How do the actions, motives, relationships, and dialogue preceding Chapter 6 of George Orwell's Animal Farm affect Old Major, Snowball, and...

Old Major, it seems, has quite a bit of sway with the other animals, since not only is he a prized boar that Mr. Jones has exhibited, but he is 12 years old and considered wise by all of the animals.  When he calls a meeting one night, they all gather and listen to his lengthy speech with full trust and respect.  We actually see no dialogue between him and any others, but even though he dies three nights after his speech, the animals follow his advice. His motivation appears to be gaining freedom and a better way of life for all the animals.

Old Major’s action of putting rebellion in the minds of the animals allows Snowball and Napoleon to gain power by developing Animalism from Old Major’s main points, executing the rebellion, and ultimately taking control of the farm and the animals.  Their relationship to Old Major, being pigs, apparently gives them the right to do this in the eyes of the others.  All of their dialogue with the animals is centered on the rebellion, defending the farm, laboring, or following the seven commandments of Animalism. In fact, they don’t often talk to the animals themselves, instead using their propagandist, Squealer, to do it for them.  There is never any comradery, in spite of the fact that the pigs call the animals “comrades.”    We also rarely see Napoleon and Snowball talking to each other, which makes sense, considering that they are vying for top leader position.

Napoleon leaves Snowball alone in the early chapters, since he will benefit from Snowball’s training of the animals for the Battle of the Cowshed, even allowing Snowball to receive the award of Animal Hero First Class. And what could he say, given that he seemed absent from the entire battle?  Napoleon is also able to benefit from Snowball’s designs for the windmill, since he later takes credit for it without having to lift a trotter.  Napoleon’s sabotaging of Snowball becomes obvious when he has the sheep start bleating their “‘Four legs good, two legs bad’” slogan during any speech that Snowball tries to make.  Although the two pigs are clearly pushing different agendas, Napoleon is the more underhanded one, twisting things to get the animals to side with him, and finally using his dogs to chase Snowball off the farm for good. We will never know for sure, but Snowball does seem motivated to make improvements on the farm, whereas Napoleon’s goal all along is to become dictator and use the animals as laborers for his own luxury.

What is the tone of the story in the beginning?

The early tone of Shirley Jackson's "The Lottery" is light, fun, and peaceful.  Jackson's opening sentence tells readers that the weather was perfect.  

The morning of June 27th was clear and sunny, with the fresh warmth of a full-summer day; the flowers were blossoming profusely and the grass was richly green.

That's "go outside and play some catch" weather.  It makes you think of packing a basket of food, taking a blanket, and having a picnic.  That single sentence likely brings a smile to most readers faces, especially readers who have been dealing with winter for a few months.  

The light and fun tone continues for quite a few more paragraphs.  Jackson tells her readers that the townspeople were gathering together in the town square.  Children arrived first and began to play and run around.

 . . . they tended to gather together quietly for a while before they broke into boisterous play, . . . 

The adults were also portrayed as stress free.  The men gathered together and made small talk of the spring planting and the women gossiped to each other.  Everything about the lottery proceedings is portrayed as a fun, town festival type event.

The lottery was conducted--as were the square dances, the teen club, the Halloween program--by Mr. Summers. . . 

 It seems completely peaceful, which is why the story's violent ending is so shocking. It completely doesn't fit the initial tone. 

At the beginning of his speech, why does King explain his reasons for speaking out against the Vietnam War?

The question does not say which of Martin Luther King's speeches you are referring to. However, by far his most famous speech about Vietnam was his first, given on April 4, 1967 (one year before his assassination). In this speech, given in New York City, he broke what he called "the betrayal of [his] own silences" over the war, and he begins the speech by listing the reasons he is opposed to the conflict. These include his conviction that the war diverted resources from the Great Society, the fact that a disproportionate number of black and poor Americans fought in the war, and simply that the war was inconsistent with his Christian pacifism. He is compelled, perhaps, to give the reasons for the positions he has taken because he does not wish to have his message misconstrued as radicalism. He is careful to make connections between his Christian faith, his struggle for racial equality, and his opposition to the war. He explains himself in the hopes that his message for peace in Vietnam will not weaken his message for racial justice in America. He outlines the concerns of his critics in one revealing passage:

At the heart of their concerns, this query has often loomed large and loud: “Why are you speaking about the war, Dr. King? Why are you joining the voices of dissent?” “Peace and civil rights don’t mix,” they say. “Aren’t you hurting the cause of your people?” they ask.

As mentioned above, King outlines the reasons (he lists seven) for his position in an attempt to make the connection he perceives between civil rights and Vietnam. 

There are 5 doors in a hostel lounge. Two are red colored and the others are green. In how many ways can a guy enter the room and leave the room...

Hello!

I'm sure that all the doors are distinguishable, i.e. "enter the first red door" and "enter the second red door" are different events.

Then we can 1) enter a red door, leave (through) a green door or 2) enter a green door, leave a red door. The quantities of path in this two options must be added.

There are `5-2=3` green doors. For the option 1, we can enter each of `2` red doors and for each of them can leave through any of `3` green doors, so there are `2*3=6` paths. For the option 2, we can enter each of `3` green doors, leave through any of `2` red doors, again `3*2=6` paths.

And there are `6+6=12 ` paths total. This is the answer.

What are mitochondrial diseases?

Mitochondrial Genetics and Disease

The unique arrangement of subunits making up individual genes is highly mutable, and thousands of different arrangements, or genotypes, are cataloged in humans. A tiny number of genes in animal cells are strictly inherited from the maternal parent and are found in the mitochondria, located in the cell’s cytoplasm, outside the nucleus, where most genetic information resides in nuclear DNA. Some variants in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences can cause severe defects in sight, hearing, skeletal muscles, and the central nervous system. Symptoms of these diseases often include great fatigue. The diseases themselves are difficult to diagnose accurately, and they are currently impossible to treat effectively. Genetic screening methods based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technologies using muscle biopsies are essential for correct identification of these diseases.

A person normally inherits a single mtDNA type, but families are occasionally found in which multiple mtDNA sequences are present. This condition, called heteroplasmy, is often associated with mitochondrial disease. Heteroplasmy occurs in the major noncoding region of mtDNA without much impact, but if it exists in the genes that control the production of cellular energy, severe consequences result. Weak muscles and multiple organs are involved in most mitochondrial diseases, and there can be variable expression of a particular syndrome within the same family that may either increase or decrease with age. It is easiest to understand this problem by remembering that each cell contains a population of mitochondria, so there is the possibility that some mtDNAs will carry a particular mutation while others do not. Organs also require different amounts of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s energy source produced in mitochondria.
If the population of mutated mitochondria grows to outnumber the unmutated forms, most cells in a particular organ may appear diseased. This process has been called replicative segregation, and a mitochondrial disease is the result. Loss of mtDNA also occurs with increasing age, especially in the brain and heart.

Particular Mitochondrial Diseases

Mitochondrial diseases show a simple pattern of maternal inheritance. The first mitochondrial disease identified was Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), a condition associated with the sudden loss of vision when the optic nerve is damaged, usually occurring in a person’s early twenties. The damage is not reversible. Biologists now know that LHON is caused by at least four specific mutations that alter the mitochondrial proteins ND1, ND4, and CytB. A second mitochondrial syndrome is myoclonic epilepsy associated with ragged red fiber disease (MERRF), which affects the brain and muscles throughout the body. This disease, along with another syndrome called mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes (MELAS), is associated with particular mutations in mitochondrial transfer RNA
(tRNA) genes that help produce proteins coded for by mtDNA. Finally, deletions and duplications of mtDNA are associated with Kearns-Sayre syndrome
(affecting the heart, other muscles, and the cerebellum), chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia
(CPEO; paralysis of the eye muscles), rare cases of diabetes, heart deficiencies, and certain types of deafness. Some of these conditions have been given specific names, but others have not.

Muscles are often affected by mitochondrial diseases because muscle cells are rich in mitochondria. New treatments for these diseases are based on stimulating undamaged mtDNA in certain muscle precursor cells, called satellite cells, to fuse to damaged muscle cells and regenerate the muscle fibers. Others try to prevent damaged mtDNA genomes from replicating biochemically in order to increase the number of good mtDNAs in any one cell. This last set of experiments has worked on cells in tissue culture but has not been used on humans. These approaches aim to alter the competitive ability of undamaged genes to exist in a cellular environment that normally favors damaged genes. Further advances in treatment will also require better understanding of the natural ability of mtDNA to undergo genetic recombination and DNA repair.

Key Terms



heteroplasmy

:

a mutation in which more than one set of gene products encoded by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) can be present in an individual organ or tissue type, a single cell, or a single mitochondrion




maternal inheritance

:

the transmission pattern characteristically shown by mitochondrial diseases and mutations in mtDNA, where changes that occur in the mother’s genetic material are inherited directly by children of both sexes without masking or interference by the mtDNA of the father





mitochondria


:

small structures, or organelles, enclosed by double membranes found outside the nucleus, in the cytoplasm of all higher cells, that produce chemical power for the cells and harbor their own genetic material





mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)


:

genetic material found uniquely in mitochondria, located outside the nucleus and therefore separate from the nuclear DNA




replicative segregation

:

a mechanism by which individual mtDNAs carrying different mutations can come to predominate in any one mitochondrion





Bibliography

Berdanier, Carolyn D., ed. Mitochondria in Health and Disease. Boca Raton: Taylor, 2005. Print.

Chinnery, Patrick F. "Mitochondrial Disorders Overview." GeneReviews. U of Washington, Seattle, 16 Sept. 2010. Web. 4 Aug. 2014.

Gvozdjáková, Anna, ed. Mitochondrial Medicine: Mitochondrial Metabolism, Diseases, Diagnosis, and Therapy. London: Springer, 2008. Print.

Jorde, Lynn B., et al. Medical Genetics. 3rd ed. St. Louis: Mosby, 2006. Print.

Lestienne, Patrick, ed. Mitochondrial Diseases: Models and Methods. New York: Springer, 1999. Print.

Losos, Jonathan B., Kenneth A. Mason, and Susan R. Singer. Biology. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2008. Print.

Reeve, Amy Katherine, et al., eds. Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Neurodegenerative Disorders. London: Springer, 2012. Print.

Schapira, Anthony H. V., ed. Mitochondrial Function and Dysfunction. London: Academic, 2002. Print.

St. John, Justin C., ed. Mitochondrial DNA, Mitochondria, Disease, and Stem Cells. New York: Springer, 2013. Print.

What are free radicals?

Exposure routes: The pathologically related free radicals originate within the body as a product of normal aerobic metabolic processes and inflammatory reactions, but some environmental agents, such as radiation and pollutants, with diverse routes of exposure, can increase the production of free radicals.

Where found: Free-radical-generating agents are diverse, as are their sources. The most common are tobacco smoke, sunlight, X rays, and automobile exhausts. Others include the carcinogens benzene, inorganic arsenic compounds, cadmium compounds, aflatoxins, and asbestos.

At risk: Populations at highest risk are those with a low dietary intake of antioxidants or genetic deficiencies in antioxidant enzymes (for example, glutathione peroxidase) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) repair mechanisms, along with tobacco smokers, people who spend a long time in areas of heavy traffic or who are directly exposed to sunlight, and those with chronic inflammatory conditions.

Etiology and symptoms of associated cancers: The carcinogenic potential of free radicals arises from their ability to damage DNA, modify proteins by oxidation, and induce lipid peroxidation. The most frequently found form of oxidative DNA damage is hydroxylation of purine and pyrimidine bases. Other consequences of free radical actions for DNA are the generation of strand brakes, deamination, and formation of etheno adducts. Oxidative modifications of proteins include nitration, nitrosylation, and acetylation, among others. In addition, one of the most damaging effects of free radicals is lipid peroxidation because of its self-propagating nature, which greatly affects the properties and functioning of cell membranes. Furthermore, lipid peroxidation products, such as the reactive aldehydes malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal, can damage DNA and proteins in the same way as free radicals.

DNA oxidative damage can cause mutations in cancer-related genes, such as tumor-suppressor genes or oncogenes, and lead to the initiation and progression of cancer. Likewise, carcinogenesis can be induced by post-translational oxidative modification of proteins involved in the regulation of cell growth, signal transduction pathways, DNA repair, or other mechanisms of cellular homeostasis. For instance, free radicals are known to induce the transcription of the proto-oncogenes
FOS (also known as c-fos), JUN (c-jun), and MYC (c-myc), which stimulate cell growth. Also, posttranslational oxidative modifications of TP53 (p53), a tumor-suppressor protein, can inhibit its antiproliferative activity. Lastly, free radicals can promote not only tumor growth but also tumor migration and metastasis, by activating matrix metalloproteinases and stimulating the release of vascular endothelial growth factor. A current view of free radical actions supports the notion that these species do not act in a purely stochastic manner but are second messengers in redox-sensitive mechanisms of regulation of gene expression and enzyme activity. Aberrant and sustained redox signaling in oxidative stress situations leads to pathological changes, including cancer.

History: The relevance of free radicals in biological systems was first proposed by Denham Harman in 1956 in his classic article “Aging: A Theory Based on Free Radical and Radiation Chemistry.” Harman viewed age-related diseases as the result of an accumulation of oxidative damage. In the same year, in vitro studies showing the ability of oxygen reactive species to induce chromosome fragmentation in the presence of iron suggested for the first time the hypothesis of free-radical-induced carcinogenesis. Since then, the concept has been extended and free radicals have been found to be involved in most pathological conditions.

Alschuler, Lise, and Karolyn A. Gazella. The Definitive Guide to Cancer: An Integrative Approach to Prevention, Treatment, and Healing. 3rd ed. New York: Celestial Arts, 2010. Print.

Farooqui, Tahira, and Akhlaq A. Farooqui. Oxidative Stress in Vertebrates and Invertebrates: Molecular Aspects on Cell Signaling. Hoboken: Wiley, 2012. Print.

Halliwell, B. “Oxidative Stress and Cancer: Have We Moved Forward?” Biochemistry Journal 401 (2007): 1–11.

Hussain, S. P., L. J. Hofseth, and C. C. Harris. “Radical Causes of Cancer.” Nature Reviews. Cancer 3 (2003): 276–85.

Shankar, Sharmila, and Rakesh Srivastava. Nutrition, Diet, and Cancer. New York: Springer, 2012. Print.

Wu, W. S. “The Signaling Mechanism of ROS in Tumor Progression.” Cancer Metastasis Reviews 25 (2006): 695–705.

What happens because Clyde Dunbar broke his leg in "The Lottery"?

Clyde Dunbar’s wife drew for him because he couldn’t attend.

Clyde Dunbar broke his leg and is not able to attend the village’s annual lottery.  This does not get him out of it, though.  There is a rule about who draws when a person can’t.

"Me. I guess," a woman said, and Mr. Summers turned to look at her. "Wife draws for her husband." Mr. Summers said. "Don't you have a grown boy to do it for you, Janey?" Although Mr. Summers and everyone else in the village knew the answer perfectly well, it was the business of the official of the lottery to ask such questions formally.

Mrs. Dunbar tells him that her son is “not but sixteen yet” and therefore cannot draw.  She will draw for her husband.  Asking about her son is just a technicality.  Everyone knows everyone in this small village.  They are fully aware of the fact that the Dunbars do not have an older boy.

Apparently, there are other boys who do draw for their family members.  The society seems to be patriarchal, giving precedence to men and older boys.  This is why the “Watson boy” steps forward to draw for his family.

A tall boy in the crowd raised his hand. "Here," he said. "I'm drawing for my mother and me." He blinked his eyes nervously and ducked his head as several voices in the crowd said things like "Good fellow, lack." and "Glad to see your mother's got a man to do it."

It is an interesting dynamic.  No one can escape the lottery.  Illness and old age do not matter, or any other kind of incapacitation.  There is a preference for men.  Maybe the patriarchal, man-centered society is a result of the village’s reliance on tradition.  They do not like change at all, or they would discontinue the barbaric lottery.

How does a time-out influence disruptive behaviors in children?

Introduction

Time-out, also called time-out from positive reinforcement, refers to the temporary suspension of access to reward or positive reinforcement immediately following performance of inappropriate or maladaptive behavior. Child time-out is administered either by removing positive reinforcement from the situation or by removing the misbehaving child from the situation and placing him or her in a time-out room or specially designated area.

Time-out has been used to suppress a wide range of behaviors in children, including tantrums, physical aggression, noncompliance, and self-injurious behavior. For example, psychologists Montrose Wolf, Todd Risley, and Hayden Mees instituted a time-out for Dicky, their three-and-a-half-year-old autistic client. Whenever Dicky threw his glasses, he was sent to his room for ten minutes. When this time-out procedure was in effect, the frequency of throwing glasses declined to zero in five days. The frequency of throwing glasses increased over the course of three weeks when the time-out procedure was suspended and then declined to zero in six days when time-out was reinstated.

Evidence of the selectivity of the suppressive effect of time-out was provided by psychologists Ronald Drabman and Robert Spitalnik, who implemented a time-out procedure for male adolescents in a psychiatric hospital. Boys were placed in a time-out room for ten minutes for being physically aggressive or vacating their seat without permission. Time-out significantly reduced the frequency of both of these target behaviors but did not decrease a nontarget behavior, disallowed vocalizations.

Time-out from positive reinforcement does not have to be administered in a separate room to be effective. In a 1976 study, very young children were required to sit and watch other children for one minute if they exhibited disruptive behavior such as aggression or destruction of toys. In a 1978 study conducted in a special education classroom, a ribbon that signified that a child was eligible to earn social reinforcement in the form of verbal praise and smiles was removed for three minutes if the child was disruptive. Both techniques were effective in reducing disruptive behavior and had the advantage that the children in time-out could observe other children’s appropriate behavior and positive reinforcement.

The use of time-out to manage behavioral problems in children has not been without controversy. There is concern that if time-out is used by an adult or perceived by a child as punishment, it may have negative consequences similar to those associated with physical punishment. Potential undesirable effects include generalized suppression of behavior, reduced motivation, and impairment of the adult-child relationship. Isolation time-out also removes the opportunity for learning appropriate behaviors, and its extreme use in schools may violate students’ individual rights. Praise and reward for appropriate “time-in” behaviors has been advocated as a substitute for or supplement to the use of time-out for unwanted behavior.

Effectiveness

Three conditions are considered crucial to the effectiveness of time-out for eliminating disruptive behavior in children. First, the time-out period should be devoid of any positive reinforcement. The location for isolation time-out should be boring and should not permit activities that are more interesting than those available in the “time-in” environment. Ignoring a child in isolation time-out is also important to ensure the absence of social attention, which is a powerful reinforcer for children. Second, release from time-out should occur only after the specified duration has elapsed and appropriate behavior is exhibited. This contingency prevents the reinforcement of an unwanted behavior coincident with release from time-out. Third, time-out should not enable escape from or avoidance of activities that a child finds unpleasant. In such cases, not only will time-out fail, it may actually be countertherapeutic and increase disruptive behavior.

Studies have demonstrated that short duration time-outs may be superior or equal to long duration time-outs unless the child has been exposed to time-outs of longer duration. The general recommendation for children is one minute for each year of the child’s age. Research has also suggested that consistent application of the time-out contingency may be more important than the duration of time-out. Finally, time-out from an enriched environment is more effective than time-out from an impoverished one.

Origin of Time-Out

Time-out was introduced by the behavioral psychologists Charles B. Ferster and B. F. Skinner in Schedules of Reinforcement (1957). Originally, time-out denoted the removal of all conditioning stimuli and the insertion of a brief period of darkness, a blackout, following an incorrect or nonreinforced response in a discrimination procedure or an error on a matching-to-sample procedure in nonhuman animals. The use of time-out as a procedure for controlling disruptive behavior in children first appeared in the early 1960s. Four decades later, it was recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics as an alternative to physical reprimands. Its widespread use by parents and teachers to manage children with emotional and behavioral disorders at home and at school, respectively, reflects one of psychology’s most successful social inventions.

Bibliography

Alberto, Paul, and Anne C. Troutman. Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers. Boston: Pearson, 2013. Print.

Harris, Sandra L., and Robin Ersner-Hershfield. “Behavioral Suppression of Seriously Disruptive Behavior in Psychotic and Retarded Patients: A Review of Punishment and Its Alternatives.” Psychological Bulletin 85.6 (1978): 1352–1375. Print.

Kaneshiro, Neil K. "Time Out." MedlinePlus. US NLM, US Dept. of Health and Human Services, NIH, 24 Jan. 2011. Web. 11 July 2014.

Mazur, James E. Learning and Behavior. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2013. Print.

Miltenberger, Raymond G. Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures. 5th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2012. Print.

Ryan, Joseph B., Sharon Sanders, Antonis Katsiyannis, and Mitchell L. Yell. “Using Time-Out Effectively in the Classroom.” Teaching Exceptional Children 39.4 (2007): 60–67. Print.

Taylor, Jill, and Michelle Miller. “When Timeout Works Some of the Time: The Importance of Treatment Integrity and Functional Assessment.” School Psychology Quarterly 12.1 (1997): 4–22. Print.

The Behavior Home Page. Kentucky Dept. of Education and U of Kentucky Dept. of Special Education and Rehabilitation Counseling, n.d. Web. 11 July 2014. http://www.state.ky.us/agencies/behave/homepage.html.

A student has an unidentified mineral. The student wants to identify the mineral using information from the Mohs hardness scale. The student has a...

Mohs Hardness scale is used to determine the hardness of an unknown substance by using materials of known hardness. The idea is to scratch the surface of the unknown substance by a material of known hardness. If a scratch can be made, then the sample has lesser hardness than the material of known hardness. The process can be repeated with a different material of known hardness to get an idea of the hardness of the unknown sample.

Here, the student has a plastic piece, copper coin, glass plate and steel file. The hardness of these substances on Mohs hardness scale are 2, 3, 5.5 and 6.5, respectively. To know the hardness of the unknown sample, the student can try to scratch the sample with the steel file. If a scratch is made, the sample has lesser hardness than steel, or 6.5. Try scratching it with glass plate next. If a scratch cannot be made, the sample has a hardness between those of steel and glass, between 5.5 and 6.5. If a scratch can be made by glass, use copper next and so on. This way, we can figure out a range of hardness values for the unknown mineral sample.

Hope this helps. 

What is tinnitus?

Causes and Symptoms

One proposed classification of tinnitus distinguishes two main categories. Subjective tinnitus, the most common type, is perceived only by the patient, usually as a continuous “phantom” sensation. Objective tinnitus, the second type, can be heard through a stethoscope placed over head and neck structures and is frequently perceived as a pulsatile sound.

Continuous subjective tinnitus occurs in a multitude of ear conditions. It is most often encountered in the context of hearing loss due to aging, excessive noise exposure, or ototoxic medication (such as salycilates, aminoglycoside antibiotics, chemotherapeutics, and diuretics). The auditory sensation can be induced or worsened by ear infections or an excess of cerumen.

Other otologic causes are Ménière’s disease, otosclerosis, and acoustic neuroma. Neurologic conditions (multiple sclerosis, stroke, head injury), temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorder, and metabolic and psychogenic factors can also lead to tinnitus.

The causes of continuous tinnitus are often difficult to pinpoint, and the pathophysiology is still poorly understood. Prominent theories include repetitive discharge from injured cochlear hair
cells that generate continuous impulses in the auditory nerve, spontaneous auditory nerve activity, hyperactive brain stem auditory nuclei, and decreased suppression of peripheral nerve impulses by the auditory cortex. A neurobiological model that has gained acceptance includes two essential events: initial damage to peripheral auditory structures, which triggers the tinnitus, and subsequent (maladaptive) plastic changes in the central auditory pathway, with increased activity in brain stem and cortical areas.

Pulsatile tinnitus is caused by blood flow perturbations (through either normal or abnormal blood vessels near ear structures) and mechanical factors. Atherosclerosis, vascular
tumors, arteriovenous malformations, aneurysms, and vascular loops often lead to unilateral tinnitus and can be identified using imaging techniques. Vascular inflammation and thrombosis are additional causes of pulsatile tinnitus. Conditions associated with high cardiac output, such as pregnancy, anemia, or an overactive thyroid, can result in tinnitus. Mechanical causes of pulsatile tinnitus are represented by open Eustachian tubes and middle-ear muscle spasms.

Patients with tinnitus report a disturbing noise localized in one or both ears and sometimes in the head. They describe it as ringing, whistling, hissing, swishing, roaring, buzzing, or clicking. Ear fullness or pain can be present. The severity ranges from an occasional awareness of the noise to a frustrating, even unbearable sound. Epidemiologic studies indicate that 25 percent of patients with tinnitus experience a pronounced discomfort, while the rest do not report significant distress. Sensations perceived as severe can result in attention deficit, anxiety, and depression. In general, pulsatile tinnitus, unilateral tinnitus, and tinnitus associated with additional ear symptoms should be investigated carefully because they can signal a potentially serious underlying disorder.

Treatment and Therapy

The assessment of a patient with tinnitus includes physical examination, blood pressure measurements, audiometric profile, complete blood chemistry, hematocrit and lipid levels, thyroid studies, and brain imaging. Most cases of tinnitus should be evaluated by an ear, nose, and throat (ENT) specialist.

Therapeutic steps vary according to the type of tinnitus diagnosed and how the symptoms affect a patient’s life. Specific treatment should be provided for any underlying illness. Inflammatory ear disease is treated with antibiotic and anti-inflammatory medication. Conditions such as tumors, vascular abnormalities, otosclerosis, and Ménière’s disease may warrant surgical intervention. If the tinnitus is caused by hearing damage, then reassurance is often sufficient. Hearing aids, noise-masking devices, and cognitive and behavioral therapy are sometimes recommended. Patients should avoid ototoxic medication, loud noise, and stress.

Many treatments are still in the experimental phase or have variable efficacy. Proposed pharmacologic therapies for severe cases include antianxiety and antidepressant agents, lidocaine, and carbamazepine. Drugs that improve brain metabolism (nootropics) and neurotransmitter-directed agents might prove beneficial. Additional approaches focus on neck exercises, sound therapy, acupuncture, and electrical brain stimulation.

Perspective and Prospects

Tinnitus has been considered a disease entity for centuries. It was only in the second half of the twentieth century that physicians were able to discriminate between various types of tinnitus and their underlying pathology. Tinnitus remains a perplexing disorder, both for the sufferer and for the physician. No single treatment is truly efficacious, especially in subjective tinnitus. Many variables are associated with this “phantom” sensation, and a multitude of biological mechanisms can cause it. Nevertheless, the neurobiology of tinnitus has become less mysterious. A growing body of research continues to unveil striking neural changes. Animal models are employed to elucidate brain activity patterns in tinnitus and to explore therapeutic avenues. As a result of this complexity, it is likely that successful therapeutic strategies will have to target multiple factors simultaneously.

Bibliography

"About Tinnitus." American Tinnitus Association, 2013.

Claussen, Claus F. “Tinnitus.” In Conn’s Current Therapy 2013, edited by Edward T. Bope and Rick D. Kellerman. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2013.

Crummer, Richard W., and Ghinwa A. Hassan. “Diagnostic Approach to Tinnitus.” American Family Physician 69, no. 1 (January 1, 2004): 120.

"Tinnitus." MedlinePlus, May 7, 2013.

Tyler, Richard S., ed. The Consumer Handbook on Tinnitus. Sedona, Ariz.: Auricle Ink, 2008.

Wood, Debra, and Kari Kassir. "Ringing in the Ears." Health Library, Sept. 10, 2012.

Sectionalism, states rights and slavery led to which event in American history?

The answer to this question is "secession and the Civil War." Southern secession was the result of a longstanding struggle over the issue of slavery, and especially the issue of slavery's expansion into the western territories. Long simmering, this issue first became truly divisive with the Missouri crisis over the admission of that state as a slave state in 1820. Resolved, like other crises involving slavery, by a political compromise, the crisis in many ways set the stage for future showdowns over the issue. The addition of the modern American Southwest through the Mexican War led to a new crisis, this time over the issue of California's admission as a free state (i.e., without slavery). The compromise that resolved this crisis included a very unpopular fugitive slave act. This act added momentum to the already rapidly-growing abolitionist movement in the North. Abolitionists had come to believe that slavery was irreconcilable with a free republic and especially with their religious principles.

In the aftermath of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which opened the door to violent conflict in Kansas over slavery's expansion, the Republican Party was formed. Its main issue was the expansion of slavery, and when its candidate for President, Abraham Lincoln, won the national election in 1860, the state of South Carolina left the Union, followed over the next six months by 10 other slaveholding states. As we have seen, this was the culmination of a series of sectional disputes in which the South, a slave society, thought that its sectional interests were threatened by the North, where slavery was illegal. By 1860, when South Carolina left the Union, its politicians claimed that they had the right, as a state, to secede. What followed was a bloody four-year civil war in which the issues of slavery (but not really states rights) was decided once and for all.

Is there an epic simile in Book 4 of Homer's The Odyssey?

First, let's get clear on what an epic simile is. A simile, as you probably know, is simply an explicit comparison using words such as "like" or "as" (e.g., "His words beat down on Patroclus like dark wings"). An epic simile (also known as a "Homeric simile") involves a lengthy comparison between two complex entities or actions. The epic simile brings out major themes and symbols and also provides added poetic depth. It also provide a digression or a suspension of immediate action.

An example of this in Book IV of the Odyssey can be found in lines 335 and following. In these lines the (anticipated) rage of Odysseus is compared to the courage of a lion. In the words of Menelaus (talking about Penelope's suitors):

Rogues, men without courage, they are, who wish to creep into a brave man’s bed. Odysseus will bring them to a cruel end, just as if a doe had left twin newborn fawns asleep in some great lion’s lair in the bush, and gone for food on the mountain slopes, and in the grassy valleys, and the lion returned to its den and brought them to a cruel end.

Penelope's description of her husband as lion-hearted in line 723 reminds us of this comparison.

This epic simile also introduces an extremely important theme that is found in three other epic similes in the Odyssey: the role of family. The other locations are V.393 ff., VIII.525 ff., and X.410 ff. In addition, it uses the symbol of the lion, a symbol which predominates in Book IV and elsewhere.

Where did President Lincoln die?

Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. is the location most commonly associated with Abraham Lincoln's death, but the theater was not where he died. Lincoln died in a house across the street from the theater.

Lincoln was shot in the head by John Wilkes Booth while watching a play with his wife in their private box seats. At the time, a young doctor was watching the play in the audience. He rushed to the president's aid. With the help of some soldiers, the president was carried across the street to a private house. Today, this house is known as the Peterson House. It is located at 516 10th Street. At the time, the house belonged to William and Anna Peterson. They also had paid boarders who lived in their house. The surgeon general arrived, and he tended to the president with other doctors, but it was evident the president could not survive his wounds. He died the next morning in the back bedroom.

Why was the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act the catalyst to ensure that the Depression would become worldwide?

The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act of 1930, named for its two principal sponsors, Senator Reed Smoot and Congressman Willis Hawley, did not cause the Great Depression. It did, however, greatly exacerbate the economic crisis that began with the stock market crash of October 1929. It did this by ensuring that a trade war would occur that would badly damage all economies at least partly dependent upon the export of goods, which just so happened to include all the major economies of Europe and North America.

A tariff is a tax imposed upon the import of goods arriving from foreign countries. Foreign countries that are able to produce certain goods more inexpensively than one’s own manufacturers—in other words, domestic sources of goods may be more expensive for any number of reasons than those of other countries, making it cheaper for consumers to purchase the foreign goods than those produced locally—both support their own economies and provide the importing country less expensive goods. If domestic manufacturers, such as is the case with American steel producers, cannot compete with cheaper goods produced abroad, then they may go out of business, which means laying off their employees. This is why many Americans view cynically the benefits of free trade between this and other countries. American consumers get goods at cheaper prices, but at the expense of the domestic employment situation and, as importantly, at the expense of the survival of an industry that may be needed for national defense, as is the case with steel, which is needed for the manufacture of ships, tanks, armored personnel carriers, and many other staples of a nation’s military.

If the American, or any foreign government, wants to protect its domestic industries from foreign competition, one of the main tools they have at their disposal is the imposition of tariffs on the foreign-made goods. This raises the cost of those foreign-made goods, making them less attractive to domestic consumers. Today, a government’s ability to impose tariffs may be seriously limited by international treaty obligations designed to prevent a trade war, such as was precipitated by the passage of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act back in 1930. This, then, is the fundamental issue involved in discussions of tariffs. They are taxes designed to increase the cost to one’s own consumers of goods produced in foreign countries. Domestic manufacturers love tariffs because they protect them from foreign competition. Domestic consumers, including industries that use certain goods, like steel, in the production of their product, like automobiles, hate tariffs precisely because these taxes on imports increase the amount of money they have to pay for the raw materials used in the manufacture of their products.

So, getting back to the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, which radically increased tariffs on foreign goods, including agricultural goods the revenue of which was desperately needed by European agricultural sectors, by passing this legislation, Congress, and the president at the time, Herbert Hoover, ensured that every country with which the United States traded would suffer. When foreign exports to the United States were subjected to substantial tax increases—the new tariff rates imposed by the legislation—the costs of goods for American consumers rose while the economic situation in Europe worsened. Countries linked by the trade in goods and services are dependent upon each other, and the imposition of these tariffs hurt everybody, all over the world. Unsurprisingly, as continues to happen today, the American tariffs were countered by foreign imposition of higher tariffs on American exports to their countries, thereby exacerbating the international economic crisis and damaging American companies that depend upon overseas markets for a substantial portion of their revenue, which, in turn, increases unemployment. Everybody loses.

The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act was intended to protect the American economy from foreign competition. What it did was precipitate a trade war that cost all involved countries dearly.

What political impact does space exploration have?

This question makes me think of science-fiction media, but as technology continues to advance, perhaps the politics of space are becoming more real to us. Space exploration poses several possibilities which might have great implications for life here on Earth. First, there is the possibility that humans might discover other planets or territories which can sustain our life. In such a case, the first nation(s) to reach that place might claim it as being their own territory. The second possibility I can think of, regardless of whether or not another planet is inhabitable, is that nations on Earth might still seek to claim other planets as their own in order to have ownership over the resources there.

Imagine, if you will, that one nation on Earth is able to discover a solid-gold planet and begin mining it. The wealth and power of this nation would increase dramatically! They might establish such a monopoly on gold that they essentially take control of global economy.

In a less sci-fi scenario which our world has already experienced, conflict may arise over who has the right to explore, colonize, and research extraterrestrial territory. When the first missions to the Moon were being made, there was great conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union over who would get their first and have "first grabs" of any territory or resources on the Moon.

If (some might say "when") scientists discover extraterrestrial life, we may have to reconsider some of our beliefs about natural rights, colonization, and citizenship.

What else besides the presence of Georg Znaeym may explain the disturbing presence in the forest in "The Interlopers"?

Because of the impending storm, the roebuck are running, whereas they normally would be bedded down. And, since the deer are running, the wolves may be hunting. These wolves may well be "the disturbing element" in the forest.

This suggestion of wolves, therefore, acts as foreshadowing of what will come at the end of the narrative when the two adversaries, Georg Znaeym and Ulrich von Gradwitz, anticipate their respective parties of men to rescue them. After neither party appears, Ulrich suggests that they shout together in the hope that some of the other men will hear them. When Ulrich finally sees figures following the way he himself has come down the hillside, the two men shout together again.

"They hear us! They've stopped. Now they see us. They're running down the hill toward us," cried Ulrich.

Unfortunately, those that they see running are not Ulrich's men, nor are they Georg's. Instead, they are another "disturbing presence." When Georg asks Ulrich if the figures are his men, Ulrich laughs "the idiotic chattering laugh of a man unstrung with hideous fear." George asks, "Who are they?" Ulrich chatters, "Wolves."

What are diet-based therapies?

Overview

Diet-based therapy uses specialized dietary regimens to promote wellness and to prevent and treat specific diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and diabetes. Some low-fat vegetarian diets can help reverse arterial blockages that cause coronary artery disease and may help prevent or slow the progression of prostate and other cancers. Persons who follow a specific type of diet have reported cancer remission. It usually takes months or years for benefits to be observed. Diet therapies are more likely to be effective if practiced as a preventive measure against disease or if started early after the onset of disease.

Some diet-based movements, such as breatharianism, claim that food and even water are not necessary for living. Believers claim that human life can be sustained by a vital force whose energy comes from sunlight and by the nutrients of fresh air. Another diet therapy based on religious beliefs is fruitarianism, which involves a diet based solely on the intake of fruits, nuts, and seeds. This diet therapy is practiced by people who call themselves fruitarians and who believe that fruits are the original diet of humankind, a diet that stems from the time of Adam and Eve. Some followers of this practice will eat only fallen fruits.

Regardless of philosophical or religious beliefs, however, humans need a balanced diet to be healthy. People with chronic diseases and some types of cancer can enhance their quality of life by improving the quality of their daily meals, shifting or replacing eating habits, and being more aware about calorie intake.

Mechanism of Action

Some studies show that several diets based on fruits can improve lipid profiles and glucose tolerances and can stop the weight-gain tendency in some people. The intake of nuts, olive oil, and fish can reduce bad cholesterol. Reducing saturated fats in daily meals can reduce triglycerides in the blood. Potassium from fruits can also reduce muscle pains. It is well known that a diet low in salt (sodium) can help to reduce blood pressure.

Uses and Applications

Diets have been used to treat hypertension. One of the most important
science based-diets designed to control blood pressure is the Dietary Approaches
to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, which is promoted by the National Heart, Lung,
and Blood Institute, part of the National Institutes of Health
(NIH).

The DASH diet is a plan that is low in saturated fats, cholesterol, and total fat. It emphasizes the intake of fruits, vegetables, fat-free or low-fat milk and milk products, whole grain products, fish, poultry, and nuts. The diet is low in lean red meat, sweets, added sugars and sugar-containing beverages. It is rich in potassium, magnesium, calcium, protein, and fiber.

Type 2 diabetes is another chronic disease that can be partially controlled by diet. The ideal diabetic meal consists of a combination of foods, such as bread, products that are high in fat, dairy items that provide protein, and starchy vegetables. Most of the protein in a diabetic diet comes from chicken, fish, lean beef, or dairy. Servings and portions in diabetic diets depend on a person’s level of physical activity.

Cardiovascular diseases can also be prevented and controlled by diet. Histological studies show that vascular injury accumulates from adolescence, making it extremely important to monitor one’s lifestyle and diet from childhood to prevent a heart condition in the future. Any diet designed to control or prevent cardiovascular disease most be low in saturated fats (less than 7 percent of the daily diet) and low in cholesterol (less than 300 milligrams per day for healthy adults and less than 200 milligrams per day for adults with high levels of low-density lipoprotein, or bad, cholesterol).

The American
Cancer Society recommends that people with cancer not
undertake a dietary program as an exclusive or primary means of treatment. A
macrobiotic
diet is one of the most common diets followed by persons with
cancer. It is based on whole cereal grains, especially brown rice, and is low in
processed foods. Another diet used in cancer treatment is the Gerson diet, which
is part of the Gerson therapy. The Gerson diet is said to cleanse the body,
boost the immune system, and stimulate metabolism. The Gerson diet in general
requires following a strict low-salt, low-fat, vegetarian diet containing a lot of
fluids.

Scientific Evidence

NIH studies have demonstrated that a low level of salt combined with the DASH diet is effective at lowering blood pressure. The effect of this combination (at a sodium level of 1,500 milligrams per day) was an average blood pressure reduction of 8.9/4.5 millimeters of mercury (systolic/diastolic) in normal subjects. Persons in the studies who were hypertensive experienced an average reduction of 11.5/5.7 millimeters of mercury.

A low intake of saturated fats will reduce triglycerides in the blood. Studies have claimed that some diets designed for persons with cancer dramatically increase life expectancy, but many physicians counter this claim, saying that a lack of control groups means that there is insufficient scientific evidence to support those observations.

Choosing a Practitioner

A nutritionist is the recommended professional advisor for the selection of a diet for a specific chronic condition. For persons with cancer, diets must be chosen and recommended by an oncologist.

Safety Issues

When beginning a therapeutic diet that involves a dramatically different way of eating, people should receive expert supervision so that they can avoid nutritional deficiencies. The human body, which needs carbohydrates, fats, and proteins for healthy function, burns its own reserves of energy in the absence of calorie intake. Fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death.

Diets based on one type of food, such as those based solely on fruits, can cause protein deficiencies, which inhibit growth and development in children. Fruit-based diets can also cause deficiencies in vitamin D, vitamin B12, calcium, iron, zinc, and essential fatty acids.

Bibliography

American Cancer Institute. “Questions and Answers About the Gerson Therapy.” Available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/gerson/patient/page2.

“DASH Diet Action Plan: The User-Friendly Book for the DASH Diet.” Available at http://www.dashdiet.org.

Food and Nutrition Information Center. http://fnic.nal.usda.gov.

What are the elements of American foreign policy?

Any country's foreign policy is concerned with promoting that country's interests abroad. These interests are composed of a number of critical elements. Here are a few, in no particular order.

1. Military/Security: It used to be that from a military standpoint our foreign policy was almost exclusively focused on containing Russia and the spread of communism/socialism. We still have to keep a watchful eye on Russia, but now China may be a bigger worry. But the spread of communism no longer appears to be a threat. It is terrorism that is occupying the larger share of attention these days. Terrorism, especially ISIS, forces us to maintain a presence in the Middle East even as we become less dependent on their oil.

2. Economic: International trade, according to most economists' views, is an economic plus. It helps established economies and it helps growing economies. Trade agreements with other countries help create jobs in the U.S. (we hear a lot about how it costs us jobs in some sectors too, but the net effect is, according to most economists, economically helpful). So, many of America's foreign policy objectives are designed with trade in mind.

3. Ideological: As a democracy, America promotes the spread of democratic ideals throughout the world—sometimes. Not all of America's allies reflect our own democratic values. Here is an excerpt about this from Foreign Policy.com:

Take two events this week. On Thursday, the Washington Post reported that the U.S. is operating a drone base in Ethiopia, a country Freedom House recently downgraded to “Not Free” because of “national elections that were thoroughly tainted by intimidation of opposition supporters and candidates.” Only days earlier, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited the autocratic Central Asian leaders Islam Karimov and Emomali Rakhmon to discuss how they can help with the war in Afghanistan. “If you have no contact you will have no influence, and other countries will fill that vacuum who do not care about human rights,” Clinton explained ahead of her visit, adding that “it’s a balancing act.

We promote democracy where is suits our interests to do so.

It is important to remember that, when it comes to foreign policy, it is all about self-interest. No country conducts its foreign policy with the intention of making life better in other countries. All countries are trying to maximize their own wealth and power. An altruistic foreign policy would probably be disastrous. That isn't to say that we never help people in other countries--we do, but only when it also serves our own foreign policy objectives. 

Which chromosome is affected by Huntington's Disease and how is that chromosome affected? Which chromosome is affected by Cystic Fibrosis and how...

Genetic diseases are diseases that are caused by defects in the genome - mutations or deletions in the DNA of an individual. Both Huntington's disease and cystic fibrosis are genetic disorders. Usually, these diseases manifest due to defects - loss of function or gain of function - of proteins that arise from the affected DNA.

Huntington's Disease

Huntington's disease is a neurodegenerative genetic disorder. In particular, it is a trinucleotide repeat disorder, a family of disorders that are caused by a trinucleotide repeat exceeding a certain number or threshold or repeat. Trinucleotides are a set of three DNA bases or a codon, and each codon ultimately corresponds to a certain amino acid. For Huntington's diseases, the affected gene is the HTT gene which encodes for the protein huntingtin (Htt). HTT is located in the short arm of chromosome 4. The gene contains a repeated sequence of the CAG codon which encodes for glutamine, an amino acid. For this particular trinucleotide, the threshold is 36 - that is, when the codon is repeated 36 times (or in the protein there are 36 or less consecutive glumatine amino acids), then there is no phenotype for Huntington's disease. Higher than this, Huntington's diseases is observed. Genetically speaking then, HD is caused by an increase in the number of CAG repeats in the HTT gene. In terms of proteins, the increase in number of glutamine changes the properties of the protein affecting the rate of communication in neurons.

Cystic Fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis is another genetic disorder. It is caused by a defect in the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator or the CFTR protein. The protein is damaged and is misfolded. The most common mutation in the CTFR protein is the del508. Amino acid 508 is a phenylalanine, and a deletion of this key amino acid accounts for almost 70% of all cases. Its deletion causes the protein to mis-fold; thus, it is not able to carry out its function anymore. An amino acid deletion in a protein is caused by a deletion of three bases in the encoding DNA - note that since three bases are deleted, it is still in frame and the result is a deletion of one amino acid, rather than a shift in the reading frame. The gene encoding for this protein (CTFR gene) is found at the q32.1 locus of chromosome 7. 

--Short answer:

Both HD and CF are diseases that are caused by mutations in the genome. HD is caused by additional bases (additional CAG repeats in the HTT gene located in the short arm of chromosome 4). CF is caused by a deletion of three bases (deletion of bases encoding for a phenylalanine in position 508 in the CTFR gene in the q32.1 locus of chromosome 7).

What is the valley of ashes in The Great Gatsby? How did it become this way?

We first see this phrase in Chapter 2:

"...certain desolate area of land. This is a valley of ashes — a fantastic farm where ashes grow like wheat into ridges and hills and grotesque gardens; where ashes take the forms of houses and chimneys and rising smoke and, finally, with a transcendent effort, of men who move dimly and already crumbling through the powdery air. Occasionally a line of gray cars crawls along an invisible track, gives out a ghastly creak, and comes to rest, and immediately the ash-gray men swarm up with leaden spades and stir up an impenetrable cloud, which screens their obscure operations from your sight."

The area is bordered by a "foul" river. The whole description should seem to you very gross and creepy, and you might suspect that there's a good thematic reason why the author bothered to describe it in such detail.

This "valley of ashes" is mentioned again in Chapter 4:

"...as we neared the city. We passed Port Roosevelt, where there was a glimpse of red-belted ocean-going ships, and sped along a cobbled slum lined with the dark, undeserted saloons of the faded-gilt nineteen-hundreds. Then the valley of ashes opened out on both sides of us, and I had a glimpse of Mrs. Wilson straining at the garage pump with panting vitality as we went by."

This second passage seems to suggest that the valley of ashes is also the "cobbled slum" filled with "dark" businesses clinging to the figurative layer of gold that characterized the 1900's. And though the "valley of ashes" is an actual place in the novel's setting, a dirty place where everything is literally and figuratively foul, some readers also interpret this "valley" more broadly and symbolically as a place where American values and morals have gone to die, and/or as a place where poverty and hopelessness are made manifest.

Why did it get this way, though? It's basically a heap of polluted air and land and water, a byproduct of industry. This makes sense thematically, too: the wealthy industrialists in the early 1900's seemed to care only about creating products in the quickest, cheapest ways so that they could earn the most money. They disregarded both the environment and the lower classes by allowing their factories to pollute the river and the valley. Because this is how the "valley of ashes" got this way, you can see how its interpretation as a symbol of social and moral decay is even more apposite.

What are some of the issues that President Obama has faced while in office?

President Obama has faced several issues while he has been in office. One major issue he faced was the Great Recession of 2008-2009. The stock market dropped significantly, unemployment rose, many people defaulted on their mortgages, and many major businesses nearly closed. It took significant government involvement to keep some of these businesses in operation. The government has worked hard to try to restore our economy to levels that existed before the Great Recession began.

Another major issue facing the President has been the war on terrorism. We are fighting terrorism in many places. We have been involved in Iraq and in Afghanistan. We now are dealing with ISIS in Syria. We have targeted the leaders of the terrorist groups, and some leaders have been killed.

Gun violence has been an issue for the President. There have been many mass shootings. President Obama has called for stricter gun control laws, but little progress has been made on this issue.

A recent issue facing the President has been trying to get a Supreme Court nominee approved. That process has been moving slowly and some Senators want to wait until after the election to deal with the Supreme Court vacancy.

President Obama has faced many issues while he has been in office.

What is the most difficult thing to understand in Act 4 of Romeo and Juliet?

What is most difficult to understand in this Act is friar Laurence's position. He is faced with a moral dilemma, for he has already married the two lovers and now has to marry Juliet a second time, which cannot be, for it would mean that the he is complicit in committing a crime and an immoral act.

The fact that the friar even married the two lovers in the first place is problematic. He knew the circumstances in which the two found themselves and yet performed the marriage ritual, knowing full well that both families would have resented his actions and opposed it. They would have asked for the marriage to be annulled if that were at all possible. 

The friar is caught in a dilemma and has to not only ensure the two lovers' happiness, but he has to protect himself for he may be severely sanctioned for his actions. His solution would resolve the problem, but ignores the sorrow that will ensue. The friar is supposed to seek the goodness of all those he serves and not be the origin of their pain and sorrow.

Furthermore, even though he has good intentions, his current plan will scupper everything good he had originally planned. His idea was that a marriage between Romeo and Juliet would bring to an end the feud between the two families. His solution, however, may further widen the gap between the two and cause greater bitterness and resentment.

The expression: 'The road to hell is paved with good intentions' is most apt in this situation. The friar is naive to believe that his solution will work. As it is, his contrivances border on deceit and illegality, since he is assisting a criminal, for Romeo had committed a crime and had been banished. Added to that, he is helping the two in what may be deemed immoral. His function is to foster morality and, as a servant of God, he has a duty to act in the best interests of all concerned and not lead them down the path to perdition.

Furthermore, his suggestion that Juliet take a powerful sleeping-potion makes the vulnerable and obviously anxious teenager suspicious of his intent, as she states in scene 3:

What if it be a poison, which the friar
Subtly hath minister'd to have me dead,
Lest in this marriage he should be dishonour'd,
Because he married me before to Romeo?
I fear it is: and yet, methinks, it should not,
For he hath still been tried a holy man.

The only reason she really takes the potion is that she refuses to be married to Paris and would rather be dead. She, therefore, does not much care at this point for, to her, whether she dies or not, the outcome would be the same.

In this regard, then, it is difficult to understand why the friar does not seek an alternative solution. He obviously has some authority with both families and is respected. Why does he practice deceit and assist Juliet in presenting a lie? There obviously has to be a better way.

It is tragically unfortunate and deeply ironic that, in the end, the friar's wish does come true. The Capulets and Montagues end their conflict but at a great price: they lose their most precious gifts - a son and a daughter.    

Create a short 350 - 500 word piece where you discuss writing a paper that has validity. Make sure you cover: fact and fiction, supporting...

This assignment asks you to think about how you write a paper with validity focusing on key aspects of paper writing in general. I'll cover these below, but you'll need to apply them to your assignment.

Fact vs. Fiction
In writing a strong paper, it's necessary to separate fact and fiction for your readers both in your own opinions and in the sources you present. In your own points, you want to make sure you're not saying anything that isn't supported. Then, in your sources, you want to make sure you're using factual information and strong support for your points.

Supporting Evidence
In your paper, you'll want to evaluate each source, not just for fact and fiction, but for the source's individual value to a topic. If you're writing a paper about climate change, you'll want climate science scientists as sources. You wouldn't, for example, cite a political source for scientific information. Similarly, you wouldn't cite a medical doctor to answer questions about the law.

Bias
In your paper, you will want to evaluate your sources (and yourself) for bias. Are you presenting both sides fairly? Keep in mind, fair doesn't mean 50% and 50% - in fact, it often doesn't mean equal representation of two sides. On an issue like evolution, for instance, it would not be appropriate to dedicate half of a paper to evolution critics, because that's not a true representation of science. It would however, be a great idea to present scientists that have different ideas about a specific aspect of evolution. Similarly, you will want to make sure your own biases about a topic aren't getting in the way of your paper. If you're writing a story about "the best pets" you may love cats - but if you only write about cats and give no attention to dogs, you could come across as biased.

Logic
Finally, you should be very careful about the arguments you make in your essay. You will want to be sure to avoid logical fallacies so that you don't lose credibility with your reader and so that your ultimate argument makes sense. To learn more about logical fallacies, check out this encyclopedia link.

Why does Judge Ford host a party at her apartment in The Westing Game?

The purpose of the party is to spy on the residents of Sunset Towers to see who is suspicious and find clues.

Judge Ford decides to host an “informal party” in her apartment so that she can get to know the heirs.  When people start using the elevator as a bulletin board, she puts a notice up saying everyone is invited.  She makes sure Mr. Hoo stays even after delivering food.

Grace Wexler coos over the idea of having a party, and offers the judge decorating tips.  None of the guests seem to be having much fun though.  Tensions are too high with the murder and the game on everyone’s minds.

The party went on and on. No one dared be first to leave. (Safety in numbers, especially with a judge there.) So the guests ate and drank and jabbered; and they watched the other guests eat and drink and jabber. No one laughed. (Ch. 10) 

Judge Taylor is not the only one who is watching people and trying to learn things from them. They are all participating in the same contest, after all.  Every word seems to be evaluated. 

 “I’m not having any luck at all, Angela,” Sydelle whined. “If only your mother hadn’t made you change clothes someone surely would have mentioned ‘twin.’ It’s much harder to judge reactions when I have to bring up the subject myself. (Ch. 10) 

Sydelle continually says the word “twins” hoping that someone will react to the clue.  Judge Ford wants in particular to talk to James Hoo, because he seems to have a motive.  He claims that Mr. Westing stole his idea for an invention of paper diapers. 

The guests take a poll as to where “May God thy gold refine?” comes from.  No one gets any conclusive information or clues from the party.  No one says or does anything suspicious, and they never figure out what the mysterious phrase is from.

What are natural treatments for the prevention of hearing loss?

Introduction

There are many possible causes of hearing loss, ranging from wax in the
ear canal to problems with the nerves that receive sound and transmit it to the
brain. Two of the most common causes are age-related hearing loss (presbycusis)
and noise-induced hearing loss. The treatment for hearing loss depends on its
cause, and for this reason, one should consult a doctor. This article discusses a
few herbs and supplements that have shown promise for various forms of hearing
loss.

Principal Proposed Natural Treatments

Two natural treatments have been evaluated in double-blind, placebo-controlled trials for the prevention or treatment of hearing loss: magnesium and Ginkgo biloba.

Magnesium for preventing noise-induced hearing loss. Long-term
exposure to loud sounds, such as gunfire or rock music, can cause permanent
hearing loss. A two-month, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of three hundred
military recruits found daily supplementation with magnesium
helped protect the ear from noise-induced damage. The dosage used in this study
was quite small–only 167 milligrams (mg) of magnesium daily–but tests showed that
even this amount was sufficient to raise magnesium levels inside cells and
apparently protect the ear from damage. Soldiers who received the magnesium were
less likely to experience permanent hearing damage than those in the placebo
group, and when they did experience hearing damage, it was less severe.

It is not clear how magnesium might protect hearing. Studies in animals suggest that magnesium deficiency can increase the stress on cells involved with hearing and thereby make them more susceptible to damage caused by intense noise. However, human magnesium deficiency is believed to be rare, so it is possible that supplemental magnesium acts in some entirely different way.

Only the use of noise-reduction devices (such as headsets that block sound) has been proven effective for preventing noise-induced hearing loss, and the forgoing study does not indicate that magnesium supplements can replace this effective approach. However, the study suggests that a safe, low dose of magnesium may add an additional level of protection.

Ginkgo for treating sudden hearing loss. Some people develop hearing loss suddenly, usually in one ear. This condition is called unilateral idiopathic sudden hearing loss. Its cause is unknown, but problems with circulation may play a role in some cases. The herb Ginkgo biloba is thought to increase circulation, and for this reason it has been tried as a treatment for this condition.

In a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 106 participants with a carefully
defined form of sudden hearing loss were given either a full dose of
ginkgo extract (120 milligrams [mg] twice daily) or a low
dose of the herb (12 mg twice daily). The lower dose was chosen in the belief that
it could not possibly offer any benefit and would therefore serve as placebo.
However, researchers were surprised to find that most participants in each group
recovered by the end of the eight-week trial. There are two possibilities to
explain this: low-dose ginkgo is effective, or many people with sudden hearing
loss recover on their own anyway.

Because both groups improved to such a great extent, the overall results of the trial did not prove ginkgo effective. An exploratory look at the data provided some hints that high-dose ginkgo may have helped ensure full recovery, but for statistical reasons these hints cannot be taken as proof.

Another double-blind study compared ginkgo to pentoxifylline, a circulation-enhancing drug used in Germany
for the treatment of sudden hearing loss. The results indicate that ginkgo was at
least as effective as the medication. However, because pentoxifylline itself is
not a proven treatment for this condition, the results prove little. Additional
research will be necessary to discover whether ginkgo is actually effective for
sudden hearing loss

Other Proposed Natural Treatments

A study in animals suggests that the supplement lipoic acid
might help prevent age-related hearing loss. Another animal study suggests that
melatonin may help prevent hearing loss induced by noise.

Free
radicals are naturally occurring substances that cause damage
to many parts of the body, including the ear. Antioxidants
are substances that fight free radicals. Antioxidant supplements have shown
promise for preventing various forms of hearing loss, including age-related
hearing loss and hearing damage caused by medications. Commonly used antioxidants
include citrus bioflavonoids, coenzyme Q10, lipoic acid, lutein,
lycopene, oligomeric proanthocyanidins, vitamin C, and vitamin E.

Other natural treatments sometimes used for various forms of hearing loss, but which lack meaningful scientific support, include folate, manganese, myrrh, potassium, zinc, and vitamins B1, B2, B6, and B12.

Bibliography

Blakley, B. W., et al. “Strategies for Prevention of Toxicity Caused by Platinum-Based Chemotherapy.” Laryngoscope 112 (2002): 1997-2001.

Burschka, M. A., et al. “Effect of Treatment with Ginkgo biloba Extract EGb 761 (Oral) on Unilateral Idiopathic Sudden Hearing Loss in a Prospective Randomized Double-Blind Study of 106 Outpatients.” European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology 258 (2001): 213-219.

Henderson, D., et al. “The Role of Antioxidants in Protection from Impulse Noise.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 884 (November 28, 1999): 368-380.

Karlidag, T., et al. “The Role of Free Oxygen Radicals in Noise Induced Hearing Loss: Effects of Melatonin and Methylprednisolone.” Auris Nasus Larynx 29 (2002): 147-152.

Reisser, C. H., and H. Weidauer. “Ginkgo biloba Extract EGb 761W or Pentoxifylline for the Treatment of Sudden Deafness.” Acta Otolaryngologica 121 (2001): 579-584.

Seidman, M. D. “Effects of Dietary Restriction and Antioxidants on Presbyacusis.” Laryngoscope 110 (2000): 727-738.

_______, et al. “Biologic Activity of Mitochondrial Metabolites on Aging and Age-Related Hearing Loss.” American Journal of Otolaryngology 21 (2000): 161-167.

What is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?

Causes and Symptoms

Studies indicate that 2 to 10 percent of children may have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), depending on the diagnostic criteria used and the population studied. The cause of ADHD is unknown, although the fact that it often occurs in families suggests some degree of genetic inheritance. Boys are two times more likely to be affected than girls. ADHD is usually diagnosed when a child enters school, but it may be discovered earlier. According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association in 2013, several of an individual's symptoms must be present prior to the age of twelve years for the diagnosis of ADHD.

An abnormality in the central dopaminergic and noradrenergic tone is thought to be the pathophysiologic basis for ADHD. Some genetic causes of ADHD that have been suggested include a possible mutation of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene or a phenotypic variation in the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene. Other risk factors being explored include head injury before the age of two years; exposure to emotionally traumatic situations such as abuse, neglect, or violence; and childhood exposure to environmental contaminants such as lead and organophosphate pesticides, substances such as alcohol and nicotine in utero, or secondhand smoke in childhood. Some studies have suggested that a high level of television viewing between the ages of one and three years is modestly associated with ADHD. Other studies suggest that food dyes and preservatives such as artificial colors or sodium benzoate may increase hyperactivity. Other possible factors that may increase the risk of ADHD include maternal urinary tract infection during pregnancy, premature birth, complex congenital heart disease, and Turner syndrome.

Individuals who do not have ADHD may, at times, display some of the symptoms of this disorder, but those who are diagnosed with ADHD must display symptoms most of the time and across multiple settings—in school, at home, and/or during other activities. According to the DSM-5, a child must display six or more ADHD symptoms for six months or longer to be diagnosed with the disorder, while adults must display five or more symptoms to be eligible for diagnosis. Prior to diagnosis, the referring pediatrician and specialist should rule any undetected hearing or vision problems, any learning disabilities, undetected seizures, and anxiety and depression that may be causing ADHD-like symptoms. The symptoms of ADHD are usually grouped into three main categories: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness.

Individuals who have symptoms of inattention often make careless mistakes or do
not pay close attention to details in school, social settings, or at work. They
may have problems sustaining attention over time and frequently do not seem to
listen when spoken to, especially in groups. Individuals with ADHD have difficulty
following instructions and often fail to finish chores or schoolwork. They do not
organize well and may have messy rooms and desks at school. They also frequently
lose things necessary for school, work, or other activities. Because they have
trouble sustaining attention, individuals with ADHD dislike tasks that require
this skill and will try to avoid them. One of the key symptoms is distractibility,
which means that people with ADHD are often paying attention to extraneous sights,
sounds, smells, and thoughts rather than focusing on the task that they should be
doing. ADHD may also be characterized by forgetfulness in daily activities,
despite numerous reminders about such common, everyday activities as dressing,
hygiene, manners, and other behaviors. People with ADHD seem to have a poor sense
of time; they are frequently late or think that they have more time to do a task
than they really do.

Not all individuals with ADHD have symptoms of hyperactivity, but many have
problems with fidgeting, or squirming. It is common for these individuals to be
constant talkers, often interrupting others. Other symptoms of hyperactivity
include leaving their seat in school, work, church, or similar settings and moving
around excessively in situations where they should be still. Some people with ADHD
seem to be driven by a motor or are continuously on the go.

Individuals with ADHD may also have some symptoms of impulsiveness, such as
blurting out answers before questions are completed. Another example of
impulsiveness would be or intruding upon others in conversation or in some
activity. They may also have difficulty standing in lines or waiting for their
turn.

It is important to recognize that children with ADHD are not bad children who are
hyperactive, impulsive, and inattentive on purpose. Rather, they are usually
bright children who would like to behave better and to be more successful in
school, in social life with peers, and in family affairs, but they simply cannot.
One way to think about ADHD is to consider it a disorder of the ability to inhibit
impulsive, off-task, or undesirable attention. Consequently, an individual with
ADHD cannot separate important from unimportant stimuli and cannot sort
appropriate from inappropriate responses to those stimuli. It is easy to
understand how someone whose brain is trying to respond to a multitude of stimuli,
rather than sorting stimuli into priorities for response, will have difficulty
focusing and maintaining attention to the main task.

Individuals with ADHD may also have a short attention span, particularly for
activities that are not fun or entertaining. They will be unable to concentrate
because they will be distracted by peripheral stimuli. They may also have poor
impulse control so that they seem to act on the spur of the moment. They may be
hyperactive or clumsy, resulting in their being labeled “accident-prone.” They may
also have problems completing tasks that require a lot of organization and
planning—often first seen when the individual is in the third grade or beyond.
They may display attention-demanding behavior and/or show resistant or
overpowering social behaviors. Last, children with ADHD often act as if they were
younger, and “immaturity” is a frequent label. Along with this trait, they have
wide mood swings and are seen as emotional.

Many experts think that ADHD may be related to problems with brain development. Studies have shown that the prefrontal cortex, striatum, and cerebellum in the brains of individuals with ADHD are less activated on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) than age-matched controls without ADHD. These regions of the brain are rich in dopaminergic and noradrenergic pathways and are associated with executive function. Other researchers have proposed the hypothesis that a developmental abnormality of the inferior frontal gyrus might cause the inhibition difficulties seen in ADHD.

Hyperactive symptoms may improve in adolescence, although adolescents with ADHD may continue to have problems with impulsive behavior and inattention. They may have considerable difficulty complying with rules and following directions. They may be poorly organized, causing problems both with starting projects and with completing them. Adolescents with ADHD may have problems in school in spite of average or above-average potential. They may have poor self-esteem and a low frustration tolerance. Because of these and other factors related to ADHD, they may also be at greater risk of developing substance use problems and other mental health problems. ADHD may also persist into adulthood, in which case it is referred to as adult ADHD. The same diagnostic criteria apply, including the presence of the disorder since childhood.

Several other neurologic or psychiatric disorders have symptoms that can overlap with ADHD, so accurate diagnosis can be difficult. When an individual is suspected of having ADHD, he or she should have a thorough medical interview with, and physical examination by, a physician familiar with child development, ADHD, and related conditions. A psychological evaluation to determine intelligence quotient (IQ) and areas of learning and performance strengths and weaknesses should be obtained. A thorough family history and a discussion of family problems such as divorce, violence, alcoholism, or drug abuse should be part of the evaluation, as symptoms of ADHD may arise after a significant and sudden change in a child's life. Other conditions that might be found to exist along with ADHD, or to be the underlying cause of symptoms thought to be ADHD, include oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder (usually seen in older children), depression, anxiety, or a substance abuse disorder.

"Attention-deficit disorder (ADD) with or without hyperactivity" was first defined
in the third edition of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (1980), or DSM-III, and its
definition has evolved since then. The name ADD was changed to ADHD in the revised
edition of the DSM-III-R (1987). In 1998, the National Institutes of Health
(NIH) held a Consensus Development Conference on the
Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. While most
experts supported the ADHD diagnosis criteria, the final report noted a need for
further research into the validity of the diagnosis. The fifth edition of the
DSM(DSM-5), published in 2013, updated the definition of ADHD
to reflect the growing body of evidence that shows the condition can last beyond
childhood in order to help clinicians diagnose and treat adults with ADHD.
Approximately 50 percent of children with ADHD continue to have ADHD into
adulthood.

Treatment and Therapy

Treatment and therapy for ADHD will usually begin with the diagnostic process. Generally, treatment will begin with some combination of counseling, education, and behavioral therapy. Behavioral therapy may be administered by a parent, teacher, or counselor. In some cases, family counseling may be indicated. This counseling may be help family members learn about ADHD. Parent training interventions may help to improve some symptoms of ADHD in children. Family counseling also may be recommended when family issues are thought to be related to the type or severity of symptoms that the child may be experiencing. For instance, if the family is undergoing a stressful event, such as a divorce, serious loss, or death, or other problems such as economic stress, then the symptoms of ADHD may worsen. Therefore, treatment may focus on trying to minimize the impact of such stressors on the child. In addition, neurofeedback may reduce inattentive behaviors and impulsivity.

If behavioral and nonpharmacologic interventions do not lead to improvement and if there is a moderate to severe functional disturbance caused by ADHD, medications may be considered. Stimulants have the best evidence for the treatment of ADHD; stimulant medications include methylphenidate (Ritalin), extended-release dexmethylphenidate (Focalin), and amphetamines (Adderall). These medications are generally thought to be safe and effective, although they can have such adverse effects as headache, stomachache, mood changes, heart rate changes, appetite suppression, and interference with falling asleep. All children receiving medication must be monitored at regular intervals by a physician.

Nonstimulant medications are the second-line pharmacological treatment of ADHD,
especially if stimulant medications are ineffective or poorly tolerated. Other
medications that may be used for ADHD include atomoxetine (Strattera),
antidepressants such as desipramine or bupropion, and alpha-2 adrenergic agonists
such as clonidine and extended-release guanfacine.

Costs and risks for adverse effects should be discussed with the physician who has
made the diagnosis of ADHD before implementing any treatment, to ensure safety and
a reasonable expectation of efficacy.

Perspective and Prospects

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder remains controversial due to the subjective nature of its symptoms and the possible overdiagnosis and overtreatment of the disorder. Historically, experts have estimated that ADHD affects between 2 and 10 percent of the general population. However, in March 2013, the New York Times reported that data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention showed that approximately 11 percent of children between the ages of four and seventeen have been diagnosed with ADHD, representing a 16 percent increase since 2007 and a 53 percent rise over the last decade. This follows a general increase in rates of diagnosis beginning in the 1970s. ADHD experts caution against attributing the increase to a single factor, including misdiagnosis and increased pharmacological treatment of milder forms of the disorder.

Many experts also suggest that shifts in how ADHD is diagnosed, increasing tendencies to prescribe medications, and a rise in public awareness and media attention have all contributed to an increase in diagnoses if not an increase in actual cases. These trends have also led some researchers to warn against overdiagnosis of ADHD, cautioning that not all children with high energy or difficulty focusing necessarily have the disorder, especially at very young ages. Some even challenge the concept of ADHD altogether, claiming that it is a case of applying a medical diagnosis to a range of behaviors that may go against social norms but have historically not been seen as a medical issue. Still, the majority of medical professionals do recognize ADHD as a legitimate condition, if one surrounded by continued controversies and misunderstandings.

For individuals with ADHD, the disorder is a real issue that can cause great harm
and impairment if not recognized and managed correctly. Diagnosis should be based
on family history, careful examination, and thorough psychological assessment.
Treatment should always begin with behavioral interventions before medication.

Individuals with ADHD in the United States can share experiences and resources
through organizations that assist families dealing with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder. The national organization Children and Adults with
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD) has state and local chapters
helping individuals and families cope with the condition. CHADD chapters often
have libraries and provide resources on ADHD management. The Learning Disabilities
Association of America (LDA) also has state and local chapters helping schools and
families cope with a wide range of learning disabilities, including ADHD.

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