In Brave New World, what does the question, "have we become a trivial culture preoccupied with entertainment" mean?

In Brave New World, the Controller has made a conscious decision to give people what he calls happiness rather than to permit them to experience their full humanity, which would involve allowing the experience of negative emotions and suffering. Conformity is more important than individualism, and, in fact, individualism is treated as a problem. People are conditioned to want to consume as many goods as possible to keep the factories and the economy going strong. What this leads to is a trivial culture preoccupied with entertainment. A trivial culture focuses on the trivial or unimportant aspects of life, such as buying a new green plastic belt or going to a mindless love drama. This is what people care about in the novel. They are preoccupied with entertainment, meaning that what matters most to them is staying amused. When they are not working, people want, for example, to be playing complicated games with lots of equipment, attending an orgy or taking soma. They want to be entertained, which means letting someone else do the thinking while they enjoy shallow, escapist pleasures that don't inspire them to think about the harder questions of life. Some would say our own culture has the same problem, more preoccupied with celebrities and mindless entertainment (cat videos) than tackling the bigger problems that face us or thinking about issues of substance or meaning.

List some important facts about the Monroe Doctrine.

President James Monroe, in an effort to stop the interference of European powers in the affairs of the Americas, proclaimed that any further incursion by those countries would be considered aggression against the United States.

‘The American continents … are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers.’ --Monroe Doctrine, 1823

Here are some important facts about the Monroe Doctrine.

• Monroe first presented the doctrine to Congress in his yearly address to Congress in 1823.


• The policy was not necessarily meant to endure, but was rather something that Monroe thought needed to be addressed during his presidency.


• John Tyler was the first to invoke the Monroe Doctrine in the annexation of Texas.


• The Monroe Doctrine was used in 1865 when the United States interfered in Mexico by supporting Benito Juárez.


• Not surprisingly, Teddy Roosevelt was a fierce advocate of the Monroe Doctrine.  He sent troops to a variety of Caribbean countries to stop European countries from using force to collect debts.


• Latin American countries view the use of the Monroe Doctrine by the United States as imperialism and a significant threat to their sovereignty.


• John Quincy Adams, serving as the Secretary of State, was instrumental in the language of the declaration.


• The British wanted to be partners with the United States as spheres of influence in the Americas.  Monroe's cabinet convinced him that the United States should go at it alone or risk being seen as Britain's little brother.  


• Since World War II, the United States, when interfering in the affairs of sovereign Latin American nations has attempted to make it appear that it is acting in the best interests of all of the countries in the region.  


• In the 1980's, over a century and a half after the doctrine was delivered, President Ronald Reagan invoked it in an effort to stop communist influences in Latin America.

That should provide you with a good understanding of what the Monroe Doctrine is and how it has been used by generations of foreign policy makers in the United States.  Further information can be found in the links that I have provided.

Shakespeare uses three distinctly different writing styles for his three groups. How do the groups differ in sound, word, and verse usage?

The rude mechanicals who put on a play speak in prose, a more casual style which is often used for commoners. These actors are supposedly plain people who speak in a simple and naturalistic manner. Prose can also be used to great effect in comedy because it is not restricted by rhythm. The lower class characters eventually perform Pyramus and Thisbe in verse. The play's poetry is predictable in rhyme and content (“Asleep, my love? / What, dead, my dove?”), making the play hilariously bad.

The upper class mortals usually speak in verse. Their language is less natural and more formal in presentation and uses similes and metaphors. For example, Egeus says, “Full of vexation come I, with complaint / Against my child, my daughter Hermia,” rather than more simply saying, “I come with complaint against my daughter Hermia.” Duke Theseus begins the play by waxing poetic about the moon and his impending wedding:

… O, methinks, how slow
This old moon wanes! she lingers my desires,
Like to a step-dame or a dowager
Long withering out a young man’s revenue.

The fairies also speak in verse, but theirs generally rhymes more and sounds more singsongy. They also actually sing numerous times. The shorter lines and different rhythms create a sense of mischief and magic. When Oberon puts love potion in Titania’s eyes, he chants a kind of spell:

What thou seest when thou dost wake,
Do it for thy true-love take,
Love and languish for his sake:
Be it ounce, or cat, or bear,
Pard, or boar with bristled hair,
In thy eye that shall appear
When thou wakest, it is thy dear:
Wake when some vile thing is near.

It is worth noting that the fairy royals Oberon and Titania speak more like the mortal rulers Theseus and Hippolyta, though the sprites use more nature references since they are of nature and not civilization. These distinct speaking styles help differentiate the three storylines and add texture to the characters, scenes, and metaphors.

What are gonads, and how do they affect behavior?

Introduction

The gonads are endocrine glands that secrete sex hormones in all mammalian species. In males, the gonads are the testes, which secrete sex hormones called androgens; in the female, the gonads are the ovaries, which secrete estradiol and progesterone. These sex hormones, which are released into the bloodstream, have effects on the formation of both internal and external reproductive organs during prenatal development; later, they have important behavioral effects, particularly in the expression of sexual behaviors. They are also implicated in maternal and aggressive behaviors.

Prenatal Development

In the prenatal period, as the embryo is developing, the gonads are the first sex organs to differentiate into male and female organs. Prior to the seventh week of human gestation, the gonads are identical for the two sexes. If the embryo is genetically male, the gonads differentiate into male testes at the seventh or eighth week of development. If the embryo is female, the gonads differentiate into ovaries at around the tenth or eleventh week. This differentiation is controlled by a protein called the sex-determining region Y (SRY) protein, which is encoded by a gene on the Y chromosome known as the SRY gene. When the SRY protein is present, it will stimulate the formation of testes. If it is absent, ovaries will automatically develop several weeks later.

Once the sexual differentiation of the gonads has occurred, a sequence of events takes place that will determine the sexual dimorphism of both the internal and the external reproductive organs, and therefore the sex of the individual. This is known as the organizational effect of the gonads. If the gonads have differentiated into testes, the testes will begin to secrete androgens, primarily testosterone, which have a masculinizing effect and cause the development of internal male structures such as the prostate, the vas deferens, and the epididymis. If there is an absence of androgens, the female uterus, fallopian tubes, and inner two-thirds of the vagina will develop instead. A genetic disorder called Turner syndrome illustrates how the absence of androgens results in the development of female structures. In this disorder, the individual has only one X chromosome, which prevents the development of functioning ovaries, and no Y chromosome, which precludes the secretion of androgens; in their absence, the individual’s other internal female sexual organs develop normally.

The external or visible genitalia develop in much the same way, governed by the presence or absence of androgens. The embryos of both sexes begin with undifferentiated genitals that are capable of becoming characteristically male or female, depending on androgen exposure. If there is androgen exposure, the primordial phallus will differentiate into the glans or head of the penis, the genital swelling will become the scrotum (into which the testes will eventually descend from the abdominal cavity), and the genital tubercle will differentiate into the shaft or main body of the penis. If there is no androgen exposure, then the primordial phallus will become the clitoris, the genital swelling will become the labia majora, and the genital tubercle will become the labia minora and the outer one-third of the vagina. Again, regardless of the genetic sex of the embryo, the absence of stimulation of primordial genital tissue by androgens will result in female structures. The presence of androgens is required for masculine development. In the example of Turner syndrome, the external genitalia are those of a normal female even though she lacks ovaries.

Puberty

At birth, the infant has his or her primary sex characteristics: testes or ovaries and both internal and external sexual organs characteristic of males or females. It is not until puberty that an individual’s gonadal hormones begin to determine further development. Puberty begins with the secretion of hormones by the hypothalamus and the pituitary, located in the brain; the hormones travel via the bloodstream to the testes or ovaries, causing the production of the gonadal hormones that will direct the development of sexual maturation and the emergence of secondary sexual characteristics. The ovaries begin to produce estradiol, while the testes secrete testosterone. Estradiol causes enlargement of the breasts, growth in the lining of the uterus, widening of the hips, changes in the deposition of fat, and maturation of the female genitalia. Testosterone is responsible for growth of facial hair, deepening of the voice, masculine muscular development, and growth of the male genitalia.

Estradiol secretion in the female is also responsible for the onset of the first menstrual cycle. The cycle begins when an ovarian follicle is stimulated by hormones from the pituitary and thereby matures. It then secretes estradiol, which causes growth in the lining of the uterus in preparation for implantation of a fertilized ovum. It also causes ovulation, in which the follicle ruptures, releasing an ovum. During the second half of the cycle, the follicle itself becomes the corpus luteum, which produces both estradiol and progesterone. The latter hormone is responsible for maintaining the lining of the uterus during pregnancy. If the ovum is not fertilized, the production of both estradiol and progesterone decreases and the uterine lining is sloughed off in menstruation.

Role in Sexual Behavior

The influence of gonadal hormones has been studied in relation to the activation of sexual, maternal, and aggressive behaviors. The effects of gonadal hormones on behavior can be subdivided into organizational and activational influences, with the former occurring during prenatal development and the latter occurring after puberty.

Psychologists have studied the ways in which prenatal exposure or insensitivity to androgens organizes sexual behavior. In adrenogenital syndrome, the adrenal glands secrete unusually high levels of androgens, to which the developing embryo is exposed. If the embryo is male, normal development will occur. If the embryo is female, masculinization will occur, with enlargement of the clitoris and possibly fused labia. Researchers at the Johns Hopkins University studied thirty young women with adrenogenital syndrome to determine whether androgenization (exposure of the developing embryo to male sex hormones) affected their sexual orientation. The women described themselves as homosexual or bisexual at approximately four times the rate that occurs naturally in random populations of women. This hints that exposure of the developing female fetus to androgens may affect sexual orientation, possibly by altering the organization of the brain in ways that are not yet understood. A similar finding has occurred in primate research. When androgens were injected into monkeys pregnant with female fetuses, these androgenized infants became significantly different from their nonandrogenized peers in displaying more malelike behaviors, such as engaging in attempted mountings of other females.

Androgen insensitivity syndrome prevents male fetuses from being androgenized properly. These genetically male individuals will develop female genitalia and, if reared as females, will easily assume female sexual identities and overwhelmingly prefer male sexual partners. There is some possibility, then, that prenatal androgenization encourages a preference for female sexual partners, while lack of such exposure results in a preference for male sexual partners, regardless of genetic sex. It should be remembered, however, that this remains quite speculative, and conclusive research has not yet been conducted.

The activational effects of gonadal hormones on adult sexual behavior have also been of interest to psychologists. While estradiol and progesterone strongly influence the sexual behaviors of lower animals, these hormones do not seem to influence human female sexual behavior. For example, while both estrogen and progesterone levels fluctuate considerably over the menstrual cycle, women can become aroused at any time in the cycle and are not more easily aroused when these hormones are especially high or low. Further, when a woman’s ovaries are surgically removed or cease to produce hormones after menopause, sexual activity and interest are not affected.

There is some evidence that androgens, either present in small amounts secreted by the adrenal glands or ingested in the form of synthetic male hormones, will cause greater sexual desire in females and more frequent instigation of sexual activity but will have no effect on an already-established sexual orientation. The influence of androgens on male animals is direct: All male mammals respond to the presence of testosterone with increased sexual desire. Without testosterone, sperm production and copulatory ability cease.

Role in Aggressive Behavior

Much aggressive behavior among animals takes place within the context of reproductive behavior. It comes as no surprise, then, that aggressive behaviors in both sexes are also strongly influenced by gonadal hormones, particularly androgens. Male offensive attacks and competitive behaviors, as well as interfemale aggressiveness and maternal aggression, are increased by exposure to androgens in most mammals.

One of the most stable behavioral differences between males and females is aggression; males display higher levels of aggression at all ages and in all forms. Because this sex difference has been observed in toddlers, before strong socialization influences have had their impact, it is speculated that prenatal exposure to androgens is partly responsible for these behavioral differences. This same relationship holds for all other mammalian species: the greater the prenatal androgenization, the more aggressive the subsequent behavior.

The relationship between aggressive behavior and testosterone levels has been studied in a variety of ways. One avenue of research has been to examine the testosterone levels of males who display different levels of aggressive behavior. For example, the testosterone levels of male prisoners with histories of violent crime have been compared with the frequency of their violent behavior while incarcerated. No relationship between the androgen levels and current aggressive expression has been found; however, androgen levels have been positively correlated with the frequency of these prisoners’ aggressive behaviors in adolescence. Perhaps by adulthood, learning had intervened to modulate this relationship, with some high-testosterone males able to exert control over their aggressive impulses while some men with lower testosterone levels have learned to vent their aggressiveness.

Maternal Behavior and Gender Identity

With regard to the effects of gonadal hormones on maternal behavior, the findings are clear in most lower animals. In laboratory rats, for example, sequences of progesterone followed by estradiol will facilitate nest-building behaviors. No such relationship, however, seems to hold for humans. It seems that maternal behavior is determined largely by learning and by an early bonding between mother and infant and that caretaking behaviors are not influenced by hormonal activation.

Research concerning the effects of gonadal hormones on behavior is one of the many avenues of investigation into the development of gender identity, an individual’s sense of being a man or a woman. There are many determinants of such identity: one’s genetic makeup, prenatal sex hormone exposure, one’s internal and external genitalia, the gender to which one is assigned at birth, and socialization—learning about culturally appropriate gender behaviors through interaction with parents and peers. Most often, these determinants are consistent with one another, and the individual develops a clear, stable sense of gender identity. When this is not the case, such inconsistencies may lead to an individual experiencing gender dysphoria.

Research Directions

Future research concerning gonadal hormones will continue in two major directions: the effects of gonadal hormones on the sexual differentiation of the brain and the interaction between sex hormones and adult sexual behaviors. Most research on sexual differentiation of the brain has been conducted with nonhuman species. For example, it has been found that testosterone “masculinizes” the brains of birds to produce typical male birdsong and produces male or female sexual behaviors in laboratory animals. The way in which this masculinization occurs is somewhat paradoxical: Inside the brain of the male embryo, testosterone is converted to estrogen, the hormone that actually produces the masculinization. In females, on the other hand, a protein exists in the neurons of the brain that prevents estrogen from effecting such masculinization.

In humans, it is known that the absence of prenatal androgen exposure sets the brain in a female pattern, which causes the pituitary to function in a cyclical manner, thus creating the menstrual cycle. Some interesting initial research with humans suggests that as a result of prenatal hormone exposure, there is greater lateralization of male brains than of female brains. Therefore, there is more specialization of the two cerebral hemispheres in males and more crossover of functions across the two hemispheres in females. This observation remains speculative and will be subject to considerable scrutiny.

Research interest will continue to be directed toward discovering the role of gonadal hormones in adult sexual behavior. More recent areas of study concern the question of prenatal hormonal determinants of sexual orientation. Studies will also continue to be focused on the question of sexual motivation in general to determine the levels and kinds of sex hormones that either enhance or depress sexual interest.

Bibliography

Beyer, Carlos, ed. Endocrine Control of Sexual Behavior. New York: Raven, 1979. Print.

Blakemore, Judith E. Owen, Sheri A. Berenbaum, and Lynn S. Liben. Gender Development. New York: Psychology, 2008. Print.

Constantinescu, Mihaela, and Melissa Hines. "Relating Prenatal Testosterone Exposure to Postnatal Behavior in Typically Developing Children: Methods and Findings." Child Development Perspectives 6.4 (2012): 407–13. Print.

Drickamer, Lee C., Stephen H. Vessey, and Elizabeth Jakob. Animal Behavior: Mechanisms, Ecology, Evolution. 5th ed. New York: McGraw, 2002. Print.

Graham, Robert B. Physiological Psychology. Belmont: Wadsworth, 1990. Print.

Money, John, and Anke A. Ehrhardt. Man and Woman, Boy and Girl. 1972. Northvale: Aronson, 1996. Print.

Unger, Rhoda K. Female and Male: Psychological Perspectives. New York: Harper, 1979. Print.

Visvanathan, Nalini, et al., eds. The Women, Gender and Development Reader. 2nd ed. New York: Zed, 2011. Print.

Zambrano, Elena, et al. "Fetal Programming of Sexual Development and Reproductive Function." Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 382.1 (2014): 538–49. Print.

What was the "Boo Radley" game?

The Boo Radley game is one played by Jem, Scout, and Dill throughout the first part of the book. They create the game to keep themselves occupied during their long summer breaks from school. It is called the Boo Radley game because they constantly come up with stories about the Radley family and act them out.

The main star of these games is always Boo, who is usually portrayed as scary, crazy, and even homicidal. The children take turns playing him and the other members of the Radley family. Their game is based on rumors the town has spread about the Radley family and the children's own stories they concoct about them.

It is important to realize that none of them have ever met Boo Radley, so everything they are portraying is completely made up. The children do not recognize that their game is actually offensive or insensitive because they don't really see the Radley family as real people. 

Which type of animals will most likely be supported in an environment that has a high temperature and rainfall year round?

"High temperature and rainfall year-round" describes the tropical rainforest biome. Tropical rainforests are recognized as supporting the largest diversity of animal life known to science, including a huge array of anthropod species, as well as many vertebrates, including small mammals, birds, and amphibians. 

In some cases, the moisture and high temperatures of the tropical rainforest have a direct influence on what types of animals live there. For instance, frogs require moist, warm conditions, and there is a high diversity of frog species in the tropics.

But the kinds of animals we observe in this biome also reflect the plant life: The abundance of leaves, fruit, and seeds means there are many ecological niches open for exploiting these foods. Thus, we see the types of animals that make their living from those plant foods.

For example, folivorous (leaf-eating) species include the larval and adult feeders of Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), Coleoptera (beetles), Hymenoptera (ants and their relatives). There are also many vertebrate folivores, like the howler monkeys of Central and South America, and various leaf-eating marsupials.

Frugivorous (fruit-eating) animals include parrots, certain monkey species (like spider monkeys in the New World tropics), and fruit bats. 

In addition, there are opportunistic omnivores, like coatis (in the New World), capuchin monkeys (in the New World) and civets (in Asia). And of course there are predators at the top of the food chain, like harpy eagles and jaguars (of the Amazonian rainforest) and tigers and leopards (in India).

What are well-baby examinations?

Indications and Procedures

A pediatrician or nurse practitioner usually performs the routine physical examination of an infant. Because the child may be frightened, some steps in the examination may be performed while the baby is being held in the parent’s lap. If the baby or child is ill, the health care provider will look for signs of dehydration and possible lethargic mental status. Dehydration is always checked in cases where fever is present. A child’s normal oral temperature is similar to an adult’s (98.6 degrees Fahrenheit). A rectal temperature will typically be 1 degree higher. It is not uncommon for a young child to have a temperature of 105 degrees with even a minor infection.

Respiration and pulse are measured. Young children and infants breathe with their diaphragm; therefore, the movements of the abdomen can be counted. Periodic breathing is common in infants. Respiratory rates for newborns are 30 to 50 respirations per minute. Toddlers average rates of 20 to 40 respirations per minute. The pulse of a newborn baby is detected best over the brachial artery. The rate is usually in the range of 120 to 160 beats per minute; this figure declines as the child grows older.

Blood pressure, length, weight, and head circumference are measured and checked against charts showing norms. Infants are weighed without clothing and are measured on a firm table. The head is measured at the maximum point of the occipital protuberance posteriorly and at the mid forehead anteriorly. The shape of the child’s head, such as flatness or swelling, is observed. Hair is checked for quantity, color, texture, and infestations. The presence of a fungus can be indicated by alopecia (hair loss), but this cause must be distinguished from trichotillomania. Hypothyroidism can be indicated by dry, coarse hair.

An eye examination can give information about systemic problems and about the eyes themselves. The eyes are observed working together; reaction to light, pupil size, cornea haziness, excess tearing, vision, visual fields, and the distance between the eyes are checked. Observations for nystagmus (involuntary movement of the eyes) and for the abnormal upward outward eye slant and epicanthal folds associated with Down syndrome are also made. Newborns have about 20/400 vision, which improves to 20/40 by six months of age.

During an ear examination, the tympanic membrane is checked for perforations, color, lucency, and bulging (indicating pus and/or fluid) in the middle ear. A rough hearing acuity may be determined by eliciting from the child a startle reflex to sound.

The nose is checked interiorly, and the nasal mucus is checked for watery discharge (indicating allergy) and mucopurulent discharge (indicating infection). The nasal septum and passages are also checked, and any foreign bodies are removed.

The oral cavity examination consists of checking the lips for asymmetry, fissures, clefts, lesions, and color. The tongue is examined for color, size, coating, and dryness. The tonsils are observed for signs of infection and color, while the palate is observed for arch and possible lesions. The throat is examined for signs of inflammation and other problems. The neck is checked for tilt and range of motion. The thyroid gland is palpitated and evaluated for symmetry, consistency, and surface characteristics. Any other swellings are noted and their causes determined.

The neurologic examination is extensive and begins with an assessment of a child’s milestones. An infant’s primitive reflexes—Moro, asymmetric tonic neck, Babinski, palmar grasp, rooting, and parachute reflexes—are checked. Cranial nerves that can be assessed at the child’s stage of development may be assessed. General sensation and response to touch and muscle tone and movement are checked for unusual responses. The musculoskeletal system and extremities are checked for gross deformities and congenital anomalies. Gait and stance are observed, as well as muscle tone and range of motion. Posture in older children may be observed for spinal curvatures.

The lungs are checked to evaluate air movement, to identify breath sounds and chest sounds, and to inspect the shape of the chest. The physician will note any physical deformities and listen to rhythms that could indicate abnormal blood circulation. Indications of circulatory system problems in infants are cyanosis, clubbing of fingers or toes, tachycardia (rapid heart rate), peripheral edema, and tachypnea (rapid breathing). Examination of the abdominal contour and auscultation and palpation of the abdomen are done. In newborns, the genitals are checked for ambiguity, and the rectal area is checked for fissures or anal prolapse. Skin is checked for color, pigmentation, rashes, or burns.

Vaccinations—either oral or by injection—and boosters are a part of some well-baby visits. Occasionally, blood or urine samples are taken for analysis.

Uses and Complications

The challenge of keeping the child calm enough for the clinician to perform a valid exam is important in the diagnostic process. Although an older child can usually be examined easily in standard adult order, this does not work well for pediatric patients. The younger the patient, the more important it is that crucially affected areas be examined first, before the child becomes upset or cries. Clinicians and parents should work together to minimize a child’s fears during the examination.

Bibliography

Albright, Elizabeth K. Pediatric History and Physical Examination. Updated and revised ed. Laguna Hills, Calif.: Current Clinical Strategies, 2003.

Barness, Lewis A. Manual of Pediatric Physical Diagnosis. 6th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby Medical, 1991.

"Children's Health." MedlinePlus, June 26, 2013.

Hay, William W., Jr., et al., eds. Current Diagnosis and Treatment in Pediatrics. 19th ed. New York: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill, 2009.

"Middle Childhood (9-11 years of age)." cdc.gov, August 15, 2012.

"Preschoolers (3-5 years of age)." cdc.gov, August 12, 2012.

Sanghavi, Darshak. A Map of the Child: A Pediatrician’s Tour of the Body. New York: Henry Holt, 2003.

Schwartz, M. William, ed. Schwartz’s Clinical Handbook of Pediatrics. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2009.

Zitelli, Basil J., and Holly W. Davis, eds. Atlas of Pediatric Physical Diagnosis. 5th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier, 2007.