What is a political reason why the Stamp Act of 1765 was unfair to the colonists?

The colonists believed that the Stamp Act of 1765 was not fair. The colonists were very upset by this law. The colonists now had to pay a tax on various items.

The colonists believed this law violated their rights as British citizens. British citizens have representatives in Parliament. Before a tax law can be passed, the representatives of the people must be able to speak about the proposed taxes. They need to share their concerns or their support for the proposed law. Then, they must be able to vote on the proposed taxes. The colonists had no elected representatives in Parliament. Therefore, they weren’t able to speak about and vote on the Stamp Act. The colonists believed that because they had no say regarding this law (no political voice), their rights were being violated.

The colonists protested this law by refusing to buy British products until the taxes were repealed. This was one of a series of events that eventually led to the Revolutionary War and our independence from Great Britain.

How do behavioral addictions affect children?

Behavioral Addictions

Though the cause or causes of behavioral addictions have not been established, some studies have suggested that behavioral addictions, like physical addictions, may be rooted in brain chemistry. Many researchers believe that the act of engaging in certain activities results in an increase in the production of beta-endorphins in the brain, an increase that leads to a feeling of euphoria. In the case of behavioral addictions, it is thought that repetitive engagement in an activity for the purpose of achieving this euphoric feeling may, in turn, cause a person to become trapped in a cycle of addiction.

Experts also have suggested that the development of behavioral and physical addictions may be related to hereditary factors or environmental influences. For example, in the case of behavioral addictions in children, a child with a parent or parents who engage in some form of addictive behavior may be more likely than other children to engage in the same or similar behaviors at some point in their lives.

Regardless of the cause of their condition, people who suffer from behavioral addictions often exhibit certain characteristics that suggest they have become addicted to a particular activity. Many behavioral addicts become obsessed with the activity and find themselves unable to stop thinking about it. They often continue the activity without regard to how it may be affecting their own lives or the lives of others.

In many cases, the addict’s engagement in the activity becomes compulsive, meaning that the addict is driven to continue the activity. Some addicts also experience a loss of control over when or to what degree they will engage in an addictive activity. Other characteristics of behavioral addictions include a tendency to deny that the behavior is causing personal problems. Some addicts also attempt to conceal their behavior from family members or friends.

Some behavioral addicts also encounter physical and mental symptoms related to their condition. Many claim to black out during the activity and are thus unable to remember their actions. In some cases, withdrawal symptoms, such as irritability or restlessness, result when the behavioral addict cannot engage in the addictive behavior. Many behavioral addicts also have depression and low self-esteem.

Children and Adolescents

Children and adolescents are equally prone to developing behavioral addictions as adults. Many children also suffer from the same types of behavioral addictions as adults. Most commonly, children and adolescents struggle with behavioral addictions related to eating, exercise, sex, gambling, and technology, including Internet use.

Behavioral addictions related to eating and diet among children and adolescents often manifest as eating disorders, including binge eating, bulimia, and anorexia nervosa. If left untreated, these eating disorders can lead to serious health consequences and even death.

Exercise-related behavioral addictions are often triggered by the importance placed on sports in the lives of many young people. Some adolescents who are involved in a team or individual sport can easily become obsessed with their performance and may engage in excessive physical training to improve their skills. This, in turn, can lead to the development of anorexia athletica, an exercise addiction wherein the addict feels the need to exercise continually in order to feel normal.

As older children and young teens enter puberty, they become increasingly aware of their sexuality and begin to engage in sexual behaviors. During this period, some teens may come to rely on sex to relieve stress or to cope with other emotional issues. This reliance can, in some cases, lead to sex addiction. Persons who develop such addictions may be unable to control their sexual behavior.

Gambling may seem like a problem faced only by adults, but adolescents are susceptible to gambling addictions too. Much like adults, adolescents become addicted by playing games of chance. Some resort to selling off their personal possessions or securing money from their parents to fund their addiction.

Increasingly, however, the most commonly occurring behavioral addiction among children and adolescents is addiction to video games and the Internet, especially social media. For children and young adults in particular, the Internet has become a vital part of their everyday lives, providing nearly constant access to social networks and a wealth of information and entertainment. This widespread use of computer technology also presents a serious risk of addiction.

Children and adolescents with computer and Internet addictions often spend excessive amounts of time online or engage in other computer activities. Many experts agree that spending more than twenty hours per week on the Internet may indicate an addiction. Other factors that suggest addiction include obsessive preoccupation with the Internet, decreased interest in non-Internet-related social activities, and the onset of withdrawal symptoms when Internet access is not available.

Internet addictions also frequently lead to obsessive behaviors. Many young Internet addicts spend an inordinate amount of time building and maintaining online relationships while disregarding real-life relationships. Others may simply find themselves compulsively surfing the web.

In some cases, technological addictions also can intersect with other common addictions, such as sex addiction. Many adolescents turn to adult chat rooms or online pornography, which is often a highly addictive form of sexual behavior. While more common among adults, the frequent use of online gambling websites also can lead to the development of a gambling addiction.

For many young people, playing video games can become as addictive as Internet use. According to a 2009 Harris Poll, 8.5 percent of video-game players between the age of eight and eighteen years showed signs of addiction. Addiction to video games, online games, and the Internet in general is often driven, among other factors, by the opportunity these technologies provide for escape from reality and retreat into a virtual world where they feel more self-confident.

The consequences of addiction to computers, the Internet, or video games can vary in scope and severity. Excessive use of technology can lead to weight issues caused by skipping meals or eating poorly, by a lack of sleep, and by a decrease in physical activities away from the computer or game console. Technological addictions often also result in a reduction in the amount of time students spend studying, which, in turn, leads to poor academic performance. In some cases, such as viewing content that users must pay to access, technological addictions can result in financial problems. Finally, the continual use of a computer or other technology also can lead to physical health problems, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, eye strain, or back and neck pain.

Solutions

All forms of addiction have negative consequences for children and adolescents. Parents should be watchful for signs of any behavioral addiction. A variety of treatment options are available for children and adolescents with behavioral addictions. Medical treatments or other forms of therapy can help break the cycle of addiction and encourage the resumption of a normal, healthy lifestyle.

Bibliography

Bruner, Olivia, and Kurt D. Bruner. Playstation Nation: Protect Your Child from Video Game Addiction. New York: Hachette, 2006. Print.

Choo, Hyekyung, et al. "Parental Influences on Pathological Symptoms of Video Gaming among Children and Adolescents: A Prospective Study." Journal of Child and Family Studies 24.5 (2015): 1429–41. Print.

Gullotta, Thomas P., Robert W. Plant, and Melanie A. Evans, eds. Handbook of Adolescent Behavioral Problems: Evidence-Based Approaches to Prevention and Treatment. 2nd ed. New York: Springer, 2015. Print.

Peele, Stanton. Addiction Proof Your Child: A Realistic Approach to Preventing Drug, Alcohol, and Other Dependencies. New York: Crown, 2007. Print.

Pontes, Halley M., Mark D. Griffiths, and Ivone M. Patrao. "Internet Addiction and Loneliness among Children and Adolescents in the Education Setting: An Empirical Pilot Study." Revista de Psicologia, Ciències de l’Educació i de l’Esport 32.1 (2014): 91–8. Print.

Young, Kimberly S., and Cristiano Nabuco De Abreu. Internet Addiction: A Handbook and Guide to Evaluation and Treatment. Hoboken: Wiley, 2011. Print.

Why does Greg call Maura in Andrew Clements's Lunch Money?

The only phone call made in Andrew Clements's The Lunch Money is actually made by Maura to Greg soon after they start fighting about Maura copying Greg by making her own comic book. Certainly, however, Greg does call Maura some names in the story.

In chapter 7, Greg storms into Mr. Z's math class, slams Maura's unicorn book down on her desk and calls her a thief, saying, "You stole my idea, and you know it" (56). He even calls her "cheap, stupid garbage" when he says her book is "cheap, stupid garbage—just like you" (57). It's during their fight that Maura accidentally hits Greg in the face, giving him a bloody nose and black eye. While waiting in the nurse's office, Greg has a chance to look over Maura's book and see that her artwork, which is original, is also really good. Later, Maura tells Greg she read one of his books, which she pays for with a quarter, and tells him she thinks his is good, too. During a conference with Mr. Z, which calms the children down somewhat but doesn't help resolve the issue, Greg gets another bloody nose and must miss math class. Later that same evening, Maura calls his house and offers to give Greg the details of the math assignment he missed. She next starts talking about his book once more, saying she looked it over again, and that his book "makes her unicorn story look just awful" (86). She then says she doesn't understand exactly why her book can't be considered a comic book, hoping Greg will give her some advice. Greg grows suspicious of her motives, however, thinking she is only calling because she hopes she can learn more about his ideas so she can steal from them, so Greg ends their phone conversation. It's not until much later in the story that Greg and Maura decide they'll be able to sell more comic books if they work on the book together.

What are different types of participant observation? What are advantages and disadvantages of each type?

Participant observation is a method of data collection used often in qualitative research, especially the field of cultural anthropology. The goal is to gain detailed knowledge of people through observation and involvement in the daily activities of the participants, usually over an extended period of time.

Types of participant observation are categorized based on the degree to which the researcher becomes involved with the subjects. In non-participatory observation, the researcher has no direct contact with those observed. An advantage of this method is to limit the researcher’s influence on the subjects, but a disadvantage is not being able to establish rapport or ask questions. Less extreme is passive participation in which the researcher limits interaction, acting principally as a recorder. This method has similar advantages and disadvantages as those mentioned above. In moderate participation, the researcher balances involvement with participants and objective distance to strike a balance between these advantages and disadvantages.

You may find the document linked below helpful for more detail on the topic.

In active participation, the researcher becomes a member of the group. This method has the advantage of allowing the observer to fully comprehend the subject matter from an insider’s perspective. However, this level of involvement increases the chances of researcher bias. With complete participation, a researcher is a member of the group being studied before the research begins. This level of participation especially risks the researcher losing objectivity.  

In general, participant observation has the disadvantage of the observer influencing people’s behavior, leading to flawed data. Additionally, the observer’s own biases can skew observations and interpretations. Triangulation (gathering data from multiple sources or observers) can help ensure that data is valid.

Please provide one quote about courage from To Kill a Mockingbird in chapters 7-8.

Chapter 8 is when Miss Maudie's house burns down. Atticus wakes his children and positions them across the street from her house, in front of the Radley's, to keep an eye on them for safety's sake. This is a frightening time for the children as they watch a good friend's home burn down. Atticus goes over and helps to remove Miss Maudie's favorite rocking chair from the house, which causes Scout some alarm; but, she's happy the chair is saved as well. Mr. Avery also slips when crossing the upstairs porchs and falls down a pillar to the shrubs below. In an effort to calm Scout down during this time of crisis, Jem tells her that it isn't time to worry yet. He gives her a sign to look for whenever she might be scared, as follows:

"Don't worry, Scout, it ain't time to worry yet . . . Looka yonder . . . See there, he's not worried yet . . . he'll know when it's time" (70).

Jem tells Scout to look for Atticus. When it is time to worry, Atticus will let them know. Their father is usually very laid back and doesn't worry about much of anything. At other times during the story, Atticus tells Scout that it isn't time to worry just like Jem does. This is how the Finches show courage. They keep their heads about them, remain calm, and don't worry.

Why did Gatsby fire all of his servants?

Gatsby does this in Chapter 7, just two chapters after Nick has set up a clandestine meeting for Gatsby and Daisy to rekindle the romance of their youth. After a rough start, the two seem very much in love again and are likely to begin an affair. 

Having recaptured Daisy, Gatsby stops throwing his lavish parties, which were always a way to tempt her and impress her. He also fires all his servants, saying to Nick, "I wanted somebody who wouldn’t gossip. Daisy comes over quite often—in the afternoons" (Chapter 7). He replaces them with people connected to Meyer Wolfshiem, a shady character who Gatsby is in an illegal bootlegging business with. Presumably, he can trust these people to keep his and Daisy's visits a secret.

In this chapter, we see Gatsby displaying a hubris about the strength of his and Daisy's love. Later, he asks Daisy to deny ever loving Tom in front of everyone, something she cannot/will not do. The ending of the parties and replacing of the servants raises suspicions and the hints about his illegal activities multiply, but Gatsby seems to think he is untouchable by public opinion, his only wish is to continue protecting Daisy's reputation until their love can be public. 

When did FDR say the quote "Men are not prisoners of fate, but only prisoners of their own minds?"

On April 14th, 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave an address to a group of men at a meeting of the Pan American Union.  The Pan American Union was an organization that was made up of the United States and Latin American countries.  The goal was for the various countries to cooperate and communicate.  The Pan American Union was founded in the late 1800s.  In his 1939 speech, Roosevelt called the Pan American Union "the oldest and most successful association of sovereign governments which exists in all the world."  Roosevelt hoped that the long success of the organization would be "a symbol of great hope" in a world full of challenges.  At this time, the world was seeing the rise of Nazism.  The speech took place only a few months before the start of World War II.  The United States and other nations had also suffered for many years from the Great Depression.  

FDR praised the peaceful nature of the meetings of the Pan American Union.  He noted that other nations would have to wage war before holding such a meeting.  With turmoil in Europe and the Nazi invasion of Czechoslovakia having only been a month before, Roosevelt's words were very relevant in April of 1939.  He hoped that Europe would follow the example of the Pan American Union.  It was then that he spoke the lines of his famous quote:

Men are not prisoners of fate, but only prisoners of their own minds. They have within themselves the power to become free at any moment.

He wished for the European nations to choose peaceful meetings and negotiations over invasions and wars.  He did not want them to accept the those tactics as the only option.  He also reaffirmed his support of Allied nations.

What are observational methods in psychology research?

Introduction

Humans have tremendous difficulty making accurate observations. Different people will perceive the same event differently; they apply their own interpretations to what they see. One’s perception or recollection of an event, although it seems accurate, may well be faulty. This fact creates problems in science, because science requires objective observation.

In large part, this problem is eliminated through the use of scientific instruments to make observations. Many situations exist, however, in which the experimenter is still the recorder. Therefore, methods must be available to prevent bias, distortion, and omission from contaminating observations. Behavior may be observed within natural settings. When using naturalistic observation, scientists only watch behavior; they do not interfere with it.

History of Research

The need for an observational methodology that ensures objective data became apparent early in the history of scientific psychology. In fact, in 1913, John B. Watson, an early American behaviorist, stated that for psychology to become a science at all, it must eliminate the influence of subjective judgment. Watson’s influence caused psychology to shift from the subjective study of mental processes to the objective study of behavior. Shifting the focus to behavior improved the reliability of observation dramatically. Behavior is tangible and observable. In the 1920s, the operational definition—a description of behavior in terms that are unambiguous, observable, and easily measured—was introduced. Through using such definitions, communication between psychologists improved greatly. Psychologists were then able to develop experiments that met the scientific criterion of repeatability. Repeatability means that different researchers must be able to repeat the experiment and get similar results.

It soon became apparent, however, that this was not enough. It was discovered that the expectations of researchers biased their observations. This was true even when observations were focused on operationally defined behavior. Methods had to be developed to eliminate these effects, and this led to the development of techniques to reduce or control for experimenter bias. The technique of interrater reliability is an example of one such method. Using observers uninformed about the researchers’ expectations also reduces experimenter bias.

In 1976, Robert Rosenthal reported results that showed that subject expectations can also contaminate observational data. It was found that simply observing subjects alters their behavior. How it changes depends on the subjects’ interpretation of the situation and their motivation. If subjects could discover what the experimenters’ expectations were, they could decide to help or to hinder the progress of the research. This type of reactivity severely contaminates the accuracy of observational data. Although this is a problem associated primarily with human research, animals also react to observers. This is why it is important to allow sufficient time for animals under observation to habituate to one’s presence. Efforts to refine and improve observational methodology continue. Attention is now primarily directed at developing equipment to automate the observational process. The goal is to improve objectivity by removing the experimenter from the situation altogether.

Behavioral Taxonomy

To make observation as accurate and objective as possible, researchers use behavioral taxonomy. A behavioral taxonomy is a set of behavioral categories that describe the behavior of the subjects under study. To develop a behavioral taxonomy, the experimenter must first spend time simply watching the population of interest. The observer’s presence will alter the subjects’ behavior at first. Organisms are reactive, so their initial behavior in the presence of an observer is not typical. Once they become accustomed to being observed, however, behavior returns to normal. This initial observation period, called the habituation period, is important for two reasons. First, it allows the subjects time to become accustomed to the observer’s presence. Second, the researcher learns about the subjects by observing them in as many different situations as possible. During this time a diary is kept. Behaviors and their possible functions are jotted down as they are seen. This diary would not be entirely accurate. The observer might distort how often a behavior occurred or perhaps overemphasize interesting behaviors. To overcome these problems, a behavioral taxonomy must be developed.

The taxonomy will include several behavioral categories. Each category describes a specific behavior. During observation, when the behavior is seen, the category is scored. Categories can be either general or specific. Broad categories permit very consistent, and hence reliable, scoring of behavior, but they are less precise. Specific categories are more precise but make scoring behavior more difficult and less reliable. Whether categories of behavior are general or specific, there are three criteria that all taxonomies must meet: A taxonomy must be clearly defined, mutually exclusive, and exhaustive.

All categories within the behavioral taxonomy must be operationally defined. Operationally defining a category means that one will describe, in concrete terms, exactly what one means by the category name. Operational definitions are used to indicate exactly what one must see to score the category. This serves to eliminate subjective judgment when scoring observations. It also permits scientists to communicate precisely about which behaviors are being studied.

Determining Reliability and Validity

The next step is to determine whether category definitions are
reliable and valid. The term “reliable” refers to whether the definitions permit one to score the behavioral category consistently. To determine whether a definition is reliable, interrater reliability is established. This tells whether two independent observers agree in scoring behavioral categories. If the rate of agreement is high, the category is reliable. For the taxonomy itself to be reliable, all its categories must be reliable. Validity is established when one can show that one is really measuring what one thinks one is. This is very important, as it is not unusual to infer the function of a behavior, only to discover later that the behavior served an entirely different purpose. One way to establish validity is to show a relationship between the category definition and independent assessments of the same behavior.

Exclusive and Exhaustive Categories

Once taxonomic categories are clearly defined, one must be sure that they are mutually exclusive. This means that each behavior one observes should fit into one, and only one, category; there should be no overlap of meaning between categories. With overlap, the observer will get confused about which behavioral category to score. Such a judgment is subjective, and it will reduce the reliability of the taxonomy and objectivity of the observations.

Finally, the categories should be exhaustive. This means that the categories, as a group, must cover all the behaviors capable of being demonstrated by subjects. Ideally, there should be no behavior that cannot be scored. If the categories are not exhaustive, one will get a distorted idea of how often a particular behavior occurs. Taxonomy must not be developed so as to overrepresent behaviors one finds interesting. Mundane behaviors must be included as well. In this way one can calculate how often each behavior occurs. Although efforts to develop an exhaustive taxonomy must be made, in reality this is impossible. New behaviors will invariably be seen throughout the course of extended observation. To control for this problem, observers will include a category entitled “other.” In this way, one can score a behavior even if one has never seen it before. By examining the number of times the “other” category is scored, one can get an idea of how exhaustive the taxonomy is.

Taxonomy Approaches

In measuring behavior with a taxonomy, one can take several approaches. For example, one could use a clock to measure how long each behavior is observed. Using a duration approach is most useful when low-frequency, high-duration behavior is present. One could also quantify how often each behavioral category is scored. The frequency approach is most useful for scoring high-frequency, short-duration behaviors. One could use either the duration or the frequency approach separately or combine the two. Finally, the length and number of observational periods must be determined. In general, the more observational periods used, the better. With respect to length, the observational period must be long enough to permit adequate observation of behavior, but short enough so that one does not become tired and miss important behavior.

Applied Research

An applied example of behavioral taxonomy is its use by researchers to describe monkey behavior. The first step would be to spend many days watching the monkeys’ behavior. During this time, the observers would be writing down, in diary form, the behaviors that they see. They would also indicate the function they believe that each behavior serves. The monkeys may appear disturbed or agitated during these initial observations; as time goes by, however, their behavior would become less agitated and they would pay less attention to the observers’ presence. Here one can see the importance of the habituation period. If observers had begun recording behavior from the start, they would probably have described the monkeys inaccurately in some respect.

With the information acquired during the habituation period, the researchers would begin to develop a behavioral taxonomy. They must decide how general or specific the categories in the taxonomy will be. This depends primarily on their purpose. If the categories must be very sensitive to change in behavior, they should be specific. If not, broader categories can be used. Once categories are selected, they are operationally defined. A category for aggression, for example, could be operationally defined as “grabbing and shaking the cage fence while maintaining eye contact with the experimenter.” Note that this definition is clear and concrete. That is, it is based on observable behavior.

In developing the list of behavioral categories, researchers must be sure they are mutually exclusive and exhaustive. To be mutually exclusive, categories must be defined so there is no overlap in meaning between them. To illustrate, the vocalization category might be defined as “any discernible vocal output.” It would be unlikely, however, that this category would be mutually exclusive. For example, what if a monkey showed aggression, but while doing so was also vocalizing? Would this be scored as an instance of aggression or vocalization? Because these categories are not mutually exclusive, one would not know. When this occurs, at least one of the categories must be redefined. The listing of categories must also be exhaustive. Observers must form a category for every possible behavior the monkeys might show; also, an “other” category must be included.

Once category definitions have been developed, it must be determined whether they are reliable, valid, mutually exclusive, and exhaustive. This can be determined by having two observers score monkey behavior using the taxonomy. If interrater agreement is high (above 85 percent agreement), the definitions can be considered reliable. If it is low, researchers will revise the necessary category definitions. These observers can also determine if categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive. They are mutually exclusive if observers found no confusion about which category to score. They are exhaustive if they did not need to score the “other” category. Finally, to establish the validity of category definitions, researchers could ask people familiar with monkey behavior to describe what they would expect to see within each of the categories. If their descriptions agree with the researchers’ definitions, there is some evidence that the taxonomy is valid.

With the taxonomy developed, the researchers must decide how many observational periods to use and how long each period will be. In general, the more observational periods used, the more reliable the results. Twenty observational periods is adequate to produce reliable data in most cases. In deciding how long the observational period should be, the purpose of the study must be considered. If high-frequency behavior that falls into very specific categories is being observed, a short observational period should be used. For example, if eye blinks are being counted, the observational period should be no longer than two minutes. Any longer than this and observers would get tired and make inaccurate observations. On the other hand, if low-frequency behavior that is scored in broader categories (for example, tool use) is being watched, longer observational periods should be used.

Finally, researchers must decide how behavior will be quantified. They can measure how long each category of behavior is seen, how often each category of behavior is seen, or both. If they are interested in how much of the monkeys’ time is spent engaging in each behavior, they will use the duration approach. If, on the other hand, researchers are more interested in determining the likelihood that a particular behavior will occur, they will use the frequency approach.

With an appropriately developed behavioral taxonomy, the behavior of the monkeys can be described accurately and objectively. Researchers can make statements about the likelihood of various behaviors, what the behaviors mean, and how much time the monkeys spend engaged in each type of behavior. From this information, they obtain an in-depth understanding of the monkeys. For example, through the use of behavioral taxonomies it is known that rhesus monkeys have a dominance hierarchy, are very social, can show tool use and other creative adaptations of behavior when necessary, and show rudimentary forms of communication.

Implications for Other Fields

Humans simply do not record events like video cameras. At the scientific level, much care has to be used to ensure that observations are accurate and objective. Understanding how human limitations affect observational capabilities has important implications beyond the field of psychology—for example, in law. Tremendous weight is placed on eyewitness testimony in a court of law. Even though eyewitness accounts are probably biased, distorted, and imperfect, the courts recognize them as the best evidence available. Because of what has been learned about the human capacity to make accurate and objective observations, people are well advised to evaluate eyewitness testimony very carefully.

Bibliography

Bakeman, Roger. Observing Interactions: An Introduction to Sequential Analysis. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge UP, 1997. Print.

Bordens, Kenneth S., and Bruce B. Abbott. Research Design and Methods: A Process Approach. 7th ed. Boston: McGraw, 2008. Print.

Comer, Jonathan S., and Philip C. Kendall, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Research Strategies for Clinical Psychology. New York: Oxford UP, 2013. Print.

Coolican, Hugh. Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology. 6th ed. New York: Psychology, 2014. Print.

Leahey, Thomas. A History of Psychology: Main Currents in Psychological Thought. 7th ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 2007. Print.

Nestor, Paul G., and Russel K. Schutt. Research Methods in Psychology. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2015. Print.

Are the Socs a bigger disgrace and menace to society than the Greasers in The Outsiders by S. E. Hinton?

The Socs’s actions are more accepted by society because they come from wealthy families. In general, the actions of the Socs and greasers are the same.  They are kids who fight each other and sometimes commit acts of vandalism or pretty crime.  The Socs do this for fun, while the greasers often act out of need or anger. 

Pony explains the difference between the Socs and the greasers.

We're poorer than the Socs and the middle class. I reckon we're wilder, too. Not like the Socs, who jump greasers and wreck houses and throw beer blasts for kicks, and get editorials in the paper for being a public disgrace one day and an asset to society the next. (Ch. 1) 

It seems clear that while greasers may steal things and “hold up gas stations,” their main issue is that they are poor.  They do not have many options in life.  The Socs have greater access to opportunities.  Society accepts their youthful indiscretions, and then they go off to college and become upstanding citizens. 

It is apparent that the Socs target the greasers.  Pony is afraid of them.  He feels that he is in danger, and needs the other greasers to protect him. 

Greasers can't walk alone too much or they'll get jumped, or someone will come by and scream "Greaser!" at them, which doesn't make you feel too hot, if you know what I mean. We get jumped by the Socs. (Ch. 1) 

When Cherry and Pony are talking, she tells him that Socs have problems too.  “Things are rough all over.”  Some of the Socs’s problems just come from having money.  An example is Bob, whose parents are over-indulgent and let him drink and cause trouble.  He never had any boundaries, and it is a significant cause of his death.  His parents were not aware enough or strong enough to stop him.

Thus, the public perception that greasers are the problem is really just prejudice.  The two groups are always fighting each other, which is a never-ending cycle.  Neither one is singularly to blame.

What does the use of personification in the first stanza of Audre Lorde's “Hanging Fire” reveal about the speaker?

When the poet says, “my skin has betrayed me,” she is attributing human characteristic to her skin—as if her skin had its own brain, and for some reason it had decided to betray her.

Audre Lorde was a black Caribbean-American writer known for her concerns over the marginalization of black women and the injustices of racism and sexism.

When Lorde mentions the word “skin”, it seems natural to suppose the girl must have experienced different behavior because of the color of her skin. In subsequent lines, we hear the girl say disappointedly that a boy was chosen over her "on Math Team" despite her better performance. She says,  

“I should have been on Math Team   
my marks were better than his" 

So we see that the girl is merely fourteen years old, yet she is able to feel the evil influence of racism on her life. She is learning that the society is biased towards people of color, and that she, too, is a person of color. Therefore, she says, "...my skin has betrayed me."  

How does Martin Luther King use imagery in "Letter from Birmingham City Jail"?

Imagery is a form of figurative language in which an author or speaker uses words and phrases to create mental pictures in the minds of the reader or audience. Mental pictures are created by using words related to the five senses: touch, taste, sight, sound, and smell. In his "Letter from Birmingham City Jail," Martin Luther King effectively uses imagery to capture the injustices his people are suffering.

In his letter, King is addressing a letter written by eight Birmingham clergyman, published in the Birmingham Post Herald. In their public letter, without directly using King's name, the clergymen protested against King's demonstrations being launched in Birmingham, and though the clergymen were against segregation, they were also in favor of patiently waiting for justice to be served. In his letter, King uses a sound image to protest against the idea of waiting for justice in order to promote active peaceful protest:

For years now I have heard the word "Wait!" It rings in the ear of every Negro with piercing familiarity. This "Wait" has almost always meant "Never." We must come to see, with one of our distinguished jurists, that "justice too long delayed is justice denied."

Here, in describing the word wait as a piercing, ringing sound, like an alarm bell, King is creating a sound image to relay how agonizing the word wait has become for African Americans. We know it is a sound image because we can literally hear the word wait being spoken by a person, and we can hear a piercing ringing sound, like an alarm bell. King uses this sound image to assert that now is the time for the African-American people to fight for justice.

Sight images are also found in the next paragraph that capture the extent of the injustices the African-American people suffer, such as in the following clauses: "vicious mobs lynch your mothers and fathers at will"; "when you have seen hate filled policemen curse, kick and even kill your black brothers and sister"; "twenty million Negro brothers smothering in an airtight cage of poverty." All of these are things we can actually see, so we know they count as sight images.

What happens to Ludwig in The Silver Sword?

In the story, Ludwig originally belonged to the Bavarian farmer, Kurt Wolff, and his wife, Frau Wolff. Jan takes a liking to Ludwig during the childrens' stay at the farm. By all indications, the affection is returned. The faithful dog even hides in one of the canoes the children use for their escape.

As the children make their way down the river, they have to battle their way through the rapids. All of them manage to survive the danger, but they soon find themselves without the use of their canoes. The children and Ludwig walk to Falkenburg, cross the Danube, and eventually get a ride to Switzerland. Their destination is Lake Constance. Eventually, after stopping to make camp, the children discover that Jan and Ludwig are not in their company. Presumably, Jan has gone back to the Bavarian farm to look for the silver sword that he now says is missing.

Edek, Ruth, and Bronia decide to continue the journey without Jan. Eventually, they meet up with him again when they discover him tied up in the back of a truck; the truck is driven by an American soldier, Joe Wolski, who decides not to take Jan north with him.

The children soon find themselves at a crossroads. In order to get to Appenzell where their parents are, Edek and his siblings have to cross Lake Constance. They try to wait patiently for the Swiss boat that is to take them across but are so excited that they are unaware of the approaching rain. Meanwhile, Edek, sick and disoriented, takes shelter in a small boat. Soon, it rains heavily, and Edek's boat floats away. Ruth and Bronia struggle to save Edek. Meanwhile, Ludwig goes missing in the heavy rainstorm, and Jan's first concern is to find and save Ludwig.

Ruth gets frustrated with Jan when she realizes that Edek is not Jan's first priority. She yells at Jan to go after Ludwig, while she and Bronia try to save Edek. Her words jolt Jan back to reality: he suddenly realizes that he has to choose whether he will help save Edek or Ludwig. The text tells us that he chose to save Edek:

The two girls jumped into the boat. Jan was staring at the dog. He wanted to run after the animal, but Ruth's words had hurt him. He looked back at her brave face, and he knew what he had to do. He had lost Ludwig, but he could not lose Ruth.

Since there are no further mentions of Ludwig after the storm incident, we can deduce that Ludwig has probably drowned.

How does the Tenth Amendment limit federal powers?

The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution limits the powers of the federal government to those provided for in the Constitution and its amendments, with all others powers being "reserved" to the individual states and "the people."  There was some discussion about whether or not the word "expressly" should be included so that it would read "expressly delegated," but ultimately that word was not used. This is significant because if the federal government has only expressly delegated powers, it is limited to those that are "listed" in the Constitution, what are called the enumerated powers.  Without the use of that limiting modifier, the federal government has been held to have unenumerated powers, mostly Congress, under what is called the "necessary and proper" clause (Article I, Section 8), which allows Congress to make any laws that are necessary and proper to carry out the enumerated duties, those that are named specifically.  The fact that the necessary and proper clause was included has been interpreted to mean that it includes other powers.   

How have humans impacted the process of deposition?

I assume by deposition you mean the settlement of eroded material.

Rocks are broken down into smaller fragments through the process of weathering. The weathered fragments are then transported to new locations by the process of erosion. When eroding agents are unable to carry weathered fragments any longer, they get deposited at a location. Over time, this deposition causes changes in the landform.

Human activities have affected the process of deposition in a number of ways. Water is a common carrier of weathered material and is also affected by deposition. The human formation of dams causes the artificial storage of river water and forces the water to release the sediments it was carrying. This results in the non-formation of deposits. Human activities (such as construction and development) also often increase the weathering of rocks, which results in more fragments being available for erosion and deposition. The provision of wind turbines could affect the normal wind flow, which could influence the transport distance of eroded particles and hence the location of their deposition. 

Hope this helps.

What does the pilot/parachutist in Lord of the Flies represent?

The pilot, or rather, his body, arrive on the island suspended by his parachute after the boys all fall asleep. Because they're sleeping, they fail to see the "sign" that Ralph wished the grown-ups would send, which is the sight of a far-off battle between jet fighters in the night sky. Ironically the sign that this sends, since it is only revealed to the reader, is that the adult world is still consumed with the war that stranded the boys on the island in the first place, and that getting off the island is no guarantee of safety. 

The pilot is shot down during the fighting, and his body lands in such a way that the strings of his parachute cause him to move when the wind blows in a particular manner, so that he is analogous to a marionette. When the boys discover him, they misinterpret his body as the Beast.

The pilot may represent several things;

• religion, mythology and superstition, in that Simon was able to correctly figure out that the pilot was a human, but the other boys simply accepted that it was the Beast and pursued the issue no further. 


• the close relationship of humans to death and destruction; throughout the story we see that these things follow humans wherever they go


• the fact that humans are ultimately manipulated and controlled by their environment, and are at its mercy despite how long their technology may prolong their resistance

How does Paul characterize his family in Tangerine?

Paul uses ironic figurative language to show his family’s unwillingness to see the truth about its dark secret: Erik, star football player and the oldest Fisher brother, is a completely immoral person who hurts other for his own pleasure.

Erik describes his family as “blind”, an ironic adjective since Paul, in fact, is the only family member with actual vision problems. He means “blind” however, not in a literal sense, but in a figurative sense. Paul’s family doesn’t want to see “what’s right before their eyes”-they willfully ignore the truth about Erik, even though Erik taunts and hurts Paul and Paul’s friends right in front of their eyes. They’re bystanders-just like kids who see bullying, but when the teacher asks them about it, aren’t courageous enough to report it and save the victim.

To talk about individual members, Paul characterizes his mom and dad very differently. His dad is “caught up in the Erik Fisher Football Dream” and maniacally chases his goal of a pro football career for Erik. Paul’s mom is a perfectionist who doesn’t even want her house movers to find a McDonalds wrapper, lest they think that Paul’s family isn’t perfectly healthy. In regards to Erik, Paul often characterizes him as a predator.

What are grief and bereavement? How do they affect cancer patients?

The universal experience of loss: Everyone experiences loss at some time in life. Loss can come as the death of a spouse, child, or friend; the loss of a marriage through divorce; the loss of a job or position at work; the loss of a home; or the loss of a pet. Loss is a universal experience that occurs when some meaningful part of a person’s life has been taken away.

Loss comes in many ways to cancer patients and their families and friends. Dying patients face loss of function and independence, their role in the family unit, relationships, dreams and possibilities, and finally life itself. They may worry about those left behind. Spouses may show concern for their mates and want to be sure that they will be all right. Some may grieve that they worked too late and too much, that they spent too little time with their spouse and children, that they never got that new car or never took that dream vacation, or that they did not accomplish their life goals and now it is too late.

Watching a person’s health deteriorate because of cancer is difficult. Family and friends may experience anticipatory grief with increased anxiety, fear, or depression. The patient’s family and friends experience tremendous stress as they work through what being without the person may mean to them. They may find themselves unable to concentrate or make decisions. Their work performance may suffer. Physical illness occurs, and aches and pains crop up for no apparent reason. They may imagine how death may happen and hover over the dying person. Family struggles may surface when people are tired and uncertain about their family member’s life.

Anticipatory grief can be useful, as the family can begin to adjust to the death before it actually occurs. Unfinished business can be addressed, and families can say their good-byes. Family roles may be reassigned to fill the anticipated void.

Differences in grief, bereavement, and mourning: Although grief and bereavement are used interchangeably, they are separate concepts. Grief is the normal reaction to death and can be experienced many ways. The person with grief may display mental reactions such as anxiety, guilt, anger, depression, or despair. Grief can produce physical problems such as insomnia, loss of appetite, and illness. The intensity of the grief and symptoms depend on the closeness of the relationship with the deceased person, the impact that the death has on the survivor, and any feelings left unexpressed or unresolved after the person’s death.

Bereavement is the time after the death occurs when the remaining person is grieving. After all the arrangements are made and the funeral is completed, the survivor is left alone in a changed environment. The severity and length of bereavement depend on the closeness of that person to the deceased and whether there was time to process the death through anticipated grief.

Survivors process grief through mourning. Mourning allows the survivor to adapt to the death of another person. Survivors may take part in rituals that vary among cultures and religious beliefs. A funeral or memorial service may be held to honor the memory of the deceased person. Some may wear black or other special clothes, send the family flowers or other gifts, or prepare food. Time may seem to stand still as normal activities of daily living seem to have been put on hold. Survivors may pull away from their usual activities and struggle to resume minimal tasks. Energy to process grief is emotionally and physically draining, so survivors feel tired. They may relive past experiences of loss and find themselves hurting again.

Phases of bereavement: When people experience the death of someone close to them, most go through four predictable phases of grief.

Stage one is shock and numbness. Survivors are stunned and cannot fully grasp that death has occurred. Numbness buffers the harsh realities as what has been lost begins to become evident.

Stage two is yearning and searching. The reality of the death is unacceptable, so anxiety surfaces because of separation from the deceased person. Survivors may desire to see the deceased person again and have dreams about the person. They may find themselves looking for or calling to the deceased person. Feelings of disappointment surface because the deceased person cannot return.

Stage three is disorganization and despair. Depression sets in, and survivors may see no future. Making plans seems hopeless. Focusing or concentrating proves difficult or impossible.

Stage four is reorganization and resolution. Slowly survivors find their way through their desire to have the deceased person back in their lives, through sadness and disorganization, to reorganization and resumption of daily life.

Grief counseling and therapy: Grief counseling provided by trained professionals offers survivors the opportunity to process normal grief reactions. Counseling can help survivors accept the loss by talking about the deceased person. Discussions give survivors time and a forum to express any feelings about the loss, such as sadness, helplessness, or anger. Sessions assist survivors to begin to live without the deceased person and feel strong enough to make decisions for themselves. Separating emotionally from the deceased person can be difficult, but with help the transition may be softened. The counselor can teach survivors to anticipate heightened feelings of loss during holidays or on birthdays or anniversaries. Grief counseling makes resuming normal life easier.

Grief counseling can be provided in a group therapy setting. Sometimes several people who have lost someone to cancer come together and support each other by sharing their experiences. Sometimes they become friends with others who can provide positive support when the group sessions end. Churches, home health and hospice agencies, or funeral homes may offer group grief counseling to support the friends and family of the deceased person.

Grief therapy is needed when survivors have serious difficulty separating from the deceased person. The mourner is encouraged to identify strong feelings such as anger or resentment and to allow those negative thoughts to surface and be spoken. Sometimes guilt is present, or uncomfortable and unresolved thoughts still linger. Mourners can work though their grief to recognize the finality of the death and see a future.

Complicated or unresolved grief results when the survivor cannot progress to reorganization and resolution. Problems develop with major unrelieved depression, severe anxiety, substance abuse, or post-traumatic stress disorder such as flashbacks of the death, panic, nightmares, work instability, parenting or marital problems, family difficulties, memory and concentration loss, sleep disturbances, or suicidal thoughts. Complicated grief requires more intense work from professional therapists.

Grief and bereavement in children: Children and their grief may be overlooked by adults when a death occurs. How children react to a death will depend on their age, stage of development, and personality; any previous experience with death; and the intensity of the lost relationship. Children may wonder if they somehow caused the death, if they too will die, and who will care for them or love them now that the deceased person is gone.

Children express their grief in different ways from adults. Initially some children may throw tantrums or have pronounced mood swings. They may misbehave and seek attention as they wrestle with their feelings. However, other children may withdraw and become reclusive. They may show signs of depression and lose interest in school or normal social activities. Still others may become aggressive, and some seem sad one minute and happy the next. Though children may appear to show symptoms for only a brief time, their grief may actually last longer than that of an adult. Unresolved grief can surface later in the child’s life and may need grief therapy by a trained counselor.

Alam, Rifat, et al. "Bereavement Experiences of Mothers and Fathers Over Time After the Death of a Child Due to Cancer." Death Studies  36.1 (2012): 1–22. Print.

Holtslander, Lorraine F., and Susan C. McMillan. "Depressive Symptoms, Grief, and Complicated Grief Among Family Caregivers of Patients with Advanced Cancer Three Months into Bereavement." Oncology Nursing Forum 38.1 (2011): 60. Print.

James, John W., Russell Freidman, and Leslie Matthews. When Children Grieve: For Adults Who Help Children Deal with Death, Divorce, Pet Loss, Moving, and Other Losses. New York: HarperCollins, 2001. Print.

Lewis, C. S. A Grief Observed. New York: HarperCollins, 1961. Print.

Parkes, Colin Murray, and Holly G, Pringerson. Bereavement: Studies of Grief in Adult Life. New York: Routledge, 2013. Print.

Rando, Therese A. How to Go on Living When Someone You Love Dies. Lexington, Mass.: Bantam, 1991. Print.

Westberg, Granger E. Good Grief. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2006. Print.

Wolfelt, Alan. Healing the Bereaved Child. New York: Routledge, 2013. Print.

Worden, J. William. Children and Grief: When a Parent Dies. New York: Guilford Press, 1996. Print.

How does William Shakespeare introduce the character of Lady Macbeth?

Shakespeare introduces the character of Lady Macbeth by allowing the audience to see her private response to Macbeth's news via letter in Act I, Scene 5. We know we are glimpsing into the very soul of the character because she is alone when she learns of the prophecies her husband received from the Weird Sisters. While it took Macbeth some time to consider violence, Lady Macbeth immediately jumps to the idea that they should kill Duncan to hasten the prophecy along. She says,

Glamis thou art, and Cawdor, and shalt be

What thou art promised.  Yet do I fear thy nature;

It is too full o' th' milk of human kindness

To catch the nearest way (I.5.15-18).

In other words, Lady Macbeth is sure Macbeth will fulfill the prophecy eventually, but fears he is too loyal and compassionate to take the fastest route to the throne: murdering the one who currently sits on it.

Further, Lady Macbeth's private response to the news that Duncan is on his way to their castle shows her ambition and ruthlessness; she refers to his arrival as his "fatal entrance" (I.5.46). Moreover, she prays for murderous spirits to "unsex [her] here" and "take [her] milk for gall," filling her "from the crown to the toe-top full / Of direst cruelty" (I.5.48, 55, 49-50). Lady Macbeth pleads for the ability to commit terrible violence without remorse or regret. She wants to be as ruthless as a man, to lose any part of her that might retain any compassion or care. By allowing us to see her alone first, the audience gets an accurate idea of Lady Macbeth's character before she reunites with her husband.

What are gender differences, and how do they affect mental health?

Introduction

Gender and other social factors influence popular conceptions of mental health.
Overall, the prevalence rates of most mental health disorders are almost identical
for men and women; however, gender differences occur in the rates of the most
common mental disorders, particularly depression, anxiety, and somatic complaints,
which are more prevalent in women. Socially constructed differences between men
and women regarding role responsibilities, status, and power interact with
biological differences, creating variations in mental health problems,
help-seeking behavior, and the response of the mental health community.

The Double Standard

In 1970, Inge Broverman and her colleagues used an adjective checklist to
demonstrate that clinicians defined characteristics of mental health differently
based on the sex of the person being described. Mental health professionals were
asked to describe the characteristics of a healthy, mature, and socially competent
man, woman, or "adult person." A normal, healthy adult of unspecified gender was
described with similar adjectives as a healthy man, with adjectives such as
independent, adventurous, objective, and decisive. By contrast, a normal, healthy
woman was described as noncompetitive, passive, emotional, and
dependent—adjectives that the mental health professionals more readily ascribed to
"unhealthy" individuals.

These descriptions of mature, competent men and women revealed a double
standard concerning mental health. Stereotypical male behavior was shown to serve
as the norm to identify good mental health overall; however, many of the
characteristics viewed as positive in terms of mental health in general were seen
by these professionals as being negative in women. Consequently, if women
demonstrated the characteristics that these mental health professionals attributed
to healthy and socially competent women, they would be labeled abnormal (having
masculine traits). This study demonstrated that the behaviors and characteristics
judged by clinicians to reflect an ideal standard of mental health resembled the
characteristics and behaviors deemed to be healthy for men but not for women.
Broverman and her colleagues pioneered the study of sex role stereotypes and their
impact on mental health services for both men and women.

Diagnoses and Distribution Patterns

Research shows that some of the most common mental health disorders (such as
depression, anxiety, and anorexia
nervosa) are more prevalent in women. On the other hand,
mental health problems such as alcohol addiction, substance
abuse, and antisocial personality disorder are
more common in men. Other disorders that affect less than 2 percent of the world's
population (such as schizophrenia and borderline personality
disorder) are equally prevalent in both genders. Multiple
diagnoses, especially the presence of three or more conditions, are more common in
women than in men.

The rates of depression in surveys of both clinical patients and the general
population are higher in women than in men. More than twice as many women as men
report a major depressive
episode in any given year. The gender disparity in rates of depression
is one of the strongest findings in epidemiological psychiatry. Depression
persists longer in women, and women are more likely to relapse than men.

Depression rates vary by country. According to the World Health Organization,
depression is the leading cause of disease burden for women worldwide. Depressive
disorders account for approximately 41 percent of the disability from
neuropsychiatric disorders among women compared to 29 percent among men.
Furthermore, postpartum depression affects 10 to 15 percent of mothers
worldwide, presenting a significant public health problem for women and their
families. However, clinicians are more likely to diagnose women with depression
than men, even when men have similar scores on standardized measures of depression
or present identical symptoms, indicating an ongoing gender bias in the assessment
of mental health disorders.

Anxiety diagnoses, including panic disorder, posttraumatic stress
disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and
phobias, are nearly twice as common among women than men.
The National Comorbidity Survey Replication surveyed the general population of the
United States and found that 23 percent of women reported suffering from an
anxiety disorder in the last twelve months compared to 14 percent of men. Social
anxiety disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder, by
contrast, are equally prevalent in men and women. Generalized anxiety disorder
affects about 6.6 percent of women and 3.6 percent of men during their lives.
Anxiety disorders are also associated with a greater illness burden in women than
in men, indicating that anxiety disorders are not only more prevalent in women but
also tend to have a more severe impact. The lifetime prevalence rate of violence
against women ranges from 16 to 50 percent worldwide, and at least one in five
women suffer sexual assault or rape in their lifetimes; the psychological impact
of experiencing physical and sexual violence is thought to contribute to the
higher rates of anxiety disorders among women. Furthermore, women are more
frequently diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder, in which mental factors such
as stress cause debilitating physical symptoms.

Eating disorders, including anorexia and bulimia, are more
prevalent in women than in men. Women are more likely to evaluate their self-worth
in terms of appearance, largely due to sociocultural expectations that highly
value women's attractiveness. Furthermore, women report higher rates of
discrimination related to being overweight or obese than men.

Men are more likely than women to drink in public, to drink alone, and to
engage in episodic binge drinking. Men are more likely to
use alcohol to manage stress and are more likely than women to become dependent on
it. Twelve-month prevalence rates of alcohol abuse are nearly three times higher
among men than women. One in five men as compared with one in twelve women develop
an alcohol problem over the course of their lives.

Furthermore, men are more likely than women to abuse drugs other than alcohol;
however, rates of prescription drug abuse are nearly identical across genders.
About twice as many men as women report illicit drug use. Additionally, men and
women continue to use drugs for different reasons: men for thrill seeking and
pleasure, and women for self-medication of abuse or trauma.

Men are more likely than women to be diagnosed with neurodevelopmental
disorders such as autism spectrum disorder, intellectual
disability, and attention-deficit hyperactivity
disorder. About four times more men than women receive
diagnoses of autism spectrum disorder. However, women with autism tend to have
more severe symptoms and greater cognitive impairment than men with autism.
Although schizophrenia affects men and women equally, clinicians identify the
onset of symptoms in men with schizophrenia earlier (late teens or early twenties)
than in women with schizophrenia (late twenties or early thirties). In contrast to
autism, schizophrenia is typically more disabling in men, and symptoms more
commonly found in men are harder to treat.

Four times as many men as women die by suicide, even
though women attempt suicide at two to three times the rate at which men do. Most
successful suicides among both men and women are related to a diagnosed mental
disorder, typically depression or substance abuse.

Treatment Disparities

Overall, women are more likely than men to seek out and make use of mental
health services. Women are more likely to disclose mental health issues to general
practitioners, while men are more likely to ignore mental problems in their early
stages and prefer to deal with mental health specialists. Women are also more
likely than men to seek psychological help, particularly regarding anxiety and
depression. After admitting mental health problems, men and women are equally
likely to accept help, but women are overrepresented in mental health
statistics.

The problem lies in men’s reluctance to admit to mental health disorders and
professionals’ frequent failure to diagnose them in men. Professionals are less
likely to perceive men’s problems as psychological. Cultural patterns of male
stoicism and a reluctance to ask for help may cause lower diagnosis and treatment
rates in men.

More women than men use outpatient care; however, men are more likely than
women to be involuntarily committed. Apparently, many men wait to seek help until
a later stage of disease, when the symptoms are more severe and hospitalization
more necessary. However, women are almost twice as likely to be prescribed
psychotropic drugs, regardless of social class, physical health status, and type
of diagnosis, and most are prescribed by a general practitioner, internist,
obstetrician, or gynecologist.

Men’s mental health symptoms tend to be more severe and difficult to treat.
Onset of many mental disorders in women occurs at older ages than in men, and
consequently women may have a better established base of social skills and
cognitive functioning, allowing them to better cope with symptoms of the disorder
than younger men with the same diagnosis.

Explanations for Variations

Gender differences in patterns of diagnosis and treatment of mental illnesses
have been studied since at least the 1970s. Explanations for these differences
have been both biological and social.

Many scientists suggest that biology and reproductive functions may account for
gender differences in mental health. Different levels of hormones between men and
women are related to some diagnoses. Scientists know that estrogen reacts with
serotonin, a neurotransmitter associated with mood, and some studies suggest
estrogen may protect against schizophrenia. Biological reactions to stress in
general, and specifically biological changes associated with motherhood, help
explain higher levels of depression and anxiety in women. Though biological
factors, especially hormones, play a role in mental health, social class, cultural
values, and family relationships also significantly affect mental health.

Psychosocial theorists point to the fact that girls experience greater levels
of violence than boys do and that their responses to this violence lead to higher
rates of mental disorders in adult women. Child abuse creates long-term changes in
brain circuitry and thus increases the likelihood of anxiety disorders. Rates of
depression in adult women are three to four times higher for women exposed to
childhood violence than for those without this exposure. A particularly strong
connection between sexual abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been
established. The severity of and length of exposure to violence is positively
correlated with being diagnosed with a mental illness.

Sociocultural explanations focus on the dominance of a masculine model of
mental health. Definitions of normality are often based on culturally determined
gender roles. A social constructionist explanation of mental health differences by
gender focuses on how conceptions of proper male and female behavior and
characteristics are embedded into diagnostic categories of mental disorders.

Gender Stereotyping

Early socialization of children into gender-appropriate behavior may teach
girls to internalize distress and boys to act out. Consequently, when subjected to
stressors, women tend to experience depression and anxiety as internal responses,
whereas men tend to take more external action by abusing substances, engaging in
antisocial behavior, and committing suicide.

Worldwide, women’s social roles and positions in society may make them more
vulnerable than men to mental health disorders. Traditional gender roles for women
offer fewer personal choices and lower life satisfaction. Positive psychological
health is linked to a greater number and increased diversity of social roles. A
variety of roles gives an individual a stronger sense of identity, leading to
fewer mental health problems.

Furthermore, gender affects control of socioeconomic determinants of mental
health. Women’s greater exposure to poverty, combined with low social standing,
job insecurity, and housing uncertainties, leads to more chronic stressors and
increases the severity of mental health problems. Depression, anxiety, and somatic
symptoms are highly related to social status and responsibility for the care of
others.

The relationship between mental health and gender is complicated by issues of
class, age, race, and ethnicity. Gender differences in mental health have been
examined more in industrialized countries than in less developed countries, and
adult women and men have been studied more than children and adolescents. Although
the rates of most mental disorder diagnoses are similar for men and women, there
are definite patterns regarding the types of problems men and women experience.
Future research needs to consider gender discrepancies in more detail, and
professionals need to consider gender disparities in planning, implementing, and
evaluating mental health programs. Mental health professionals must be aware of
gender stereotypes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders, as these
stereotypes can present a significant barrier to the accurate identification and
treatment of psychological disorders in both men and women.

Bibliography

Fine, Cordelia. Delusions of
Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create
Difference. New York: Norton, 2010. Print.

Freeman, Daniel, and Jason Freeman.
The Stressed Sex: Uncovering the Truth about Men, Women, and
Mental Health. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2013. Print.

Maclean, Alice, Kate Hunt, and Helen
Sweeting. “Symptoms of Mental Health Problems: Children’s and Adolescents’
Understandings and Implications for Gender Differences in Help Seeking.”
Children and Society 27.3 (2013): 161–73. Print.

McGeown, Sarah. Psychology of
Gender Differences. New York: Nova Science, 2012.
Print.

Narrow, William D.,
et al., eds. Age and Gender Considerations in Psychiatric
Diagnosis. Arlington: American Psychiatric Association, 2007.
Print.

National Institute
of Mental Health. “The Numbers Count: Mental Disorders in America.”
Washington: Author, 2007. Print.

Nydegger, Rudy.
“Gender and Mental Health: Incidence and Treatment Issues.” The
Psychology of Gender. Ed. Michele A. Paludi. Westport: Praeger,
2004. Print.

Prior, Pauline M.
Gender and Mental Health. New York: New York UP, 1999.
Print.

Sachs-Ericsson,
Natalie. “Gender, Social Roles, and Mental Health: An Epidemiological
Perspective.” Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 43.9/10
(2000): 605–28. Print.

What image is presented of wealthy women when Daisy crumbles under the pressure from her husband?

In this episode we see Daisy coming to the painful realization that there is a flaw in her grand and self-exonerating belief that she can have everything she wants (and deserves it all too). Her crisis comes when she is made to face the fact that she cannot live two lives. No amount of privilege can afford that. 

This scene can be argued to demonstrate Daisy’s hope to “have it all” as a privileged person capable of attaining true love in her affair with Gatsby without any real cost to her marriage and her sense of self. We can certainly see her trying to find a way to hang on to some sense of what was good about her marriage while pursuing a love affair with Gatsby too. 

Importantly, we also see that as much as Daisy desires to “have it all,” her capacity to undo the past and believe in a new and perfect romance is not as strong as Gatsby’s. Daisy’s belief that you can change or re-live the past falters when Gatsby puts that belief to the test in this scene.

Forced to choose between her husband and her lover, Daisy tries to find some middle ground and maintain a compromise. Ultimately, she must take a side because neither Tom nor Gatsby is willing to compromise or relent. Yet, in choosing Tom, Daisy is making a positive choice about her life and her personal history. She is not necessarily giving in to anyone, but instead choosing herself by refusing to disavow the importance of years of her life.

So we can see Daisy being pushed and pulled between Gatsby and Tom in Chapter VII, but there is reason to question whether or not she crumbles or demonstrates a weakness of will, of character or of morale in this episode.

Both Tom and Gatsby make demands on Daisy in this scene. Gatsby shows that his romantic vision with Daisy at the center is an absolute one. He is bent on erasing the past in order to claim (or reclaim) a sort of visionary perfection. This is one way to explain why he insists that Daisy disavow her marriage, not only in the present moment of crisis, but in its entirety.

“’Daisy, that’s all over now.’ He said earnestly. “It doesn’t matter any more. Just tell him the truth -- that you never loved him -- and it’s all wiped out forever.’”

Daisy does cave in to this demand, but only momentarily. Soon she attempts to compromise.

“’I love you now - - isn’t that enough? I can’t help what’s past.’ She began to sob helplessly. ‘I did love him once -- but I loved you too.’”

Prior to this climactic confrontation involving Tom, Daisy and Gatsby, we have already encountered Gatsby’s remarkable belief that the past can be erased and even replaced. He makes his view very clear in an exchange with Nick.

“You can’t repeat the past.”

“Can’t repeat the past?” he cried incredulously. “Why of course you can!”

When Daisy fails to meet Gatsby on the rarefied plane of idealistic romantic philosophy, she is also asserting a connection to her past. She is unwilling or unable to agree that her past does not matter or does not count for anything. If Daisy is a seemingly uncaring mother, she still cares enough to say that there is meaning in having a child and being married to Tom. She cannot agree to her past being "wiped out forever."

In looking at this episode as evidence of Daisy crumbling, we should note the fact that there are two options posed to her. (The only way for her not to acquiesce to either Tom or Gatsby would be to choose to leave them both.) In yielding to Tom, Daisy is not necessarily crumbling but she is finally admitting that she cannot have her cake and eat it too. She cannot live a dream with Gatsby and stay connected to the reality that is married life with Tom. Her privilege only extends so far.

In this scene then, if we see Daisy as an exemplar of the wealthy woman, we might reasonably argue that despite her apparent shallowness and materialism, Daisy has a moral center that anchors her to a basic sense that her life is important. Wealth is not truly accountable for Gatsby’s ability to erase the past and to pursue the impossible. If wealth were the true agent for that ability, Daisy would leave Tom and marry Gatsby.

A fundamental fear of meaninglessness may keep Daisy attached to her husband, which is just another way to say that this wealthy woman wants the same things that everyone else wants. No amount of money can insulate her from a reliance on a coherent sense of identity. Only the rare dreamer, like Gatsby, can go beyond that reliance and clutch an impossible vision.

To return again to the specific question here, we might see Daisy in this episode coming to a realization about the limits of what she can possess. She cannot have her past and also wipe it out. She cannot have a life with both Tom and Gatsby. Broken off from Gatsby and his dream, she does shrink back into herself, but how should we see that shrinking? Is Daisy recognizing a smallness to her moral being? Is she hurting now because her relationship with Gatsby has come to an end and the vitality of that love affair is taken away? Is she discovering the same isolation and bitterness that she demonstrates when we meet her in the novel? And to what extent are any of these possibilities attributable to the men in her life? 

In 1984, does the reader understand why the party does what it does?

In 1984 the reader easily understands why the Party acts as it does.

The motivations for the Party's actions are not entirely clear from page one, but more astute readers may be able to decern the psychological ramifications of certain Party doctrines. Concepts introduced early on in 1984, such as the thought police and the constant monitoring of all Party members, are easily seen to be instruments the Party uses to control its constituents. It can be extrapolated that even if Party members are not always monitored, they will surely be frightened into good behavior at all times under threat of being taken to the Ministry of Love. 

However, later on in this novel, there is a much more definite outline of the Party's motives and goals. In chapter nine of part two, the reader is able to see the word for word content held within Goldstein's book. Entitled The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism the reader is given two of the book's chapters, each speaking in-depth about the Party's doctrine and goals. As Winston reads along we see chapter one titled "Ignorance is Strength" and chapter three "War is Peace"; the names of said chapters obviously correspond to parts of the Party's full slogan as seen below. 

War is peace.

Freedom is slavery.

Ignorance is strength.

Further on in 1984 O'Brien also answers many of Winston's questions about the Party and what it truly seeks to achieve. 

As well, some editions of 1984 have an appendix called "The Principles of Newspeak" wherein there is greater clarity given to why Newspeak is needed. It may seem pointless to read an appendix, and I know some students chose to skip over the portions we are given of Goldstein's book, but they do shine quite a bit of light on the Party's plans and intentions -- I strongly recommend that students try to muddle through at least Goldstein's book. 

In this book, the author talks about how eating meat affects the world's environment globally. I don't get why eating meat is harmful to the...

As you have not mentioned the title of a specific book, I'll focus this answer on the evidence for the ways in which eating meat affects the environment. The evidence is overwhelming that carnivorous diets have a greater negative environmental impact than vegetarian ones.

The first way in which meat consumption has a negative impact on the environment has to do with what agriculture professionals term feed conversion. This is the amount of plant food needed to produce a pound of human food:

• Eating plants: if you eat 1 pound of plant food, you get the full caloric content of the one pound of plant food.


• Chicken: A chicken needs to consume 2 pounds of plant food to create one pound of meat. 


• Pork: A pig eats 3.5 pounds of plant feed to produce one pound of meat.


• Beef: Cattle need to consume 6 pounds of plant material to make 1 pound of meat.

What this means is that it is much more efficient to eat plants yourself rather than to have an animal eat plants and then to eat the animal. All the environmental impacts of farming, including use of water, fertilizer, and fuel for farm equipment, are multiplied by a factor of two to six in a meat-based diet.

Next is the problem of methane. Cattle, because of the nature of their stomachs, produce methane gas (i.e. flatulence) as they digest food. Methane is a major greenhouse gas contributing to global climate change. A cow contributes as much in the way of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere in a year as a car burning 325 gallons of gasoline. 

In certain types of mixed use farms, chickens can have minimal environmental impact, as well-managed egg production can be quite environmentally efficient, especially when it is part of a small mixed farm which grows a variety of produce and has free range chickens consuming insects and leftovers. Eating hens too old to lay eggs or extra roosters in that case is not environmentally harmful. 

What are the responsibilities of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government?

The primary purposes of a government are to create laws, enforce laws, apply laws to the citizens, and protect the citizens. In some forms of government, all of these functions are subsumed under a single branch of government. Other forms of government have multiple branches of government that divide up these functions. Many current governments divide these functions into three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. 

The legislative branch's role is to create the laws. In some systems the legislature can self-enact laws whereas in others the executive branch must approve and enact the laws. The legislative branch is often charged with providing for the sustainability of the political entity through creating laws to raise revenue and budgeting that revenue. 

The executive branch is responsible for enforcing the laws and for protecting the citizens of the political entity from external and internal threats. Typically, the executive branch does not create laws, although it may be able to create regulations for how laws will be enforced as well as set priorities for the enforcement of the laws. The executive branch also collects and administers the revenue of the political entity. 

The judicial branch is tasked with applying the law to the citizens of the political entity. The judicial branch may also determines the penalty for violations of the law if those penalties are not specifically manifest in the laws themselves. In some systems the judicial branch may interpret the meaning and application of the laws whereas in others the judicial branch may be limited to applying the law to individual situations. Finally, the judicial branch may have the power to review, and even overturn, the laws passed by the legislative branch and the regulations and actions of the executive branch. 

How did the Stevenses act towards the Worthens in Lyddie?How was Lyddie's relation with them different from her mother's?

Lyddie's mother does not like the Stevens family because they are Quakers, but they are good neighbors.

The Stevens family is neighborly to the Worthens, even though Lyddie’s mother wants to avoid the Stevenses because they are Quakers.  They let Lyddie breed her cow to their bull.  When Lyddie comes back to sell the calf, Mr. Stevens is upset that he did not realize that the children were there alone.  He would have helped them if he knew. 

Charlie, in fact, wanted Lyddie to ask for help, even if their mother would not approve.  She left the two of them there on their own. 

He glanced about to make sure his mother wasn't in hearing distance. "You mustn't be afraid to go down and ask the Quaker Stevens for help, Lyddie. They mean to be good neighbors to us, no matter what Mama says." (Ch. 1) 

Their mother was strictly religious and thought the Quakers were strange.  She did not approve of their religion, and therefore avoided them.  It was not uncommon for people to discriminate against Quakers because they acted, dressed, and worshiped differently.

Lyddie used the cow because she needed to, but she did not want to be beholden to anyone.  She was able to sell the calf back to Mr. Stevens, who agreed because he knew the children were desperate.  He even invited the children in for lunch. 

He invited them in to complete their business transaction and, before they were done, they found themselves eating a hearty noon dinner with the family. (Ch. 2) 

The incident with the Stevens farm shows how independent Lyddie is.  She wants to be able to do things on her own.  She is forward thinking, breeding the cow so there is a calf and milk and dairy products.  Her mother is not right in the head, and never thinks about any of it.

Quaker Stevens buys the farm, and his son Luke Stevens even asks Lyddie to marry him. She does not accept, again wanting to be independent.  She also barely knows him.

From Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven," is the Raven a bad person or a good person?

One way to interpret characters in poetry is to analyze them both with a literal eye as well as a figurative one. In Poe's "The Raven," a man sits grieving in his chamber over his lost love, Lenore. The man is literally just a man who is grieving, but figuratively, he could represent anyone who has lost a loved one. In the same way, the raven is literally a bird who accidentally flies into the man's room. Figuratively, though, ravens have been messengers of truth in other tales, such as the Grimm's Fairy Tales. However, in the world of Poe, where insanity and darkness thrive on the peculiar, the raven might represent the man's subconscious truth telling him to accept the fact that Lenore is gone and to stop wallowing in grief. Therefore, the raven is neither good nor bad; nor is he a person, but a raven, who symbolically attempts to reason with a desperate and grieving man to accept his loss. If a person must be selected to be the antecedent of the raven, then it would be the man's true consciousness striving to make him understand reality, accept the truth, and let go of his grief. 

What are two industrial uses of distillation?

Distillation is the process of separating out chemicals from a mixture by using their different boiling points, specific gravities, and other properties. Industrial usages would normally be centered around taking an impure/mixed sample from a natural source and sorting it into its components to have pure materials. 

One example would be taking mixtures of gasses and separating out individual elements to use for chemical and industrial uses. By distilling regular air, companies can gather pure forms of oxygen, nitrogen, and other gasses. These can then be used to form new mixtures like ammonia from nitrogen, or use gasses for manufacturing purposes, like oxygen being burned in a welding business. 

Distillation is also the method used to separate crude oil into different hydrocarbons. Crude oil is actually made of several different gasses and oils that, once separated out, can be used in a wide range of applications. Diesel fuel for example has a different weight from jet fuel however both come form crude oil. Methane, propane, and other natural gasses are let off from crude oil and can be harvested along with heavier hydrocarbons used to make plastics and medicines. 

In the book The Mosquito Coast, what is the relationship between Allie Fox and his son Charlie Fox? How does it change throughout the book?

In Paul Theroux's The Mosquito Coast, characters face constant physical and psychological challenges and yet rather than grow from these experiences, they progressively devolve into smaller, more helpless versions of themselves.

Charlie Fox (the book's narrator) and his family are uprooted from where they live in small town Massachusetts to a remote area in Honduras by their father, the increasingly mad Allie Fox. Allie detests American culture and strongly believes that if man possesses a strong work ethic, man has no need for God; he can just depend on himself to achieve whatever he desires. Charlie wholeheartedly believes his father's rantings, even accepting the lie that America is in demise.

In Honduras, Allie creates a new Do-It-Yourself lifestyle for his family. However, in his struggle to preserve this lifestyle and enact the unbendable rules of his own making, Allie becomes increasingly mad to the point of physically and psychologically tormenting the family. In one example, he forces Charlie to sit on a boulder until the tide washes in to make Charlie prove his loyalty to him.

Charlie's view of his father changes throughout the book as he quickly realizes that Allie is far from the perfect self-made man he has claimed to be. After encountering a group of missionaries and learning that America is still intact and thriving, Charlie comes to abhor his father. He and his brother, Jerry, consider killing him. Charlie's relationship with Allie changes in that he become less and less fearful of him, turning the respect and devotion he once had for him into hatred.