How does the town of Maycomb react to Tom's death? Whom do they blame?

There are various reactions from residents of Maycomb when they learn of Tom Robinson's death.

When Atticus interrupts the Missionary Tea, he speaks to Calpurnia, asking her to accompany him to Helen Robinson's house. Aunt Alexandra asks what is wrong. "Tom's dead." Then, he reacts by saying,

"We had such a good chance [on the appeal]...." I guess Tom was tired of white men's chances and preferred to take his own."

• Aunt Alexandra

Aunt Alexandra is concerned about what the ordeal with Tom Robinson has done to Atticus. Of the town, she says,

"They're perfectly willing to let him do what they are afraid to do themselves....to let him wreck his health doing what they're afraid to do."

• Miss Maudie

Miss Maudie tells Alexandra that there are a "handful of people who say that fair play is not marked White Only, and they have sympathy for the black community. They are the "handful of people with background."
She adds that these people trust him to do right. 

• Helen Robinson 

When Atticus tells her the sad news, poor Helen falls to the ground.

• Mr. Underwood

Mr. Underwood writes a bitter editorial in the section marked "The Colored News." He writes that it is wrong to kill cripples, no matter what they are doing. Scout observes, "He likened Tom's death to the senseless slaughter of songbirds by hunters and children. As Scout reads on, she comprehends Mr. Underwood's meaning. Although Atticus had done all that he could,

...in the secret courts of men's hearts, Atticus had no case.Tom was a dead man the minute Mayella Ewell opened her mouth and screamed.

The reprobate Ewell is reported to have said that it "made one down and about two more to go."

• The townspeople

"To Maycomb, Tom's death is typical.  Typical of a n****r to cut and run.  Typical of a n*****s mentality to have no plan, no thought for the future, just run blind first chance he saw...." Some have said that Atticus could have gotten him off on the charges; others say you know how they are."

“She Walks in Beauty” was written to be set to music. What elements of the poem give it a musical quality?

"She Walks in Beauty" by Lord Byron has a very regular abab rhyme scheme, which gives the piece a lyrical quality. It adds repetition and a chorus/refrain-like rhythm to the poem, which allows it to be easily put to music and even sung. The poem contains three stanzas of six lines each.

In the first two stanzas, Byron often uses the literary technique of enjambment, which is when one line runs over without punctuation or pause into the next line. This technique creates an easy flow from one line to the next, also contributing to the lyrical nature of the poem. 

The meter of the poem is what most contributes to its musical quality. We've all heard of Shakespeare's famous iambic pentameter, which means that there are five stressed syllables per line usually alternating equally with unstressed syllables. However, Lord Byron uses iambic tetrameter - four stressed and four unstressed syllables per line. When one reads the poem out loud, it is easy to hear the beat of the piece. And when the meter changes like with line 4 "meet in her aspect," we know Byron is emphasizing the point of meeting.

Rhyme, enjambment and meter all contribute to both the meaning and the musicality of "She Walks in Beauty."

How is the Bible's Book of Genesis interpreted today? What does it mean to the modern interpreter or community?

Genesis, the first book of the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament, was traditionally thought to have been authored by Moses, but most modern scholars now believe it was written between the sixth and fifth centuries BCE. There are countless perspectives on the book of Genesis, but we can identify some common modern interpretations.

Modern Christians diverge widely in their readings of Genesis—from those who take understand it as a literal account to those who view the book as allegory. Even within a faith, the interpretation can be left to individuals. Catholics, for example, “are at liberty to believe that creation took a few days or a much longer period, according to how they see the evidence” (http://www.catholic.com/tracts/creation-and-genesis). Another way Christians have interpreted Biblical texts is the historical-grammatical method, which seeks to uncover the authors’ original intended meanings and how its original readers would have understood the text.

Scholarly interpretations of Genesis vary according to the critical context used. For example, many university Bible scholars use a historical-critical method (sometimes called higher criticism), a branch of literary criticism. This mode of interpretation seeks to understand the original meaning of the text in its historical context and views ancient texts as artifacts that can help reconstruct interpretations of the past. Another form of literary criticism is an allegorical interpretation, which views the stories of Genesis as symbolic myths rather than historical events. This is not an exclusively modern idea, however. As early as the first century CE, the Jewish scholar Philo of Alexandria questioned the literal interpretation of the six creative days from the first chapters of Genesis.

Nothing is what it seems in the play Macbeth. Give 5 examples of this and support it with quotes.

The prophecies that the Weird Sisters deliver to Macbeth -- that he will become Thane of Cawdor and, at some point, king -- appear to be very good; however, they will eventually lead him down a murderous and violent path that ends with his own destruction.  As Banquo warns him, "oftentimes, to win us to our harm, / The instruments of darkness tell us truth, / Win us with honest trifles, to betray 's / In deepest consequence" (1.3.135-138).  He cautions Macbeth to be wary of those prophecies because they could be a trap designed to manipulate him.  However, to Macbeth, the news only seems good.

Duncan is betrayed by the traitor, the old Thane of Cawdor, and he laments that "There's no art / To find the mind's construction in the face" (1.4.13-14).  He wishes there were a way to look at someone and to know what he is really thinking.  Duncan says of Cawdor, "He was a gentleman on whom I built / An absolute trust" (1.4.15-16).  In other words, the thane appeared to be loyal and honorable, but he was really traitorous and deceptive.

After Macbeth returns home, and he and Lady Macbeth await the arrival of Duncan, she says to him, "Look like th' innocent flower / But be the serpent under 't" (1.5.76-77).  She means that Macbeth must appear to be the friendly and loyal servant to the king that he has always been, but he needs to harbor his murderous thoughts in secret, hiding them under the false goodness of his exterior.

Then, when Duncan does arrive, he says, "This castle hath a pleasant seat.  The air / Nimbly and sweetly recommends itself / Unto our gentle senses" (1.6.1-3).  He compliments the Macbeths' home, saying that it looks like such a lovely and welcoming place; however, he does not realize that the owners are plotting his murder, a crime which will occur in this very place.  It looks welcoming, but it is not.

In this same scene, Duncan calls Lady Macbeth his "fair and noble hostess' (1.6.30).  She, like her home, seems welcoming and sincere and open, but she is actually deceptive and murderous and selfish.

How did the relationship between mother and child (the bedrock of the traditional family) transform in the context of neoliberal era migration?

The neoliberal era of migration has seen a change in the demographics of migrants. More women leave behind their “mother” country to seek work in wealthier countries, perhaps the United States or States in the European Union. The role of women migrants has changed significantly since the earlier periods of migration to the Western world which has deeply affected the relationship between mother and child.

In the early periods of immigration, women were expected to be the foundation of the family, i.e., the stone upon which order in the family was maintained, the family developed both morally and spiritual, and the wife and children remained subordinate to the husband and father. Women’s sphere and men’s sphere were distinct in that women were expected to work in the home. The woman’s place was to bear children and raise them according to their father’s demands. By the time of America’s quest for Independence from Great Britain, republican motherhood (an ideal espoused by Lydia Child and several colleagues) had developed as a virtue describing the ideal wife and mother as one who would raised virtuous families who would help maintain the new Republic. Education, even for girls, was a hallmark of this virtue as the United States grew in world stature. 

As the West progressed into the industrial revolution, the cult of domesticity developed to maintain the ideal status for women — the homemaker/mother who was always subject to her husband, the breadwinner. Work outside the home was only appropriate for women in the lowest social classes, i.e., women who had no other means of support. Those who worked outside the home may have been midwives, nurses, seamstresses, or in some cases owned their own businesses. Women who stepped outside the prescribed gender roles were sometimes legally admonished for their inappropriate actions, but almost always publicly ostracized. 

It wasn’t until World War II that women in the workplace was considered appropriate, and even following the war, women were expected to relinquish their positions for returning servicemen. Some women gladly gave up their jobs to go back home and become the foundation of domestic life — wife, mother, husband’s helpmate. Unfortunately, women were denigrated to a position of, not only subordination to the husband, but servant. Many in the male dominated world even considered women “stupid” and uneducable. 

The feminist movement started after WWII, in the 1950s, as women were denigrated to their former domestic status of professional homemaker, but feminism did not have much impact on the domestic woman until the 1960s and 1970s. Since the Western feminist movement’s hearty beginning in the 1970s, women have made great strides in workplace acceptance and equality (though there is still room for improvement). In addition, since the 1970s the neoliberal migrant movement has seen an increase in the number of women immigrants. Women now make up approximately 51% of all migrants to the Western world. However, even though women make up just over 51% of the migrant population to the United States and many States in the European Union, women from the new immigrant population have a slightly lower rate of employment than native born women (56% to 59%). Nevertheless, the majority of migrant women who enter the labor market appear to be the lesser educated women (e.g., about 50% of female Indian immigrants with higher levels of education take jobs after arrival in the United States compared to about 60% El Salvadoran female immigrants over age 16 who begin working upon arrival in the United States).  These new migrant workers are not unlike the poorer immigrant women of colonial and early industrial eras, who had no other means of support. And, of course, these women usually take jobs in the care giving and domestic sectors of wealthy Western economies (the care giving and domestic sectors, themselves, having been created by more women entering the work force). 

In the new era of migration, according to UC Berkley sociology professor, Arlie Hochschild, a “global care chain” is formed in which migrant working mothers often have left their own children in their home countries so that they may seek employment in the caregiving sector of wealthier countries. The migrant worker’s children, left behind in the developing country, are cared for by even poorer family members/care givers. 

The circular nature of a lost relationship between mothers and children is clear in this “global care chain.” From the 1770s to the 1970s, before being a working mother was in vogue, mothers and children developed and maintained the familial bond through their constant contact. In the modern era, not only does the migrant working mother leave her children behind in the home country, she stops caring for her own children so that she may care for the children of another working mother in a wealthier country. Her goal, of course, is to procure specific benefits (health care, education, etc.) offered by the paid workforce. The loss of familial relationship between mother and child becomes a vicious cycle, i.e., Hochschild's "global care chain," even though many women, especially migrant workers, seek some benefit for the children they place in the care of another person. 

What are the events that happen in Chapter 23 of To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee?

The chapter begins with the account of how Bob Ewell spit in Atticus’s face and threatened him, and his only reaction was to say he wished Bob Ewell did not chew tobacco.  The children are frightened because Ewell seems to be holding a grudge, but Atticus is convinced that the man is all talk and that he has had his fun.

“Jem, see if you can stand in Bob Ewell’s shoes a minute. I destroyed his last shred of credibility at that trial, if he had any to begin with. The man had to have some kind of comeback, his kind always does. …” (Ch. 23) 

The conversation turns to Tom Robinson’s appeal.  Rape is punishable by the death sentence in Alabama.  Atticus believes that Robinson has a chance, but the first trial was not fair due to his race.  Atticus and Jem debate circumstantial evidence and reasonable doubt.  Atticus tries to convince Jem that the system isn’t perfect but is hard to change. 

The conversation changes to class.  Aunt Alexandra explains to Scout that Walter Cunningham and his family are not suitable for her company.  She calls them “trash.”  This supports Alexandra’s viewpoint that the Finches are superior.  Later, Jem tries to explain it to Scout. 

“…There’s four kinds of folks in the world. There’s the ordinary kind like us and the neighbors, there’s the kind like the Cunninghams out in the woods, the kind like the Ewells down at the dump, and the Negroes.” (Ch. 23) 

Scout struggles to understand the difference between the Cunninghams and the Finches.  Jem explains that “Background doesn’t mean Old Family.”  The Finches are better because they are landowning and have the right background.  

Jem tells Scout that he is beginning to understand Boo Radley. He does not stay in his house because he has to.  He stays inside because he wants to.

In Julius Caesar, is Brutus willing to surrender if the conspirators lose the battle against Antony and Octavius?

Brutus is not willing to surrender. When Cassius asks him in Act 5, Scene 1, if he would be content with Antony and Octavius leading him in triumph through the streets of Rome if they should lose the battle, Brutus replies:

No, Cassius, no: think not, thou noble Roman,
That ever Brutus will go bound to Rome
He bears too great a mind. But this same day
Must end that work the ides of March begun;
And whether we shall meet again I know not.
Therefore our everlasting farewell take:
For ever, and for ever, farewell, Cassius!
If we do meet again, why, we shall smile;
If not, why then, this parting was well made.

Brutus equivocally states he is too great a man to suffer the dishonor of being led through Rome as a prisoner. These words are, however, inconsistent with what Brutus said when he spoke out against Cato's suicide, calling it "cowardly" and "vile." It is clear Brutus deems the disgrace of being displayed as a failure a greater dishonor than suicide. He would rather take his own life than be humiliated in such an ignominious manner.

Lucilius later confirms Brutus' determination when Antony asks him about his whereabouts in Act 5, Scene 4. Lucilius responds by saying,

Safe, Antony; Brutus is safe enough:
I dare assure thee that no enemy
Shall ever take alive the noble Brutus:
The gods defend him from so great a shame!
When you do find him, or alive or dead,
He will be found like Brutus, like himself.

He means Brutus will retain his honor and will be found in death as he was in life. Brutus's death will not be that of a coward, but of a noble lord who sacrificed his life for the good of Rome.

When Brutus realizes the battle is lost in Act V, Scene 5, he asks Volumnius to hold his sword so that he may run onto it.

Nay, I am sure it is, Volumnius.
Thou seest the world, Volumnius, how it goes;
Our enemies have beat us to the pit:

Low alarums

It is more worthy to leap in ourselves,
Than tarry till they push us. Good Volumnius,
Thou know'st that we two went to school together:
Even for that our love of old, I prithee,
Hold thou my sword-hilts, whilst I run on it.

Volumnius refuses and Brutus later asks his attendant, Strato, to do the same:

I prithee, Strato, stay thou by thy lord:
Thou art a fellow of a good respect;
Thy life hath had some smatch of honour in it:
Hold then my sword, and turn away thy face,
While I do run upon it. Wilt thou, Strato?

Strato complies with his request and Brutus kills himself by running onto his sword stating, before he dies, that he had less of a desire to kill Caesar than he had in that moment to kill himself.

Caesar, now be still:
I kill'd not thee with half so good a will.

Brutus' suicide ties in well with the promise he made to the crowd in the marketplace after Caesar's assassination in Act 3, Scene 2. On that occasion, Brutus declared at the end of his speech:

With this
I depart,—that, as I slew my best lover for the
good of Rome, I have the same dagger for myself,
when it shall please my country to need my death.

And so, it came to pass. Brutus, an honourable man, chose to die with honor rather than be led through the streets of his beloved Rome like a slave.

What is George's and Lennie's dream for the future?

George and Lennie dream of owning their own farm. The dream is introduced in chapter one while the two men are camped in the clearing between the Gabilan Mountains and the Salinas River. It is apparently a long standing dream because George indicates that Lennie always seems to bring it up. For George it is a goal which will allow him to have the freedom of making his own decisions and quit the constant traveling around from job to job which is what he and Lennie have been doing ever since Lennie's Aunt Clara died. George dreams of the day when he doesn't have to listen to a boss or worry about getting "canned" (fired). He wants to see the profit of his own work and not be responsible to anyone else. George describes the dream farm, but there is obviously a frustration in George's words that the dream will never be realized:

“Well,” said George, “we’ll have a big vegetable patch and a rabbit hutch and chickens. And when it rains in the winter, we’ll just say the hell with goin’ to work, and we’ll build up a fire in the stove and set around it an’ listen to the rain comin’ down on the roof—Nuts!”

For Lennie the dream is linked to his obsession with petting soft things. He looks forward to going to the dream farm because George has promised him that he will get to take care of the rabbits. George hopes he can control Lennie's behavior by warning him that he won't get to "tend" the rabbits if he gets in trouble. 

The dream is like a paradise to the two men who are later joined by Candy and Crooks in the hope that one day they can all go off to the dream farm and "live nice" without worries, in the presence of friends and people that care about each other. The dream farm is a stark contrast to the alienation and loneliness which pervades life on the ranch where the men work. Unfortunately, of course, the dream is never realized as the "plans of mice and men often go astray."

How does F. Scott Fitzgerald portray the American Dream in The Great Gatsby through his use of symbolism and other literary devices?

Fitzgerald portrays the American Dream through the lyrical language of Nick Carraway but also shows it in the novel as having been debased. In a famous passage, Nick refers to the American Dream as follows: 

Gradually I became aware of the old island here that flowered once for Dutch sailors’ eyes—a fresh, green breast of the new world.… For a transitory enchanted moment man must have held his breath in the presence of this continent, compelled into an aesthetic contemplation he neither understood nor desired, face to face for the last time in history with something commensurate to his capacity for wonder.

The symbol of the American dream, a dream of being able to start anew, is the "fresh, green breast of the new world." The new world is pure: fresh and green, with green here meaning young and untouched, as well as fertile. This links us to Gatsby's dream of recapturing a purer past with Daisy, when they were both younger and fresher. For Gatsby, the dream is also symbolized by the color green, particularly by the "green light" at the end of the pier representing Gatsby's desire for Daisy.

Nick's lyrical language accentuates the beauty of the dream (even if the reality is more sordid: the story of the novel shows the reality while Nick's lyrical prose conveys the dream). Nick doesn't use ordinary, everyday words but heightened prose, such as  "transitory, enchanted moment," that along with the image of "man" holding his breath, underscores the fragile, ephemeral nature of the American dream. The poetic nature of the dream is highlighted in the last lines of the passage as well, with the alliterative, rhythmic use of words beginning with "c." 

At the very end of the book, the dream is again symbolized as the "green light" and the dreamers identified with the vivid image of "boats against the current," pulled back into the past. 

I need help writing an essay on whether Linda is a good mom or not in Death of a Salesman

Linda's character definitely reads more like a devout wife than a sacrificed parent. If anything, she is more of a mother and caretaker to her own husband than she is to Biff and Happy. Linda has a mission in her life, and in the play: She has to keep Willy within the confines of "normalcy" the best way she can because she knows that he is about to lose his mind, if he has not already done so. Therefore, it is safe to say that, in trying to keep a strong front in the household, by keeping the head of the household afloat, Linda has relinquished all expectations of her as a mother in favor of being a wife. 

Notice the description that Miller makes of Linda in the play's directions:

Death of a Salesman

....she has developed an iron repression of her exceptions to Willy’s behavior — she more than loves him, she admires him, as though his mercurial nature, his temper, his massive dreams and little cruelties, served her only as sharp reminders of the turbulent longings within him, longings which she shares but lacks the temperament to utter and follow to their end.

This gives us even more information about Linda's likelihood of being a good parent. Essentially, what we get from this description is that Linda is Willy's follower. She is just like Willy. This may say more about her character than it lets out. It may mean that she, too, lacks the initiative to lead a life that is worth living. It also explains her lack of initiative in taking a more active part in the life of her boys each time she lets Willy take the lead. Most importantly, her devotion to Willy has become so strong that she even attacks Biff and Happy whenever they confront Willy about anything; this even happens when Biff gets upset that Willy shouts at Linda.

All this being said, we cannot just classify Linda as a "bad" parent for her lack of initiative in the care and raising of her children. We may say that she just did not know any better than to follow a flawed husband around, be subservient to him, and try to keep the household together. In such a chaotic environment one must give some credit to her as well. She did it the best way she could. 

What is behavior?

Brain Biology

As the first organ system to begin development and the last to be completed, the vertebrate nervous system—brain, spinal cord, and nerves—with the brain at the control, remains something of an enigma to biologists and other scientists. The vertebrate brain comprises, among other structures, neurons, which are special cells that generate and transmit bioelectrical impulses via a number of different neurotransmitters. The brain consists of three major neural structures: the brain stem, the cerebellum, and the cerebrum. A reptilian brain consists of only the brain stem, while the mammalian brain has all three, including a well-developed cerebrum (the two large hemispheres on top). The brain stem controls basic body functions such as breathing and heart rate, while the cerebrum is the ultimate control center. Consisting of billions of neurons (commonly called brain cells), the cerebrum controls such higher-level functions as memory, speech, hearing, vision, and analytical skills.

Scientists have long sought to understand the complex relationship between the brain, behavior, and genetics. Decades of research have led to a general consensus that fundamental to human behavior, cognition, and emotions is the functioning of the cerebral cortex (that is, for higher-brain functions) and the limbic system, which includes the amygdala, septum, cingulate, hippocampus, anterior thalamic nuclei, fornix, and mammillary bodies. In particular, the human brain is governed by the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex, which controls cognitive processes. And connecting the brain stem and the cortex is the limbic system, the center that mediates motivated behaviors, emotional states, and memory, as well as regulates temperature, blood-sugar levels, and blood pressure.

Clearly, neurotransmitters influence behavior and cognition by modulating the activity of neurons. More specifically, the brain—at all levels—is an exceedingly complex network of billions of neurons. As messages enter the brain stem from the spinal cord, groups of neurons either respond directly or transfer information to higher levels. In order to communicate with other neurons, each individual neuron generates impulses much like the impulse that carries a digital signal over a fiber-optic cable, and this message travels from the beginning to the end of each neuron. At the end of one neuron and the beginning of the next in line, a small open space exists. Here the message is carried across to the next neuron by a chemical known as a neurotransmitter.

Neurotransmitters are of several biochemical classifications, including acetylcholines, amines, amino acids, and peptides. An individual neuron and an entire neuronal circuit may fire or not fire an impulse based on the messages carried by these neurotransmitters. For example, the signal for pain is transmitted from neuron to neuron by a peptide-based neurotransmitter known as substance P, while another peptide transmitter (endorphin) acts as a natural painkiller. Thought, memory, and behavior, then, are produced by the activity along neuronal circuits. A genetic link occurs here, since neurotransmitters are expressed either directly or indirectly based on information in genes.

By birth, the collection of approximately 24,000 genes in humans has guided the development of the nervous system. At birth, the brain consists of approximately 100 billion neurons and trillions of supporting glial cells to protect and nourish neurons. However, the intricate wiring between these neurons, including exactly how a virtual multitude of neural signals eventually translates into thinking and behavior, remains to be determined.

While many scientists have held to a strictly genetic model in order to explain human behavior and cognitive functioning, others have suggested that the critical networking and circuit formation between these billions of neurons that control later brain function are determined not from genes but from environmental input and experiences from birth until the brain is fully developed around age seven. In other words, controversy has arisen as scientists have attempted to explain behavior from a genetic, inherited perspective versus from a social and environmental one. Typically the nature-versus-nurture debate, which has been ongoing for centuries, has been a dichotomy: either nature or nurture. What has developed is a sense that both play a role, with the controversy centering around to what degree either nature or nurture predominates as the primary causal factor in any given trait outcome.

Just how many human traits and abilities are innate or acquired through interactions with the environment is unknown, however. On one end of the continuum is John Locke’s concept of the tabula rasa, in which the human brain of the newborn is thought to be a “blank slate” that will be differentiated only by sensory experiences. On the other end is today’s biological determinism, in which behavior is thought to be strictly innate and heritable. A majority of experts subscribe to a middle-of-the-road view that rests between these two extremes of this nature-versus-nurture argument. For example, a spider phobia might be considered to result from a combination of an innate evolution-driven fear of potentially dangerous spiders, a heritable tendency toward anxiety, and conditioning through prior “bad” experiences with insects.

Genes and Behavior

Traditionally, the field of behavioral genetics has emphasized evaluating how much population variance is determined by environmental or hereditary factors. From the perspective of human development and behavior, the issue also becomes one of how this process is expressed within cultural constraints—by what means genetic and social surroundings reciprocate to yield obvious outcomes.

Genes make proteins, and proteins cause biochemical responses in cells. The behavior of an animal takes place under the combined influences of its genes, expressed through the actions of proteins, and its environment. A good example is the phenomenon of mating seasons in many animals. As day length gradually increases toward spring and summer, a critical length is reached that signals the release of hormones that result in increased sexual activity, with the ultimate goal of seasonal mating. The production and activity of hormones involve genes or gene products. If the critical number of daylight hours is not reached, the genes will not be activated, and sexual behavior will not increase.

Each neuron making up the intricate networks and circuits throughout the cerebrum (about 80 percent of the human brain) has protein receptors (chemoreceptors) that respond to specific signaling molecules. The production of the receptors and signaling molecules used for any type of brain activity is directly tied to genes. A slightly different gene may lead to a slightly different signaling molecule or receptor and thus a slightly different cell (neuron) response. A larger difference among genes may lead to a larger difference among signaling molecules or receptors and thus a larger variation in cell response. Since human behavior involves the response of neurons and neuron networks in the brain to specific signals, and because the response of neurons occurs from the interaction between a signaler and a receptor built by specific genes, the genetic link seems straightforward: input, signal, response, behavior. However, when the slight variations between genes are added to the considerable variation among noncoding or regulatory sequences of DNA, the genetic connection to behavior becomes much less direct. Because a gene is under the control of one or several regulatory sequences that in turn may be under the control of various environmental inputs, the amount of genetic variation among individuals is compounded by two other critical factors: the environmental variations under which the brain develops and the daily environmental variations to which the individual is exposed. A convenient way to think of genetics and behavior is to consider that genes allow humans to respond to a specific stimulus by building the pathway required for a response, while behavior is defined by the degree and the manner of human response.

Eugenics

Eugenics is the categorization of a specific human behavior to an underlying genetic cause. People inherit specific genes to build specific pathways that allow them to respond in certain ways to environmental input. With variations possible—from the gene-to-gene regulators to the final cellular response—it is virtually impossible to disconnect the nature-versus-nurture tie that ultimately controls human behavior. Genes are simply the tools by which the environment shapes and reshapes human behavior. There is a direct correlation between gene and protein: Change the gene, change the protein. However, there is no direct correlation between gene and behavior: Changing the gene does not necessarily change the behavior. Behavior is a multifaceted, complex response to environmental influences that is only partially related to genetic makeup.

Another important fact is that almost no behaviors are controlled by a single gene locus, and the more complex the behavior, the more likely that it is controlled by several to many genes. Hence, not only do environmental effects cloud the picture, but each gene involved in more complex behavioral traits represents just a small part of the genetic basis for the trait as well. The study of the genetic basis for complex traits, therefore, involves the search for quantitative trait loci (QTLs), rather than for single genes.

Searching for QTLs requires that a large number of genetic markers be identified in the human genome, and the Human Genome Project has provided numerous such markers. A QTL is identified by looking for “linkage” between a specific genetic marker and the trait being studied. Linkage occurs when a marker is close to one of the genes that control the trait. Practically speaking, this means that individuals with the behavioral trait have the marker, and those who do not have the trait lack the marker. Thus, geneticists are not directly identifying the genes involved, but are identifying the approximate locations of the genes. Unfortunately, the more genes that control a trait, the harder it is to identify QTLs. Environmental effects can also mask the existence of QTLs, causing some people to have the trait that lack a QTL and others to lack the trait but have a QTL. In spite of these difficulties, QTLs have been identified for
a number of behavioral traits, such as aggression, depression, and a number of other mental disorders.

Single-Gene Behavioral Traits

Although behavioral traits controlled by a single gene have been identified, they probably require interaction with other genes in order to produce the specific characteristics of the behavior. On top of this are laid environmental effects. The most dramatic case of a single gene that controls a complex behavior was the discovery in the early twenty-first century of a gene that controls honeybee social status. This same gene is found in fruit flies and affects how actively fruit flies seek food. Bees with a more actively expressed form of the gene (called the for gene) were much more likely to forage than bees with a less active for gene. Not surprisingly, the for gene produces a protein that acts as a cell-signaling molecule.

In humans, only a few behavioral traits are clearly controlled by a single gene. The best examples are Huntington’s disease
(a rare, autosomal dominant gene), early-onset Alzheimer’s disease (also a rare, autosomal dominant gene), and fragile X syndrome
(actually involves two genes). The remaining traits, as far as has been determined to date, probably represent multigene traits where one primary QTL has been identified as primarily responsible.

Several genes were identified, beginning in the late 1980s, with possible direct behavioral links. Genes have been implicated in such behaviors as anxiety, depression, hostility, and impulsiveness. One such gene produces a protein that transports a chemical called serotonin, across neuronal membranes. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter and is the chemical that is affected by the antidepressant drug Prozac and other selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Scientists have also identified a gene that may be related to schizophrenia
and a gene that may determine how well alcohol is cleared from the brain after overindulgence.

One of the more recent, and in some ways controversial, discoveries involved a gene for antisocial behavior (ASB). The study followed the lives of more than one thousand boys from birth. Children who grew up in abusive environments were more likely to display antisocial behavior later, which is not a surprise. However, about half of the boys were found to have lower levels of an enzyme called monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), which is involved in the metabolism of several neurotransmitters. The boys with the lower MAOA activity were twice as likely to have been diagnosed with conduct disorder and were three times more likely to have been convicted of a violent crime by age twenty-six. It should be noted that lower MAOA activity alone was not enough; the
boys also had to be exposed to abusive upbringings. Although the link seems strong, it has not been proved, with continued study needed.

In short, a more thorough understanding of single-gene behavioral traits could open the way to more accurate diagnoses and better treatments.

Multiple-Gene Behavioral Traits

Geneticists concede that for many behavioral traits it may never be possible to sort out the details of the underlying genetic causes. Still, theories abound and researchers continue to speculate. Some genes may play such a minor role that the search for some QTLs will be fruitless. Nevertheless, geneticists have been able to discover QTLs for some important behavioral traits, and the heritability of a number of traits has been determined. The better data available from the Human Genome Project have spawned the rapidly growing field of behavioral genomics, with its emphasis on identifying the specific genetic mechanisms involved in the determination of behavior.

Nonetheless, the quality of the environment matters in most cases. A practical example of this is intelligence or IQ, which is thought by many experts to involve both environmental and genetic influences, given individual abilities to adapt to social stressors. Successful adaptation requires personal coping but may also require either altering the quality of the present surroundings or locating another environment altogether. Such intentional coping also requires a number of mental processes, including sensation, perception, memory, reasoning, learning, and problem solving. The primary thrust is to avoid labeling human mental functioning as strictly nature or nurture, but rather as a selective combination of multiple adaptive processes employed for successful coping in the environment. In short, certain traits may never be fully understood from a strictly genetic perspective. Even when heritability is high, the environment also plays an important role, and numerous genes are likely involved.

More success has come from focusing on specific disorders. For example, a series of genes have been identified that may be involved in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Other QTLs have been identified in some studies but have not been found in others. This shows one of the frustrating aspects of studying the genetics of behavior. QTLs identified using one set of data will not be supported by another set of data. This may be true because such QTLs play such a small part in developing the trait that they are undetectable under certain environmental conditions. Genes and QTLs for dyslexia and schizophrenia have also been discovered.

For the most complex human traits, QTLs still await discovery, but twin studies have perhaps yielded the most valuable data regarding the relationship between genes and behavior. Twin studies involve comparing the traits of identical twins that were separated from birth. The assumption is that, because they have been raised in different environments, any traits they share will be primarily attributable to genetics rather than to environment. An early study of Swedish men showed that heritability of cognitive (thinking) ability was 62 percent, while spatial ability was 32 percent. Heritability of other personality traits fell somewhere between these values. Although these kinds of studies are interesting, they can be misleading unless considered in proper context. Consequently, a number of geneticists criticize such research, especially twin studies, as having some inherent statistical problems. These studies can also lead to misunderstandings, especially by nonscientists, who often interpret the
numbers incorrectly. For example, saying that cognitive ability has a 62 percent heritability does not mean that a child has a 62 percent chance of being as intelligent as his or her parents but rather that, of the factors involved in determining a person’s intelligence, genetics accounts for approximately 62 percent of the observed variation in the population.

The Future of Behavioral Genetics

Researchers continue to actively investigate the potential links between behavior and genetics in human functioning. Even when such links are found, however, the degree to which a particular gene is involved and the amount of variation among humans will likely be hard to uncover. The Human Genome Project has greatly accelerated interest in and the search for the genetic bases of behavior, yet with these new data have come an even clearer realization of the complexities of the interplay between genes and behavior. If nothing else, the future should hold more precise answers to the long-standing questions about what makes human beings who they are. The consensus among geneticists today is that behavior is determined neither solely by genes nor solely by the environment. To this end, further research should attempt to make the relative contributions of genes and environment more understandable.

Key Terms



eugenics

:

a process in which negative genetic traits are removed from the population and positive genetic traits are encouraged, by controlling, in some manner, who is allowed to reproduce




genome

:

the entire set of genes required by an organism; a set of chromosomes




heritability

:

the probability that a specific gene or trait will be passed from parent to offspring, rendered as a number between 0 and 100 percent, with 0 percent being not heritable and 100 percent being completely heritable




Human Genome Project (HGP)

:

an international genetics project developed to identify and map the human genome with its approximate 24,000 genes, the first assembly of which was completed by the UCSC Genome Bioinformatics Group in 2003




linkage

:

a relation of gene loci on the same chromosome; the more closely linked two loci are, the more often the specific traits controlled by these loci are expressed together




neurotransmitter

:

a chemical messenger that transmits a neural impulse between neurons




population genetics

:

the discipline within the field of evolutionary biology concerned with the study of changes in gene frequency, including how this relates to human groups





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What are the main features of the periodic table?

Most versions of the periodic table share the same basic information;

• Each square represents an element, with that element's symbol printed in a font size larger than any other information. The full name of the element is often written above or below it. 


• The molar mass of the element is usually printed below the name, to varying degrees of specificity. 


• The number of protons in the element is printed somewhere at the top of the square.


• Some tables also print the abbreviated electron configuration, color-code the metallic classifications, and/or print the numbers of the periods and groups.

However, the format of the periodic table is what really distinguishes this information, with the exception of the lanthanide and actinide series, which are typically printed below the main body of the table for no other reason than that their inclusion in their proper place would make the table unreasonably wide and difficult to scale legibly. Other than this concession, the table is arranged roughly in order of which orbital electrons go into as the atoms get progressively more massive. This is the main reason for the "gaps" as well as the apparent inconsistencies in orbital filling in heavier atoms (for example, 3d being filled after 4s despite belonging to a "lower" shell). A side effect of this arrangement is that it prioritizes noble gases on the far-right column, and allows for convenient trends such as atomic size, electronegativity and metallic character to be visually correlated to a physical location on the table. 

Where is the safest place to be during an earthquake?

The safest place to be during an earthquake is wherever the earthquake is not! However, if you are in an area experiencing seismic activity, there are some things to consider in determining the safest place for you to be. First, if you are outside, stay outside and stay away from buildings or man-made structures until the quaking passes. This will help you to avoid being injured by a collapse or the resulting debris. Try to stay clear of trees and power-lines as well.

If you are inside, stay inside, and try to follow the three-step saying: "drop, cover, and hold on." Drop down onto your hands and knees and seek shelter under a table or desk. Hold on tight to the legs of the table or desk and stay there until quaking passes. Do not stand in a doorway! If you do not have access to a table or desk, try to kneel or lie against an interior wall. Exterior walls (those which have a side facing outdoors) are more likely to crumble or collapse during an earthquake, so avoid seeking shelter against these. Stay away from windows and doors until the quaking passes.

If you are driving when an earthquake strikes, drive to a clear part of the road and pull off. Remain inside the parked car until quaking passes. 

If you live near or are visiting the coast, try to get to high ground as soon as the earthquake passes. Seismic activity can trigger a tsunami, and those at low ground by the seaside are at risk of being swept up. 

If you are in bed when an earthquake strikes, stay in bed unless you can very quickly take shelter under a table or desk. Curl into a ball, hold onto the frame of the bed, and cover your head with a pillow for protection.

If you are in a public place like a theater and seeking shelter under a table is not an option, lean forward in your seat and cover the back of your head and neck with your hands. 

What was Khosrove's reaction when his house was on fire?

In "The Summer of My Beautiful White Horse," Khosrove is at the barber shop having his "mustache" trimmed when his house, eight blocks away, catches fire. His son, Arak, runs to the shop to tell him but Khosrove simply sits up in his chair and roars:

"It is no harm; pay no attention to it."

The barber is so shocked by his relaxed attitude that he reiterates the news that Khosrove's house is on fire. Once again, Khosrove appears unconcerned by the event:

"Enough, it is no harm, I say."

This demonstrates Aram's point that Uncle Khosrove is indeed the "crazy" member of the Garoghlanian family. He sees no point in worrying about things that have already happened and this is shown later on when he has a conversation with the farmer, John Byro, who complains about losing his white horse. For Khosrove, there are bigger and more important issues to feel sad about, like losing the "homeland."

In To Kill a Mockingbird, how does Harper Lee show that prejudice can be effectively challenged?

Three characters who effectively challenge prejudice in To Kill a Mockingbird include the following: Calpurnia, when she is confronted by Lula in chapter 12; Scout, when she helps to turn back a mob in chapter 15; and Atticus, when he refuses to fight Bob Ewell in chapter 23. 

First, in chapter 12, Calpurnia takes Jem and Scout to her church because their father is held up at the state legislature. Calpurnia is not allowed to attend the children's church because she is black, so she has no other option than to take them to hers. Most of the congregation accept the children as guests; however, Lula feels differently. Lula confronts Calpurnia by saying the following:

"I wants to know why you bringin' white chillun to nigger church. . . You ain't got no business bringin' white chillun here--they got their church, we got our'n. It is our church, ain't  it, Miss Cal?" (119).

Calpurnia responds to Lula calmly by saying that the children are her guests. She also answers by asking, "It's the same God, ain't it?" Because Calpurnia responds peacefully, she is then able to soften the situation while not giving into the prejudiced attack. As a result, the children peacefully attend Calpurnia's church and without any further argument.

The next example of effectively challenging prejudice is found in chapter 15 when Scout softens the hearts of those in the Cunningham lynch mob. Scout talks to Mr. Cunningham about being friends with his son and how her father has helped him with entailments in the past. She also reminds him of what is most important in life--family and friends. Consequently, Mr. Cunningham orders the mob to go home. As a result, Atticus and the children don't get hurt in an attempt to lynch Tom Robinson. Scout doesn't understand what is really going in this scene; but because of her kindness and child-like ways, she is able to challenge the prejudices felt by the members of the mob and influence them not to carry out a lynching.

Finally, Bob Ewell has prejudiced feelings against Atticus for honestly defending a black man during the recent trial. As a result, Ewell verbally attacks Atticus in public. Atticus effectively challenges Bob Ewell's prejudiced feelings in chapter 23 by not responding to Ewell's invitation to fight. By not giving Ewell the satisfaction of fighting, Atticus immediately ends the conflict. This shows that acknowledging someone's prejudiced feelings gives them power; therefore, not responding to them is one of the best ways to handle such situations. In fact, Atticus responds to Ewell's provocations to fight by saying that he's too old to engage in fighting. When discussing the matter later at home, Atticus explains the following to his son:

"Jem, see if you can stand in Bob Ewell's shoes a minute. I destroyed his last shred of credibility at that trial, if he had any to begin with. The man had to have some kind of comeback, his kind always does. So if spitting in my face and threatening me saved Mayella Ewell one extra beating, that's something I'll gladly take. He had to take it out on somebody and I'd rather it be me than that houseful of children out there" (218).

Thus, Atticus effectively challenges prejudice by not responding to it. Secondly, he teaches his son that there are many issues behind people's behavior and their prejudices. If a person chooses not to give those prejudices power over their own behavior, then the negativity can end there. 

Does the poem "The Rime of Ancient Mariner" seem ahead of its time, or does it seem quaint and old-fashioned?

This question was one that William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge had to grapple with when they collaborated on their collection of poems, "Lyrical Ballads." When introducing their work, they had in mind a "new" style of poetry, the lyrical ballad, that abandoned some of the conventions of traditional verse in that its subject matter focused on the common man or childhood and avoided the elevated diction that had been typical of poetry--such as abundant personification of abstract ideas and drawing excessively on mythological and historical allusions. They also wanted poems that captured a high degree of emotion. Although Wordsworth had collaborated with Coleridge on "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," Wordsworth had mixed feelings about whether it belonged with the other poems in the volume they were releasing. In the end he agreed to put it in, but he felt it was different from the type of poems that comprised the rest of the collection. In the second printing, he again had to decide whether it belonged. After much consideration, he retained it because of its "passion" and because of the sheer beauty of its imagery and language.

Coleridge did not seem to be especially committed to the "new" style of poetry, at least when it came to this poem. In fact, in a later printing, he went so far as to add the "glosses," the marginal notes that make it seem as if an old-fashioned pedagogue were commenting on the action of the poem as it plays out. Certainly these glosses do nothing to help the poem feel like a new or cutting edge style of poetry; in fact, they make it feel antiquated. This ancient feeling gives the poem an extra layer of charm for some readers. Still, the poem did meet some of the requirements that Wordsworth had laid out for "lyrical ballads," especially in that the poem featured a common man as the main character (the mariner), that it used simple language rather than elevated diction, and that it portrayed intense emotions. Beyond that, the sheer beauty of the poem's imagery and musicality are timeless. 

"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" is a curious hybrid of the new and old even while the beauty of its language is timeless.

Did the Haitian Revolution achieve its goals?

Prior to the earliest days of the Haitian Revolution in 1791, Haiti was a French colony with an enslaved African-descended population numbering 500,000. Because this number was over ten times the total population of French colonists, Haitian slaves revolted against their masters often, with mixed success. It was only after the French Revolution that these revolts were organized and widespread enough to constitute a nationwide revolution. Former slave Toussaint l'Overture led his army to victory against both French and allied British forces and ended up taking much of the land on the island. In 1801, the Haitian army had taken all the land in both Haiti and its neighbor, the modern Dominican Republic,  and l'Overture declared himself Governor-General of both states and abolished slavery. Napolean Bonaparte sent French troops to capture l'Overture two years later, however, and he died in prison soon after. The Haitian and French armies went back to war, with yet another Haitian victory. In 1804, Haiti was declared independent from French colonization.

The Haitian Revolution thus achieved its goals of independence from French colonization and abolition. While hundreds of thousands died in battle and l'Overture's rule of the country was limited, the country ultimately managed to gain the independence it went to war for, and freedom was granted to hundreds of thousands of former slaves.

How did Lyddie feel when she got fired in Lyddie?

Lyddie feels resentful of the injustice when she is fired, but she knows that there is nothing she can do about it. 

Mr. Marsden targeted Lyddie because she saw him harassing Brigid and stopped him.  Lyddie understands that Mr. Marsden lied about her to get her fired.  However, she also knows there is nothing she can do.  

When she was first fired for “moral turpitude” she had no idea what the word meant. 

She turned unbelieving from one man to the other, but they ignored her.  She fought for words to counter the drift the interview had taken, but what could she say? She did not know what turpitude was. How could she deny something she did not even know existed? She knew what moral was.  But that didn't help. (Ch. 21) 

It wasn’t until she got her hands on a dictionary that she found out what she had been accused of.  She was shocked.  Mr. Marsden claimed that she was the immoral one, when he was the person who had acted immorally.  He had tried to force himself on Lyddie.  Now he was trying to force himself on Brigid.  In his mind, factory girls were fair game because they could not defend themselves. 

Lyddie knows that she can’t do anything about being fired.  She was not given a certificate that will get her another job.  Basically, she has been blacklisted.  No other factory will take her, because they will assume that she did something wrong.  Lyddie does make sure that she gets back at Mr. Marsden and protects Brigid from him, however. 

"I have here a letter I wrote. I will tell you what it says. It says ifyou cause Brigid MacBride to lose her position I will see that your wifeis informed about what really happens in the weaving room after hours." (Ch. 22) 

Lyddie takes being fired in stride. The job meant everything to her, but that was back when she wanted to make money to support her family and bring it back together.  Now she knows that will not happen, because her mother is dead and both of her living siblings have essentially been adopted.  She plans to get on with her life, and hopes to go to college.

In William Golding's Lord of the Flies, how does Jack paint his face in Chapter 4?

Kneeling beside a pool of water in order to see his reflection, Jack uses a combination of red clay, white clay, and charcoal to paint his face. As the boys are on an island, the ingredients used for Jack's mask must be (as you might have guessed) naturally sourced. While we must rely on our imaginations to visualize the exact nature of Jack's face paint, we can reasonably assume that he is camouflaging himself in a way that he hopes will make him harder to detect. Consider the following passage in Chapter 4 of the text:

“If only I’d some green!”
He turned a half-concealed face up to Roger and answered the incomprehension of his gaze.
“For hunting. Like in the war. You know—dazzle paint. Like things trying to look like something else—”
He twisted in the urgency of telling. “—like moths on a tree trunk" (Golding, Chapter 4)

In Jack's explanation, we see that his intention is to be unrecognizable. By looking like something else, Jack might become better suited to hunting, but the underlying effect of covering his face is that he simultaneously covers aspects of himself and his identity. Not satisfied with the first attempt at his mask, Jack decides to try another pattern, one which is decidedly more aggressive than the first. Consider, for example, the following excerpt from Golding's text:

Jack planned his new face. He made one cheek and one eye-socket white, then he rubbed red over the other half of his face and slashed a black bar of charcoal across from right ear to left jaw. He looked in the pool for his reflection, but his breathing troubled the mirror (Golding, Chapter 4). 

In Golding's language, we see tones of aggression and violence which foreshadow Jack's change of behavior. Jack does not merely draw; rather, he "slash[es]" (Golding). In the image of the white eye socket, we easily imagine skeletal structures. Jack transforms through charcoal and clay into a figure who, no longer acting as "Jack", may behave as wildly, violently, or erratically as he chooses. Golding, writing on this transformation, states:

He looked in astonishment, no longer at himself but at an awesome stranger. He spilt the water and leapt to his feet, laughing excitedly. Beside the pool his sinewy body held up a mask that drew their eyes and appalled them. He began to dance and his laughter became a bloodthirsty snarling (Golding, Chapter 4).

Once adorned with the mask, Jack becomes an "awesome stranger" (meaning that he is capable of inspiring "awe" in others). Jack's shift is a powerful one: he no longer recognizes himself and no longer shows concern for his actions. The boys regard his painted face in a manner importantly described as a state of being "appalled" rather than impressed or intrigued. The scene focuses, then, on the ways in which identity might be lost or suppressed, how reality might be "masked" or covered, and the ways in which behaviors might change when accountability is removed. Because he no longer acts as "Jack" in the scene, Jack does not claim responsibility for the violence of his actions or his behaviors.

(Golding, William. The Lord of the Flies.)

What is the hypothesis of "The Necklace" by Guy De Maupassant?

One educated guess about the story's moral is that an obsession with money and material things can be destructive. Mathilde is frustrated with how her life has turned out. She had envisioned herself living among the wealthier, upper class. Instead of making the best of her lower class life, Mathilde spends lots of time daydreaming about that "better" life. 

Her husband is comfortable with his life and he does whatever he can to make Mathilde happy. He sacrifices his own savings to buy her a dress. Mathilde is a hit at the party, but this probably has more to do with her positive attitude than it does with her gown and the necklace. When she loses the necklace, she works incredibly hard to repay the loan. Essentially, she works very hard to pay for something she never needed. 

It turns out that the necklace was not that expensive. Mathilde had only thought that the necklace was extremely valuable. She was popular at the party because her behavior reflected her pride in how she looked. This is the other moral of the story. Your happiness in life (upper or lower class) depends upon your attitude. Imagine you are "rich," in any sense of the word, and you will feel rich. Imagine you are happy, and your behavior will reflect that positive outlook. 

How would I craft a thesis statement about how Fitzgerald uses clothes to tell readers about characters and/or themes?

Throughout F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald uses clothes to demonstrate characters’ socioeconomic status. This is especially true in relation to the titular character of the novel, Jay Gatsby. Gatsby’s clothes are needlessly ostentatious in an effort to attract Daisy’s attention, but his vibrant suits merely confirm his status as a member of the nouveau riche, or the “new rich.” Tom and Daisy Buchanan’s clothes are more subdued and subtle in comparison with Gatsby’s gaudy outfits that denote that even though he has a substantial sum of money, there is still a gap between Gatsby’s status as new money and Tom and Daisy’s comfortable designation as old money. Tom points out Gatsby’s ostentatious style during a tense lunch:

“'I said I'd been making a small investigation of his past.'

'And you found he was an Oxford man,' said Jordan helpfully.

'An Oxford man!' He was incredulous. 'Like hell he is he wears a pink suit.... Oxford, New Mexico... or something like that'” (109).

In this passage, Tom acknowledges that he considers Gatsby beneath him, and explicitly mentions his pink suit. If you were to construct a thesis statement concerning Fitzgerald’s treatment of clothes, I would suggest examining Gatsby’s garish clothing and comparing it to Tom and Daisy. I think that Fitzgerald's use of Gatsby's pink suit could be a very useful component to your analysis. 

What arguments from the Groundwork of the metaphysics of morals would Kant use to defend abortion in extreme cases? (rape and/or mother's health)

In Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, Immanuel Kant divides his work into three sections. The sections transition common rational moral cognition through philosophical moral cognition to metaphysics of morals, and finally into the critique of pure practical reason. The ancient Greeks divided science into physics, ethics and logic. Kant argued it was a perfect assessment of science and claims his journey into morality was to further refine the definitions.

In the first section, Kant describes moral duty. He argues “to preserve one’s life is a duty” and claims everyone is inclined to save their own life. However, merely staying alive does not satisfy the moral duty to preserve life because staying alive is beneficial to the person. Performing a task to self-benefit does not provide a moral duty. Kant further argues a person’s moral worth is demonstrated when they preserve life despite a lack of inclination to do so. He gives the example of a person struggling with their own grief and thus unable to fully attend others. If such a person is able to ignore their own shortcomings and serve others when they simply do not have an inner motivation to do so, but do it out of a duty to honor their talent; then a morally worthwhile course of action has occurred.

Taking Kant’s position on a moral duty to preserve life and applying it to the abortion debate, his position becomes abundantly clear. If a woman must decide between preserving her life or risk death, Kant argues she should choose life. Whether her choice is morally worthwhile depends upon the rationale behind the decision. If she is not inclined to abort, but does so to preserve her life, then her decision has moral worth. If she is inclined to abort then her decision does not have moral worth because it is directly beneficial to her wishes. In either case, Kant would argue preserving life is a duty. Esteem should only be placed upon a woman whose decision was morally worthwhile, the woman who was not inclined to abort.

Kant’s moral duty arguments apply equally well to extreme cases such as rape. The distinction between a decision with moral worth and one of benefit becomes harder to determine, but nonetheless exist. If a woman who has been raped chooses to abort because she does not wish to produce a continuation of the crime, the decision is beneficial and therefore not of moral consequence. A woman, who does not abort despite an inclination to do so, would demonstrate moral worth. The question not directly addressed is; should a woman abort when her life is not in jeopardy?

Kant argues there is a duty to maintain happiness in life because the lack of it will create temptation to violate moral or lawful duties. Hence, a woman should endure an abortion if it will aide in maintaining happiness in life. The decision is not morally worthwhile due to the beneficial relationship. However, not all decision must be have moral worth. A decision may not have moral worth, but still be a proper decision. The only distinction between a decision with moral worth and one without is the application of praise or esteem. Praise can only be given to a decision of moral worth. A woman may choose to abort a child, outside of medical necessity, but only if she is not inclined to do so and commits the action can she be morally praised.

For example, suppose a religious woman whose ethical guidance declares all life sacred is raped. She must choose whether to abort. If she chooses to bear the child because of her perceived ethical obligations, then she has not made a morally worthy decision. The decision is beneficial to her, if only to preserve her happiness by following her convictions. On the other hand, if she aborts the child despite her inclination against it because she cannot separate her happiness from her ethical view she has created a choice of moral worth and should be praised.

The defense of abortion from Kant is thus; a woman has a duty to preserve life or happiness and should be able to exercise the choice of abortion. The decision is either a moral duty or beneficial one. The reasons behind the choice shall be the only determining factor for the moral worth of the choice. Moral worth is not equated to correct or proper. The decision can beneficial and not a true example of a moral duty, thereby deserving to praise. It can also be a moral duty, despite an inclination to the opposite, and indeed deserving high esteem.

How does Lessing build suspense in the story "Through the Tunnel"?

Doris Lessing builds suspense in "Through the Tunnel" by using words with negative connotations and painful imagery to describe Jerry's experience at the "wild bay."  Instead of the "safe beach," where his mother sits, "a speck of yellow under an umbrella that looked like a slice of orange peel," Jerry's bay consists of "rough, sharp rock" and water with "stains of purple and darker blue," like bruises.  He must run, "sliding and scraping" down the hill to the water, only to see "rocks [that] lay like discolored monsters" at the bottom.  The stains sound like terrible bruises, the kind one might receive from coming into contact with the sharp rock formations; sliding and scraping makes one think of skin being scratched off knees or hands or elbows by rough stones.  To then compare, via simile, the rocks under the water to monsters seems to be yet another sign that this is a dangerous place, and that Jerry is, perhaps, somewhat out of his depth (so to speak).  These descriptions create a mood of foreboding and suspense as we wonder what other dangers he will encounter here.

Further, Lessing has Jerry count in order to keep track of how long he and the other, older boys stay under water before coming up for air.  When Jerry is actually in the tunnel in the moments leading up to and during the climax, he counts, but, as he runs out of oxygen and begins to lose consciousness, he remains stuck on "a hundred and fifteen" for some time.  He—and we—know this means we don't have an accurate idea of how long he's been down or how much longer Jerry can go before drowning, and this creates a great deal of tension and suspense for the reader.

How did Tom Robinson injure his left arm in To Kill a Mockingbird?

When Tom Robinson stands up, Scout observes "he looked oddly off balance, but it was not from the way he was standing" (Chapter 18). Jem whispers that Tom Robinson is crippled. His left arm hangs limply beside his body. It also appears shorter than the other arm. His hand is misshapen, and it is clear he could not throw a punch with it. Atticus points out that the witness testimonies accuse Tom of punching Mayella with his left fist. Given his crippled state, this is impossible.

Reverend Sykes tells Scout and Jem how Tom's arm and hand were injured. Many years before, when he was a boy, Tom worked for Mr. Dolphus Raymond. While working, young Tom's hand got caught in the cotton gin. It was severely injured, and he never regained full use of it.

What evidence is there that nature itself is in chaos because of Macbeth seeking to kill the king?

A good place to see how the natural world in Scotland descends into chaos in response to Duncan's murder is in Act II scene 4.  It is dark at midday, and Ross asks a wise old man if he thinks it is dark because of "the day's shame"--Duncan's murder--or "night's predominance". The old man agrees that the daytime darkness is unnatural, just like the murder of the king.  He notes that an owl has recently killed a falcon. Ross adds that Duncan's horses broke out of their stalls, went wild, and menaced people.  The old man adds that he heard that the horses were cannibalizing one another. Ross confirms this rumor, saying that he had witnessed it himself or he never would have believed it.  

What is the psychopathology of nicotine dependence?

Introduction

Nicotine produces a temporary mood-altering “lift,” or “buzz,” that encourages continued use and helps produce an addictive craving. The body receives nicotine (and other addictive substances) through receptors in the brain. Dependence increases slightly each time the drug is used, leading to more intense addiction. Thus, although going without the drug is easier for younger people, the addiction becomes more trenchant with age. Going without nicotine causes withdrawal symptoms, including irritability and anxiety, that vary in intensity and duration among individuals.

History and Health Risks

The smoking of tobacco once was deemed healthy. Nicotine was named for the tobacco plant Nicotiana tabacum, which itself was named after Jean Nicot de Villemain, a French ambassador who imported it to Portugal in 1560 as a medicine.

Until the 1950s, university lecture halls were built with ashtrays, and indoor smoking was commonplace. The newsroom of the New York Times, for example, contained so many chain smokers (people who smoke one cigarette after another) in the 1930s that by the end of the workday janitors used push brooms to sweep away a carpet of butts an inch or two deep.

In 1963, however, the US Surgeon General issued a report linking smoking with a large number of health problems, including heart disease, stroke, and cancer. Since then, even the inhalation of tobacco effluvia from other people’s lungs, so-called passive (or secondhand) smoking, especially by children, has been associated with health risks. The nicotine itself usually does not cause health risks. Other substances in tobacco, including tar and various chemicals, do most of the damage. As of 2012, about 18 percent of adults in the United States smoked tobacco, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The percentage using tobacco was higher in other countries, such as China and Russia.

Physical and Psychological Cues

Nicotine reaches the brain within seven to ten seconds after inhalation. One of the major symptoms of nicotine dependence (addiction) is an inability to go without smoking, even after serious attempts to stop. Other symptoms of addiction, according to the Mayo Clinic, include anxiety, irritability, restlessness, difficulty concentrating, depressed mood, frustration or anger, increased hunger, insomnia, and constipation or diarrhea.

Continued use of tobacco even in the face of serious health problems is another obvious sign of serious addiction. Some people have been known to continue smoking even after lung-cancer surgery. Some people defend their “freedom” to smoke, as if engaging in addictive behavior could be defended as an exercise of free choice. Studies have found that a propensity to smoke may be related to genetic makeup. In other words, smoking behavior can be inherited, to a degree. Some people do not experience pleasure from the use of nicotine and are unlikely to continue its use after experimenting.

Beginning smoking at a young age increases the chances of serious and intense addiction later in life. Nicotine binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain, increasing levels of neurotransmitters that play a role in the brain’s regulation of mood and behavior. Nicotine provides many people’s brains with a shot of dopamine, a neurotransmitter, producing a brief sense of euphoria and relaxation that rewards continued use, reinforcing the physiological addiction of the drug. Use of nicotine also increases the flow of the stimulating hormone adrenaline (epinephrine). Nicotine also increases heart rate by about twenty beats per minute and elevates blood pressure, as it constricts arteries.

The combustion of tobacco provokes release of more than sixty cancer-causing chemicals. According to the American Lung Association, smoking plays a role in 90 percent of lung-cancer cases among men (80 percent among women), as well as in cases of emphysema and chronic bronchitis. It also aggravates asthma. Smoking plays a major role in cancers of the mouth, esophagus, larynx, and throat (pharynx). It plays a role in other pathologies in the kidneys, bladder, stomach, pancreas, cervix, stomach, and other parts of the body. It can increase the risk of impotence and infertility.

Tobacco dependence is a physical process that also brings into play psychological cues. A smoker’s desire to increase his or her nicotine level may be linked to well-established daily rituals, such as morning coffee, drinking alcohol at a bar, or free time between tasks at work. Certain friends may provoke an urge to smoke. Smoking also can be associated with specific locations, such as a particular automobile. Stress can raise anxiety levels and lead to smoking. The smell of burning tobacco can increase the desire to use it. People who experience depression, schizophrenia, and other mental illnesses are, statistically speaking, more likely to smoke tobacco. Abusers of alcohol and illegal drugs also smoke in higher proportion than do other people. However, tobacco use has been studied as a treatment for schizophrenia, as well as for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and Parkinson’s disease.

Products designed to help smokers quit using tobacco have become a multibillion-dollar industry worldwide. In some countries, smoking tobacco remains legal for adults, but the places where people can smoke have become limited. In the Netherlands, for example, the smoking of tobacco has become illegal in some cafés where the use of marijuana is allowed. California was the first US state to ban smoking in all enclosed work areas, doing so in 1995.

Bibliography

Benowitz, Neal L., ed. Nicotine Safety and Toxicity. New York: Oxford UP, 1998. Print.

Bock, Gregory, and Jamie Goode, eds. Understanding Nicotine and Tobacco Addiction. Hoboken: Wiley, 2006. Print.

David, Sean P., Jennifer B. McClure, and Gary E. Swan. "Nicotine Dependence." Handbook of Psychology. Vol. 9. 2nd ed. 149–81. Hoboken: Wiley, 2013. PsycINFO. Web. 22 May 2014.

Di Giovanni, Giuseppe. Nicotine Addiction: Prevention, Health Effects, and Treatment Options. Hauppauge: Nova Science, 2012. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. 22 May 2014.

Johnson, Bankole A. Addiction Medicine: Science and Practice. New York: Springer, 2011. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. 22 May 2014.

Koskinen, Charles J. Handbook of Smoking and Health. New York: Nova Science, 2011. eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. 22 May 2014.

Kozlowski, Lynn T., Jack E. Henningfield, and Janet Brigham. Cigarettes, Nicotine, and Health: A Biobehavioral Approach. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2001. Print.

Wagner, Eric F., ed. Nicotine Addiction among Adolescents. New York: Haworth, 2000. Print.

What is the mythological reference in Fahrenheit 451?

The mythical creature is the phoenix, which is the firemen’s logo.

A phoenix is a creature that supposedly burned and was reborn, or rose from the ashes.  Firemen have the logo on a disc on their chest and a salamander on their arms.  A salamander supposedly can live in ashes, according to myth.  The bird makes sense as the mascot and logo of the firemen because they burn the books and the items in the houses, but not the houses themselves.  The houses are fireproof, so they are like phoenixes rising from the flame. 

The phoenix comes into the conversation after the city is burned. 

"It's flat," he said, a long time later. "City looks like a heap of baking-powder. It's gone." And a long time after that. "I wonder how many knew it was coming? I wonder how many were surprised?"  (Part III) 

People were not really paying attention to the war.  It was not real.  Beatty says, “Let him forget there is such a thing as war” (Part I).   All that mattered was their entertainment.  They lived every day on a high, focusing on pleasure and making no deep connections.  They were alive, but not really living.  

Granger brings up the phoenix, a bird he says lived “back before Christ.” 

But every time he burnt himself up he sprang out of the ashes, he got himself born all over again. And it looks like we're doing the same thing, over and over, but we've got one damn thing the Phoenix never had. We know the damn silly thing we just did. (Part III) 

Granger says that mankind is foolish, because we keep making the same mistakes in our society. He says that “even when we had the books on hand, a long time ago, we didn't use what we got out of them.”  Montag’s society burns itself up, and it will re-emerge.  Will the new society be better than the former one?

Which character is Juliet's mother's foil?

A foil is a character that highlights the qualities of another character, often through direct contrast; by generating a secondary character with differing personality traits, an author can use a foil to display the difference between two people. The foil of Juliet's mother, Lady Capulet, is the Nurse. 

Whereas Lady Capulet behaves with a great deal of emotional distance toward her daughter, the Nurse is affectionate and invested in Juliet's wellbeing. When it is suggested to Juliet that she get married at the tender age of thirteen, Lady Capulet replies to the girl's protestations that she must, "think of marriage now; younger than you, / Here in Verona, ladies of esteem, / Are made already mothers..." Lady Capulet seems to have little interest in her daughter's happiness; rather, she emphasizes the importance of obedience as a woman and wife. The Nurse, on the other hand, is directly involved with Juliet's disobedience. She serves as a messenger between Romeo and Juliet and helps arrange their secret marriage and its subsequent consummation. Eventually the Nurse does try to convince Juliet to marry Paris, but only after facing the wrath of Lord Capulet; this suggestion seems more like an attempt to protect Juliet from her terrifying father than a betrayal of Juliet's already existing marriage.

Ultimately, the Nurse plays a nurturing, supportive, motherly presence in Juliet's life, which highlights just how absent, cold, and dismissive Lady Capulet can be. 

How are the blood libels of the 1840s linked to Antisemitism and how were they part of European culture?

Throughout European history, Jewish communities have almost always been a minority. They have repeatedly been scapegoated as the committers of otherwise-unsolved crimes or demonized for their relative isolation and traditions which may have been at odds with greater cultural practice. Though the first blood libels date to the Middle Ages, a series of accusations sprang up during the 1840s across Europe. It began with an incident in Damascus, when a Christian priest disappeared. As had been common for several centuries, the Jewish community was blamed, even with no evidence that might have supported the accusations of torture and murder. What's more, there was a rumor that the purpose of the murder was to drain the man of his blood to be drank at Passover.

From there, crimes in both the Muslim and Christian parts of Europe were often blamed on the Jewish minorities. Even in areas where no crimes were committed, rumors circulated that Jewish people would kidnap children to drain them of their blood. False "confessions" were forced by the torture of Jewish people, and their statements were used as evidence of ritual murder. Across Europe, especially in the West, Jewish people were made into the enemy of Catholicism and Islam. Antisemitism flourished as the Jewish community was blamed for all of society's troubles. A number of Antisemitic texts were published at this time about the dangers of the Jewish people (all falsehoods) and how one ought to deal with them. Such circulation of ideas, in numerous languages, helped to spread the ideology of Antisemitism and directly influenced later Antisemitic action.

What are melanomas?

Related conditions:
Basal cell cancer, squamous cell cancer

Definition:

Melanomas are malignant tumors of the skin that occur in the melanocytes, the cells that produce melanin (skin pigment).

Risk factors: Melanomas occur most commonly in fair-skinned people, particularly natural blonds and redheads, especially those with a history of sun exposure or multiple serious sunburns. A history of serious sunburns in childhood is a particular risk. Risk for the disease is strongly related to having a family history; which is characteristic of about 1 in 10 of patients with melanoma. Additional risk factors include large or multiple moles and past personal history of melanoma or of less serious skin cancers, known as basal cell or squamous cell cancers. People with diseases that suppress the immune system are at added risk for melanoma. Occupational exposure to coal tar, pitch, creosote, arsenic compounds, or radium increase a person’s risk for the disease. Celtic descent, male gender, and older age are also risk factors.

Etiology and the disease process: Repeat exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun or artificial sources such as sunlamps or tanning booths appears to be the most significant factor contributing to the development of melanoma. This is borne out by the fact that the incidence of melanoma increases in the lower latitudes of the world where the sun is strongest. Additionally, in parts of the world where the ozone layer is thin, the incidence is higher. In Queensland, Australia, for example, where there is a hole in the ozone, between 1979 to 1987, the rate of melanoma doubled to 55.8 per 100,000 men and rose to 42.9 per 100,000 women.

Melanomas can occur on parts of the body not usually exposed to the sun, including the soles of the feet and the genitals. Melanoma starts with an abnormal skin growth, which is generally quite small. When discovered at this early stage, melanomas can be easily removed and the cancer cured. If the growth is not removed, it thickens and invades surrounding tissue and nearby lymph nodes. The cancer can then spread through the lymph nodes to sites distant from the original growth, including vital organs, soft tissues, and other lymph nodes.

Incidence: In the 1970s, the incidence rate of melanoma rose dramatically to about 6 percent a year. Incidence continues to rise but at a slower rate; from 1981 to 2001 the rate of growth was about 3 percent a year. In 2011, the number of new cases of melanoma was 21.3 per 100,000 men and women.

Melanoma affects adults of all ages as well as teenagers. According to the American Cancer Society, an estimated 76,100 new melanomas would be diagnosed in 2014, with about 9,710 deaths from melanoma. Rates for whites are ten times higher than for African Americans. However, one type of melanoma, which develops on the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, and nail beds, occurs more frequently in African Americans and Asians.

Symptoms: Melanoma generally first appears as a new mole or a change in the shape, size, or color of an existing mole. The American Cancer Society describes the warning signals in terms of a mnemonic: ABCD. “A” for asymmetry, meaning that the mole is not uniformly round; “B” for border, in that the edges of the mole are irregular; “C” for color, referring to the varied colors (generally in tones of tan, brown, and black) throughout the mole; and “D” for diameter, meaning that the mole is larger than 6 millimeters (mm).

Screening and diagnosis: People with serious risk factors or symptoms should have regular full body exams by a dermatologist to identify any skin abnormalities, and baseline photographs should be taken so that any changes can be tracked. Suspect moles or skin abnormalities should be removed and analyzed for cancer cells.

The stages of melanoma are defined as follows:

• Localized, Stage 0: These melanomas involve only the top layer of skin, the epidermis.





• Localized, Stages I and II: These melanomas involve the underlying layer of skin, the dermis, and are rated according to the depth they penetrate the skin (known as the Breslow depth) and their degree of ulceration (how much the epidermis is eroded and exposes the dermis below). Ulceration is determined by a pathologist, using a microscope.





• Regional, Stage III: These melanomas include those in which the cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes.





• Advanced, Stage IV: These melanomas include those where cancer has spread beyond the region of the skin growth to distant sites in the body, including internal organs and distant lymph nodes.

Treatment and therapy: Significant advances have been made in the early detection of melanoma. All suspect moles or skin growths should be removed and tested for cancerous cells. Removal of localized growths (Stages 0-II) can be done one of three ways: surgically, cutting out the suspect tissue; by electrodessication and curettage, using an electric current to destroy the tissue and then scraping the area with a special tool to remove any possible remaining cancer cells; or by cryosurgery, which freezes the tissue. About 83 percent of melanomas are diagnosed in these early stages while the cancer is still confined to the primary skin growth, according to the Duke Raleigh Hospital Cancer Center. Surgery successfully removes the cancer for the majority of patients with early-stage melanoma. In some cases, radiation therapy may be directed at the area following surgery to kill any cancer cells that may remain. Patients with Stages 0 to II melanoma have an excellent prognosis.

If the growth is extensive, the surgeon will remove lymph nodes to determine if the cancer has spread. After their removal, Stage III and IV melanomas may be treated with radiation or immunotherapy (agents that attempt to harness the human body’s own disease-fighting properties to kill cancer cells) or chemotherapy (toxic agents targeted to kill cancer cells). Two therapeutic agents approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of Stage III and IV melanoma are dacarbazine (DTIC, chemotherapy) and interleukin-2 (IL-2, immunotherapy). Some patients with Stage III and IV disease experience a full recovery with chemotherapy; however, positive responses to the drug therapy, when they occur, are most often partial and brief. Much research is being done to explore other possible treatments for melanoma, including combinations of different chemotherapies and new immunotherapies. Some of these agents are not specifically approved by the FDA to treat melanoma. Patients with melanoma may be eligible to become subjects in clinical trials in which these experimental agents or combinations of agents are tested.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: The thickness of a patient’s tumor is the best single indicator of the prognosis. After having melanomas of less than 0.76 mm removed, about 96 to 99 percent of patients are cured. About 1 in 10 patients with melanoma is diagnosed after the cancer has already spread to nearby lymph nodes. For these patients in the regional stage (Stage III), the prognosis is not as good, but survival rates for patients with Stage III disease range widely, depending on how many lymph nodes are affected by the cancer. About 3 of 10 patients with melanoma are diagnosed in an advanced stage (Stage IV), after the cancer has already spread (metastasized) to distant sites. Those with metastases to the skin or soft tissue or to distant lymph nodes appear to fare better than those with lung or other vital organ metastases.

Recommended measures to prevent melanoma include avoiding excessive direct sunshine, especially during the hours when the sun is high in the sky (from about 10 a.m. to 2 p.m.); using sunscreen and protective clothing to prevent sunburn; and not using sunlamps; tanning booths, or other artificial sources of ultraviolet light. People should become familiar with the moles and spots on their bodies and report any changes that could indicate melanoma to their doctors.

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