It is the beginning of summer, so school is out. The boys start filling their pockets with stones, following Bobby Martin's example. Some of the other boys make a large pile of stones in the corner of the square. They are getting ready for the ritual stoning of one of the citizens. When the lottery gets started, the parents call their children so that each family is together for the drawing. 

Some critics note that this community is patriarchal. This means that it is a society in which men occupy the powerful roles. Women are subjugated in the sense that they are victims of the lottery itself. But also note their primary role in this tradition of the lottery is to be mothers. They must continue having children so that the lottery can continue. The fact that the boys (not the girls) are the first to get stones ready is telling. It shows how they've been taught (brainwashed) to embrace this tradition of violence. 

In the first four lines of the poem "A Bird came down the Walk--" by Emily Dickinson, which lines end with words that rhyme?

It's only the second and fourth lines that rhyme:

A Bird came down the Walk—
He did not know I saw—
He bit an Angleworm in halves
And ate the fellow, raw,

"Saw" at the end of the second line rhymes with "raw" at the end of the fourth line, but that's the only end rhyme we see in that first stanza.

To find rhymes, it really helps to read the poem out loud. Listen for words that have the same final vowel sound, such as "say" and "hey," or "noon" and "June." Notice that the spelling of two rhyming words doesn't have to look the same: it's only the sounds that matter.

Because Lines 2 and 4 rhyme with each other, you can say that the rhyme scheme of the first stanza is "ABCB." It means that only the second and fourth lines (both labeled "B") rhyme with each other.

It's interesting to consider the rhyme pattern of the first stanza of this poem, because we might expect that the same pattern will keep going for the rest of the poem. And yes, the second stanza does show the same pattern:

And then he drank a Dew
From a convenient Grass—
And then hopped sidewise to the Wall
To let a Beetle pass—

When you read that second stanza above, you might think, "Great! I've identified the rhyme scheme for the whole poem. It's ABCB all the way down."

But then you start checking out the rest of the stanzas, and you notice that they stop following the rhyme pattern:

He glanced with rapid eyes
That hurried all around— 
They looked like frightened Beads, I thought—
He stirred his Velvet Head

Do you see any rhymes in that third stanza above? I don't! Everything just stops rhyming from there. That's part of what makes this poem so interesting: it makes us wonder if the order is falling apart for some specific reason. Maybe the speaker is emphasizing how the encounter with the bird isn't exactly going the way she expected!