What is the significance of the following passage from William Golding's The Lord of the Flies? Why is it important to the novel as a whole?"In a...

In William Golding's novel Lord of the Flies, the boys trapped on the island rapidly divide and fall into conflict. This passage illustrates not only the conflict on the island but a third perspective on the matter that taps into overarching themes of human nature.

One of the great motivators of this collapse is the fear of the Beast. The primal fear of a predator wreaks havoc on the other decisions that the boys' society depends on. This passage demonstrates the effects of this fear, what Ralph describes as a "breaking up of sanity." 

In one camp, Ralph insists that the Beast does not exist, as demonstrated through his shocked reply, "You, Simon? You believe in this?" On the other hand, Jack uses fear of the beast to elevate his position in the boys' society. 

Simon's perspective on the Beast is figurative, and Golding manipulates his character to reveal a more insidious possibility. Rather than fear an external monster, Simon looks inward and ventures the possibility that "maybe it's only us." The boys on the island fear the violence and wildness of the Beast, but their fears are motivating them toward actions of violence and untamed savagery. As such, the Beast could very well be real -- their own fears realized through their actions. 

Are men and women equal in the novel Brave New World?

Aldous Huxley's dystopian novel Brave New World projects a society in which its citizens lead dehumanizing and disempowered lives. Many issues are obvious, such as the lack of free thought, the caste system, and racism. 

At first glance, it appears that the one inequality that this society does not perpetuate is that between the sexes. Both men and women are granted access to the same sociocultural norms, including an expectation for a wide range of sexual partners, a high standard for physical beauty, and an ability to access the same leisure activities, including sports and transportation. 

However, the sexism in Brave New World is insidious and unspoken. A detail that many readers fail to notice or acknowledge in Huxley's text is in fact a detail that is missing: there are no female Alphas. No woman can hold a position in the highest caste of society. 

In Tuck Everlasting, from chapters 23-25, how is the wheel turning again?

The line of text that your question is referring to is found in chapter 25.  

The first week of August was long over. And now, though autumn was still some weeks away, there was a feeling that the year had begun its downward arc, that the wheel was turning again, slowly now, but soon to go faster, turning once more in its changeless sweep of change.

But the wheel that the text is speaking of was first introduced in the opening prologue of Tuck Everlasting.  

The first week of August hangs at the very top of summer, the top of the live-long year, like the highest seat of a Ferris wheel when it pauses in its turning.

The "wheel" is referring to a passage of time.  Specifically the passage of time from season to season.  In the book Tuck Everlasting, author Natalie Babbitt  tells readers that the first week of August is like that momentary pause at the top of a Ferris wheel.  At that point, the rider isn't moving up or down.  He/she is stuck in place for a fraction of an instant.  The reason August is like that is because summer is hanging on for a bit longer before the weather turns and fall begins to creep in.  

Most of Tuck Everlasting takes place during that first week of August.  The text tells readers that it was uncomfortably hot during that week.  Most people, when confronted with hot and humid weather don't feel like doing anything.  Motion makes it worse.  So staying as still as possible is key.  That coincides with August being like the momentarily frozen Ferris wheel.  The weather is stagnant.  The people are stagnant.  Chapter 23 really drives home those feelings.  Time seems to stand still for Winnie, because she is anxious to help Mae escape and the weather makes it even worse.  

It was the longest day: mindlessly hot, unspeakably hot, too hot to move or even think. The countryside, the village of Treegap, the wood—all lay defeated. Nothing stirred.

By chapter 25, several weeks have passed since the night of the rescue.  The hot weather has broken, fall is beginning to creep in, the seasonal wheel is beginning to move again, and Winnie is being forced to move on from the Tuck family as well.  The chapter ends with Winnie making a very physical move away from remembering the immortality that the Tuck family offered her.  She pours out the bottle of spring water and her own wheel of time keeps turning.  

In Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, are we meant to sympathize with the moneylender's daughter? Does Shakespeare seem ambivalent in his...

It is clear from the text that Shylock is an extremely protective father who zealously wishes to shield his daughter from outside influences. Since he is a deeply religious and devout man, one can assume that he wants to safeguard her from corruption, especially from Christians, whose celebrations and festivities he deems unacceptable. He despises Christians and wishes to have almost no contact with them except out of necessity, and he wants Jessica to share his sentiment. He had earlier told Bassanio in Act 1, scene 3:

...I
will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you,
walk with you, and so following, but I will not eat
with you, drink with you, nor pray with you.

Later, in Act 2, scene 5, just before he is about to leave for his 'enforced' dinner date with Bassanio and Antonio, he gives her very specific instructions:

Hear you me, Jessica:
Lock up my doors; and when you hear the drum
And the vile squealing of the wry-neck'd fife,
Clamber not you up to the casements then,
Nor thrust your head into the public street
To gaze on Christian fools with varnish'd faces,
But stop my house's ears, I mean my casements:
Let not the sound of shallow foppery enter
My sober house.

It is obvious that he wants her to lock herself up in the house and not even peep through a window to watch the festivities in the streets. He believes them a mere foolishness and clearly believes that the Christians' behaviour in this regard is immoral. The irony is pertinent, though. Jessica had been planning to elope with her Christian lover, Lorenzo, that very evening.

If one assesses Shylock's overall demeanour, he comes across as a hard taskmaster who gives no quarter, as is evident in his treatment of Antonio and his attitude towards his servant, Launcelot. Since he is also a single parent, one would expect that he would be much harsher with his daughter.

Later, when Shylock discovers that she had eloped, it becomes clear where his real sympathies lie. He curses and damns his daughter, stating that he would rather see her dead than sacrifice his precious possessions. He is quite vocal about this and states, in Act 3, scene 1:

I would my daughter
were dead at my foot, and the jewels in her ear!
would she were hearsed at my foot, and the ducats in
her coffin!

He expresses greater concern for his prized jewels than he does for his daughter so, obviously, one can sympathize with her. If her father thinks so little of his only child, why should she be loyal to him? He expresses no grief or remorse but has only malice for his own flesh and blood. He even wishes later that she had rather married a descendant of Barabbas, the thief who the Jews chose above Christ to be freed from crucifixion, instead of a Christian. He despises her for her betrayal and there is no forgiveness or sympathy in his cold heart.

Shakespeare portrays Jessica as a prodigal. She spends the money that she stole from her father freely and does not seem to care about its value or the sentiment attached to it. This seems irresponsible and vengeful. It appears that Jessica has an issue with her father and wants to punish him for perhaps having been too strict and limiting her freedom. She has, however, within these circumstances, managed to meet Lorenzo and fallen in love with him. In this sense then, Shylock must have given her some liberties that she, perhaps, exploited.

The question arises, though, knowing her father's sentiments, was it really necessary for her to betray him to such an extent? She rejected her faith and her father. The impression is created that, somehow, her hand was forced and she obviosly had no choice but follow this route to escape her father's overzealous control. In this regard, she did something good in attaining her freedom and exercising her choice.

The ambivalence which you speak of arises when one has to make a final assessment of her character. Are her actions motivated by revenge? If so, she is not much different from her father. Does she want to teach him a lesson? Once again, that is precisely Shylock's purpose with Antonio.

Jessica is otherwise painted as a loving and caring individual who truly has real affection for Lorenzo. This is contrasted with the fact that she despises her father. One has to decide which of the two aspects of her character truly defines her. In the end, one has to choose her better nature since the other is borne not out of choice, but of circumstance.  

What are kidney disorders?

Causes and Symptoms

Disorders of the kidney can occur for a variety of reasons. The cause may be congenital (present from birth) or may develop very quickly and at any age. Many of these problems and disorders can be easily treated. The main types of kidney disorder are malformations in the development of the kidney, part of the kidney, or the ureter; glomerular disease; tubular and interstitial disease or disruption; vascular (other than glomerular) disease; and kidney dysfunction that occurs secondary to another disease.

The kidney frequently exhibits congenital anomalies, some of which occur during specific developmental stages. Agenesis occurs when the ureteric bud fails to develop normally. When the tissue does not develop, the ureter itself fails to form. If there is an obstruction where the ureter joins the pelvis of the kidney, there may be massive hydronephrosis (dilation). One or both kidneys may be unusually small, containing too few tubules. The kidneys may be displaced, too high or offset to one side or the other. They may even be fused. All these conditions could seriously affect the manufacture of urine, its excretion, or both.

Glomerulonephritis refers to a diverse group of conditions that share a common feature: primary involvement of the glomerulus. The significance of glomerulonephritis is that it is the most common cause of end-stage renal failure. Its features include urinary casts, high protein levels (proteinuria), hematuria, hypertension, edema (swelling), and uremia. The two forms of glomerulonephritis are primary and secondary. In the primary form, only the kidneys are affected; in the secondary form, the lesion (affected area) is only one of a series of problems.

Nephrotic syndrome
is usually defined as an abnormal condition of the kidney characterized by the presence of proteinuria together with edema and high fat and cholesterol levels. It occurs in glomerular disease, in thrombosis of a renal vein, and as a complication of many systemic diseases. Nephrotic syndrome occurs in a severe, primary form characterized by anorexia, weakness, proteinuria, and edema.

Interstitial nephritis
is inflammation of the interstitial tissue of the kidney, including the kidneys. Acute interstitial nephritis is an immunologic, adverse reaction to certain drugs, especially nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and some antibiotics. Acute renal failure, fever, rash, and proteinuria are indicative signs of this condition. If the medication is stopped, normal kidney function returns. Chronic interstitial nephritis is defined as inflammation and structural changes associated with such conditions as ureteral obstruction, pyelonephritis, exposure of the kidney to a toxin, transplant rejection, and certain systemic diseases.

Kidney stones
(calculi) are commonly manufactured from calcium oxalate or phosphate, triple phosphate, uric acid (urate), or a mixture of these. Calcium stones are not necessarily the result of high serum calcium, although they can be. Struvite calculi of magnesium ammonium (triple) phosphate mixed with calcium are bigger but softer than other types; they grow irregularly, filling much of the kidney pelvis. They arise from infection with urea-splitting organisms that cause alkaline urine. Urate stones are a complication of gout.

Those who have a tendency to develop stones may experience concomitant infection known as pyonephrosis. Pyonephrosis is a result of not only blockage at the junction of the ureter and kidney pelvis but also any constricture at this location. Bacteria from the bloodstream collect and cause an abscess to form. If the tube is completely blocked, the inflammation produces enough pus to rupture a portion of the kidney, and more of the abdominal cavity becomes involved.

Pyelonephritis is inflammation of the upper urinary tract. Acute pyelonephritis may be preceded by lower tract infection. The patient complains of lethargy, fever, and back pain. The major symptoms are fever, renal pain, and body aches, accompanied by nausea and toxemia. Chronic pyelonephritis often affects the renal tubules and the small spaces within the kidney. Fibrous tissue may take over these areas and cause gradual shrinking of the functional kidney. The chronic form may also result from previous bacterial infection, reflux, obstruction, overuse of analgesics, x-rays, and lead poisoning.

Obstruction may be caused by inadequate development of the renal tissue itself, closing off one or both ureters. Other malformations and certain calculi can also obstruct urine flow. Reflux may occur when the contraction of the bladder forces urine backward, up toward and into the kidney. Lesser degrees of reflux do not damage the kidney, but the greater the reflux, the more likely damage will occur. Bacterial infection is often attributable to Escherichia coli, but other bowel bacteria may also infect the area. They generally move upward from outside the body through the urinary organs, but they may also move inward from the bloodstream.

Acute renal failure is defined as a sudden decline in normal renal function that leads to an increase in blood urea and creatinine. The onset may be fast (over days) or slow (over weeks) and is often reversible. It is characterized by oliguria and rapid accumulation of nitrogenous wastes in the blood, resulting in acidosis. Acute renal failure is caused by hemorrhage, trauma, burns, toxic injury to the kidney, acute pyelonephritis or glomerulonephritis, or lower urinary tract obstruction. Occasionally, it will progress into chronic renal failure.

Chronic renal failure may result from many other diseases as well. Its signs are sluggishness, fatigue, and mental dullness. Patients also display other systemic problems as a result of chronic renal failure. Almost all such patients are anemic, and three-fourths of them develop hypertension. The skin becomes discolored, a muddy coloration caused by anemia and the presence of excess melanin.

Renal symptoms suggestive of renal dysfunction include increases in frequency of urination, color changes in urine, areas of edema, and hypertension. The patient may experience only one symptom but is more likely to have a series of complaints. To determine the cause of renal disease, several diagnostic tools can be used to distinguish the type of pathogenic process affecting the kidney. The degree to which other body systems are involved determines whether the disease process is systemic or confined to the kidneys. Other valuable clues may be gathered from medical history, family history, and physical examination. The key factors, however, are renal size and renal histopathology.

Examination of the urine can reveal important data relative to renal health. Stick tests may show the abnormal presence of blood, glucose, or protein. Assaying the kind and amount of protein may pinpoint the cause of the disease. Urine contaminated with bacteria has always been used as an indication of some form of urinary tract infection. Microscopic examination of urine sediment may help diagnose acute renal failure. Blood tests may also indicate the source of a renal disorder. A series of blood tests might reveal rising urea and creatinine levels. The urea-to-creatinine ratio may aid in determining if and which type of acute renal failure may be present. A high red cell count might suggest kidney stones, a tumor, or glomerular disease; a high white cell count would hint at inflammation or infection. Cells cast from the kidney tubules may indicate acute interstitial nephritis, while red cell breakdown products may mean glomerulonephritis. The diagnostician should also be diligent in tracking down possible septic causes. Repeated cultures of blood and urine should help ascertain if there is an abscess anywhere near the kidney.

X-rays can provide useful information. An abdominal x-ray may show urinary stones and abnormalities in the renal outline. Ultrasound will measure renal size, show scarring, and reveal dilation of the tract, perhaps as a result of an obstructive lesion. Abdominal ultrasound has become the investigation of choice because it can be performed at the patient’s bedside.

Renal biopsy can give an accurate diagnosis of acute renal failure but may be more dangerous to the patient than the condition itself. The main indications for biopsy would be suspected acute glomerulonephritis and renal failure that has lasted six weeks.

Treatment and Therapy

If glomerulonephritis is suspected or diagnosed, its treatment seeks to avoid complications of the illness. The patient is monitored daily for fluid overload; as long as the patient is retaining fluid, blood tests that measure urea, creatinine, and salt balance are also run daily. The patient should stay in bed and restrict fluid as well as potassium intake. Medications may be prescribed, including diuretics, vasodilators for hypertension, and calcium antagonists. If the cause is bacterial, a course of oral antibiotics may be given. If these measures are unsuccessful, short-term dialysis may be needed. Some urinary abnormalities may last for as long as a year.

The first measure undertaken to treat acute renal failure is to rebuild depressed fluid volumes: blood if the patient has hemorrhaged, plasma for a burn patient, and electrolytes for a patient who is vomiting and has diarrhea. If infection is suspected as the underlying cause, an appropriate antibiotic should be administered when blood cultures confirm the presence of bacteria. After fluid volumes have been replenished, a diuretic may be necessary to reduce swelling of tissues within the kidney.

In chronic renal failure, the major undertaking is to relieve the obstruction of the urinary tract. If the blockage is within the bladder, simple catheterization may relieve it. If a stone or some similar obstacle is blocking a ureter, however, surgery to remove it may be necessary. A tube may be inserted to allow urine drainage, and the stone will pass or be removed.

For those suffering from recurrent
stones, maintaining a high urine output is important; this requires the patient to drink fluids throughout the day and even at bedtime. Patients enduring intense pain may need to be hospitalized. Analgesics for pain are administered, in addition to forced fluid intake to increase urine output so that the stone might be passed. If these measures do not work, surgical intervention may be necessary.

Patients suffering from progressive, incurable renal failure need medical aid in managing conservation of, substitution for, and eventual replacement of nephron function. Conservation attempts to prolong kidney function for as long as possible; renal function is aided by drug treatment. Substitution means the maintenance of kidney function by dialysis, especially hemodialysis. Replacement is the restoration of renal function by a kidney transplant. By this third stage of treatment, urine formation is independent of further drug treatment, and kidney function must be achieved by other means. Patients suffering from end-stage renal failure have two options: dialysis and transplantation. A patient may go from dialysis to transplantation. In fact, if a compatible donor (preferably a sibling) is available, a transplant is advisable. For those without a suitable donor, long-term hemodialysis is the first option.

Dialysis is defined as the diffusion of dissolved molecules through a semipermeable membrane. Several types of dialysis are available. Hemodialysis filters and cleans the blood as it passes through the semipermeable membranous tube in contact with a balanced salt solution (dialysate). Hemodialysis can be performed in a dialysis unit of a hospital or at home. It must usually be done two or three times a week, with each session lasting from three to six hours, depending on the type of membranes used and the size of the patient. Hemodialysis can lead to acute neurological changes. Lethargy, irritability, restlessness, headache, nausea, vomiting, and twitching may all occur. In some patients, neurological complications occur after dialysis is terminated. Convulsions are the most common of these consequences. In continuous abdominal peritoneal dialysis, a fresh amount of dialysate is introduced from a bag attached to a permanently implanted plastic tube. Wastes and water pass into the dialysate from the surrounding organs; then the fluid is collected four to eight hours later. Peritoneal dialysis is performed by the patient. It is continuous, so the clearance rate of wastes is higher. The most
important neurological complications of peritoneal dialysis are worsening of urea-induced brain abnormalities accompanied by twitching and, rarely, psychosis and convulsions.

Transplantation of a
kidney is considered for patients with primary renal diseases as well as end-stage renal failure resulting from any number of systemic and metabolic diseases. Success rates are highest for those suffering from lupus nephritis, gout, and cystinosis. If a kidney is received from a close relative, there is a 97 percent one-year survival rate. Even if the organ transplant comes from a nonrelative, the survival rate is still 90 percent.

Bibliography

Cameron, J. Stewart. History of the Treatment of Renal Failure by Dialysis. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Catto, Graeme R. D., and David A. Power, eds. Nephrology in Clinical Practice. London: Edward Arnold, 1988.

Coffman, Thomas M., et al. Schrier's Diseases of the Kidney. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2013.

Daugirdas, John T., Peter G. Blake, and Todd S. Ing, eds. Handbook of Dialysis. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

Dische, Frederick E. Renal Pathology. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Greenberg, Arthur, et al., eds. Primer on Kidney Diseases. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Saunders, 2009.

“Kidney Diseases.” MedlinePlus, March 25, 2013.

Morgan, Steven H., and Jean-Pierre Grunfeld, eds. Inherited Disorders of the Kidney: Investigation and Management. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

National Kidney Foundation. http://www.kidney.org.

O’Callaghan, C. A., and Barry M. Brenner. The Kidney at a Glance. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Science, 2000.

Papadakis, Maxine A., Stephen J. McPhee, and Michael W. Rabow, eds. Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatment. 52d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2013.

Parker, James N., and Philip M. Parker, eds. The Official Patient’s Sourcebook on Kidney Failure: A Revised and Updated Directory for the Internet Age. San Diego, Calif.: ICON Health, 2005.

Parker, James N., and Philip M. Parker, eds. The Official Patient’s Sourcebook on Urinary Tract Infection. San Diego, Calif.: ICON Health, 2002.

Give an example of an object that is in free fall.

An object is said to be in "free fall" if the only force acting upon it is gravity.

(1) A satellite orbiting the Earth is said to be in free fall.

(2) The astronauts in a space station are in free fall (as is the space station itself). The only force acting on the astronauts is gravity.

(3) If we neglect air resistance, a skydiver is in free fall until they pull their chute.

(4) If you drive fast over the top of a hill and the car loses contact with the pavement, you and the car are temporarily in free fall (again neglecting air resistance).

(5) The planets are in free fall as they orbit the sun.

The reason astronauts in the space station (or passengers in the so-called "vomit comet" during the downhill phase) perceive weightlessness is that the force of gravity is opposed by the inertial motion of the vehicle.

What is an example of a simile in Emily Dickinson's "Because I could not stop for death"?

Dickinson's iconic poem about death as a suitor collecting her in a chariot is full of personification and alliteration, but it lacks any examples of simile. A simile is a comparison that uses the words "like" or "as." For instance, "that house is as large as a mansion," or "this food tastes like heaven."

As you will notice when reading "Because I could not stop for Death," there are no examples of comparisons using "like" or "as." The closest any lines comes to a simile is the following:

"We paused before a House that seemed/ A Swelling of the Ground -"

The word "seemed" comes very close to the meaning to the word "like," and the  imagery compares a grave to a home. If one were pressed to argue that the poem contains a simile, this would be the best example. Still, as you can see, it lacks the telltale "like" or "as" that most people associate with a simile.

Another example of what one might term a "half-simile" comes in the final stanza, with the line:

"Since then - 'tis Centuries - and yet Feels shorter than the Day"

Again, neither the word "like" or "as" is present, but the world "feels" conveys a similar meaning, and the comparison stands: the centuries that the narrator has been dead feel shorter than a single day.

What does Widow Daventry tell Crispin about having Bear as a master?

The Widow Daventry is the manager of the Green Man Inn. In Chapter 43, she warns Crispin against showing himself so freely in public while staying at the inn.

To help disguise Crispin's identity, the Widow Daventry shouts orders at him as if he is an employee of the inn; she loudly orders him to return to his kitchen duties even though he has never worked there. Once in the kitchen, she instructs Crispin to keep the pies from burning and to take them out when they are done. He also has to put the bread into the oven for baking.

Crispin discovers that the kitchen is a warm and inviting place, filled with many delicious odors. When he accidentally drops a freshly-baked pie on the floor, he hurriedly devours the evidence. Although he thinks that he has been circumspect, the Widow Daventry wryly comments that she can see what he has done. When the customers leave, she orders Crispin to gather up the tankards from the empty tables.

While they work, the Widow Daventry gives Crispin some advice. She tells him that she is sorry for his troubles but admonishes him to be grateful for having Bear for a master. She maintains that, if he was looking for a good master, he has found him in Bear. The Widow Daventry also urges Crispin to keep his master focused on his juggling and his music rather than on his unsavory interactions with troublesome characters. Here, she is probably referring to his association with men like John Ball who conspire to overthrow the existing, corrupt government.

John Ball is actually a historical figure; he was an English priest who played a prominent role in the Peasant's Revolt in England in 1381. The last thing Widow Daventry says to Crispin in this chapter is a warning: she cautions that, if Crispin does not keep a close eye on his master, it will be all the worse for both of them. She fears that both will be implicated for participating in activities the status quo would interpret as treasonous.

Why is Saint Augustine so important to western civilization?

Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430) was one of the most important Church Fathers. He was extremely influential on medieval Christian thought, and later among thinkers of the Protestant Reformation. His theological contribution to these great movements in Christian history is the primary reason for his importance to western civilization.

Augustine’s years as a priest and bishop involved copious amounts of intensely thoughtful writing. Accordingly, his personal psychological and spiritual journey is well-documented in his literary works. After experimenting with philosophical theories and different religious traditions—such as Manicheanism, Neoplatonism, and Gnosticism—he realized his struggle in understanding the origins of human evil and the truth behind the Gospels.

In his most influential work, Confessions, Augustine addressed three religious problems in this regard: the problem of evil; the relation between body and soul; and the Christian understanding of sin and redemption. All of these are aspects of the same problem. Augustine’s method of inquiry involves many elements similar to traditional Greek philosophy, which broadened the scope of Christian thought.

Further reading: Slocum, Kay. Medieval Civilization. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2005.

What is the difference between Jem's description of Boo in Chapter 1 and Scout's description of Boo in Chapter 29?

In Chapter 1, Miss Stephanie's rumors are the catalyst for Jem's active imagination to create a monstrous being out of the mysterious Boo Radley. Jem gives a grotesque description of Boo by saying,

"Boo was about six-and-a-half feet tall, judging from his tracks; he dined on raw squirrels and any cats he could catch, that's why his hands were bloodstained---if you ate an animal raw, you could never wash blood off. There was a long jagged scar that ran across his face; what teeth he had were yellow and rotten; his eyes popped, and he drooled most of the time" (Lee 16).

Jem's fabricated description of Boo could not be further from the truth. Boo's reclusive personality has motivated many community members to view him as an ominous individual. He is discriminated against and is the source of many unflattering rumors throughout Maycomb. Jem's description is a reflection of Boo's negative persona and is not accurate, to say the least.

In Chapter 29, Scout is telling Sheriff Tate what she witnessed during the scuffle. Scout tells Sheriff Tate that a man was staggering and out of breath from helping them, but she didn't know who it was. Scout points towards a man who is quietly standing in the corner of the room. The man standing in the corner is Boo Radley. Scout describes Boo by mentioning that he had "sickly white hands" that looked like they never saw the sun. She says that he was very thin and his face was as white as his hands. Boo's cheeks looked hollow, and he had gray, colorless eyes. Scout also mentions that his hair was dead and thin. Scout's actual description of Boo bears little resemblance to the imaginative beast Jem described earlier in the novel.

In the play The Diary of Anne Frank, how does Anne and Peter's relationship change over the course of act 2, scenes 1 and 2?

In the play The Diary of Anne Frank, Anne and Peter's relationship changes in act 2, scenes 1 and 2 because tension in the annex is growing among the adults, and the fact that the children are also maturing. For example, after Peter accidentally smashes a light that scares a burglar away, Mr. Kraler announces in scene 1 that a workman wants blackmail money not to report them. Dussel blames Peter, which starts an even bigger argument, and soon everyone is yelling. As a result, Anne blows up at the adults and storms off. Peter takes her the piece of cake she left behind, and this is when they first confide in each other about their struggles living in the annex with such stressed adults. 

By the second scene, Anne is shown trying on clothes with Margot and getting ready for her first date with Peter. Then, during their meeting in Peter's room, not only does the couple talk about kissing and proper courtship, but they also talk about friends and having seen each other at school before going into hiding. They discuss how each one felt about the other when they first met compared to becoming interested in each other, now. They realize how much they have matured while in hiding. This date helps to close the chapter on their past, in a way, as they approach a more intimate relationship at the present. Happily for Anne, she leaves after receiving a kiss on her cheek from Peter. The kiss definitely symbolizes growth and intention towards their new relationship as they leave their more immature one in the past. 

What is Trypanosoma?

Definition

The numerous species of Trypanosoma cause many diseases in
vertebrates, most notably Chagas’ disease and trypanosomiasis in humans.

Natural Habitat and Features

Trypanosoma is one of several genera within the order
Kinetoplastida. All species are flagellate parasites that contain a special
structure unique to this order called the kinetoplast, found within the
kinetosome, which contains the mitochondrial DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Most
trypanosomes are heterozenous, living one stage of their lives in the blood and
tissues of a vertebrate host; in other stages they dwell within
the intestines of blood-sucking (hematophagous) invertebrates.

Within the Trypanosomatidae, six life cycles occur, depending upon the genus. These life cycles are the amastigote, promastigote, choanomastigote, epimastigote, opisthomastigote, and trypanomastigote. The life-cycle designations are based upon the location of the flagellum on the body surface, the body shape, and the position of the kinetoplast/kinetosome. The life cycle that defines Trypanosoma is the trypanomastigote. The morphological features of this stage include a posterior position of the kinetosome; a long, whiplike flagellum running along the surface of the organism; and a set of pellicular microtubules that provide support for the parasite when the flagellum beats.

Two broad groups, or sections, of trypanosomes designated by parasitologists are the Salivaria and the Stercoraria. These designations are based upon where the parasites settle within the invertebrate vector’s body. If the trypanosomes develop within the anterior portion of the invertebrate’s digestive tract, they belong to the Salivaria section. These parasites will be transmitted to the vertebrate host through the invertebrate’s saliva or other oral secretions. If the trypanosomes develop in the posterior portion or hind gut of the invertebrate host, they are in the Stercoraria section. Trypanosome species infect the vertebrate host through fecal material that the invertebrate vector sheds while feeding.

Pathogenicity and Clinical Significance

Within the Salivaria section are three subspecies of trypanosomes: T.
brucei brucei, T. brucei gambiense, and T. brucei
rhodesiense. These subspecies occur in parts of Africa, specifically
the area that coincides with the range of their vector, the tsetse fly
(Glossina
spp.). T. b. brucei is a parasite of the native
antelopes and other ruminant animals of this region; the parasite causes a deadly
disease called nagana in domestic livestock.

T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense are the
parasites of both East and West types of trypanosomiasis (African sleeping sickness), which are transmitted by the bite of the tsetse fly. Humans are the reservoirs for T. b. gambiense,
whereas native game animals provide the reservoirs for T. b.
rhodesiense. In both forms of sleeping sickness, pathogenesis is
similar, with the trypanosomes entering the site of the tsetse fly’s bite. A small
sore develops at the spot, and within one to two weeks a widespread parasitemia
develops in the bitten person. Initially, the trypanosomes live in the blood,
lymph nodes, and spleen, causing intermittent fever episodes. T. b.
rhodesiense rarely enters the central nervous system because the
infected person tends to die before this can occur. T. b.
gambiense does invade the central nervous system, causing increased
somnolence, tremors, paralysis, and convulsions before coma and death ensue.

T. cruzi, of the Stercoraria section of trypanosomes, causes Chagas’ disease. T. cruzi is transmitted by hemipteran insects of the family Reduviidae, which are known colloquially as kissing bugs or cone-nosed bloodsuckers. T. cruzi occurs throughout most of Central America and South America, and in some areas of the southern and southwestern United States. Dogs, cats, armadillos, opossums, wood rats, and a number of other domestic and wild animals serve as reservoirs for the parasite, which afflicts millions of people.

When a reduviid insect bites, it often deposits feces containing trypanosomes
on the skin of the human. If the bitten person then scratches the bite or
inadvertently rubs mucous membranes that contain fecal material, the trypanosomes
gain entry to the body. An acute local inflammatory reaction occurs at the site,
producing a red sore called a chagoma, or a swelling of the eyelid and conjunctiva
(Romana’s sign) if the eyelid was the infection site. The local reaction is
followed in one to two weeks by a generalized parasitemia, which affects virtually
every body tissue. Muscle and nerve cells are especially affected. If left
untreated, Chagas’ disease may cause death in three to four weeks. If the person
survives, the chronic stage of the disease generally affects the heart, destroying
the cardiac muscle. In some manifestations of Chagas’ disease, the esophagus and
colon become greatly enlarged because of the destruction of muscle and nervous
tissue.

Throughout northern Africa, Asia Minor, southern Russia, India, parts of southwestern Asia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Central America, and South America, another trypanosome, T. evansi, causes a fatal disease generally known as surra. Horses, elephants, camels, deer, and other mammals are susceptible to infection from this disease. Horseflies (Tabanus spp.) are the primary vectors of T. evansi, although in South America, vampire bats fulfill that role.

For many years, T. evansi was not known to infect humans; however, in 2005, the first case of typanosomiasis caused by this species was diagnosed in a person in India.

Drug Susceptibility

Trypanosomiasis in humans has proved challenging to treat because trypanosomes are continuously changing their surface antigens. Because the surface antigens of the parasites are being released into the blood of the bitten person almost constantly, large amounts of the host’s immunoglobulins are being produced in an attempt to counteract the trypanosomes’ attack.

In the early stage of infection by T. b. gambiense, treatment involves the use of the drug pentamidine or, alternatively, suramin. In later stages, if the central nervous system is involved, eflornithine, melarsoprol, or nifurtimax are used. For cases of T. b. rhodesiense infection, early-stage treatment is by suramin and late-stage treatment is with melarsoprol. Treatment with melarsoprol, because of its arsenical basis, may cause encephalopathy in the patient and must be used with great care.

Bibliography

Bacchi, Cyrus J. “Chemotherapy of Human African Trypanosomiasis.” Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases (2009): 1-6. Provides an update on chemotherapeutic treatments for both forms of African sleeping sickness. Available at http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ipid/2009/195040.cta.html.

Jong, Elaine C., and Russell McMullen, eds. Travel and Tropical Medicine Manual. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2008. A useful reference manual with advice on preventing, evaluating, and managing diseases that can be acquired in tropical environments and countries outside the United States.

Joshi, P. P., et al. “Treatment and Follow-up of the First Case of Human Trypanosomiasis Caused by Trypanosoma evansi in India.” Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 100, no. 10 (2006): 989-991. Provides details of the medical treatment of the person in India who contracted T. evansi.

Roberts, Larry S., and John Janovy, Jr. Gerald D. Schmidt and Larry S. Roberts’ Foundations of Parasitology. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2009. A classic work focusing on parasites of humans and domestic animals.

Seguraa, E. L., and S. Sosa-Estani. “Protozoan Diseases: Chagas’ Disease.” In International Encyclopedia of Public Health, edited by Stella Quah and Kris Heggenhougen. Boston: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2008.

After reading "The Black Man's Burden," do you agree that colonialism "kills the soul of a people?"

I would have to agree with Edward D. Morel in that the effects of colonialism go far beyond the loss of life. Your question centers around Morel's essay that is titled "The Black Man's Burden," specifically this quote:

Its destructive effects are not spasmodic: they are permanent. In its permanence resides its fatal consequences. It kills not the body merely, but the soul. It breaks the spirit.

Colonialism breaks the spirit and kills the soul because it strips the African of every freedom. He is no longer the master of his own domain. His future has been predetermined for him. The African can no longer look at his children and say "I did this." The African is exploited at every turn for the advantage of others a world away. The African is faced with the loss of culture and identity. The bounty and resources of their land are no longer theirs, offers them no benefit. When you consider all of these things taken together, the Europeans have stripped the Africans of everything that it means to be human. In a way, this is as corrupt as physically taking their lives.

`int sin(omega)/(cos^3(omega)) d omega` Evaluate the integral

`int (sin (omega))/(cos^3 (omega))d omega`

To solve, apply u-substitution method. So, let u be:

          `u = cos (omega)`

The, differentiate u.

        `du = -sin (omega) d omega`

Since the sine function present in the integrand is positive, divide both sides by -1.

          `(du)/(-1) = (-sin (omega) d omega)/(-1)`

     `-du= sin (omega) d omega`

Plugging them, the integral becomes:

`= int (-du) / u^3`

`= int -u^(-3) du`

To take the integral of this, apply the formula `int u^(n+1)/(n+1)+C` .

`= -u^(-2)/(-2) + C`

`= u^(-2)/2+C`

`= 1/(2u^2)+C`

And, substitute back `u = cos (omega)` .

`= 1/(2cos^2(omega)) + C`

Therefore,  `int (sin (omega))/(cos ^3(omega)) d omega = 1/(2cos^2(omega)) + C` .

What is an insightful research question on the Chicago fire disaster?

When you ask for an insightful question, you are looking for a response that demonstrates of deep understanding of the topic of the Chicago Fire of 1871. Utilizing a depth of knowledge chart will help to create a challenging question. The teacher would be looking to create a question that demonstrates strategic thinking (level three) or extended thinking (level four). A level three type question could ask for comparisons.

Here is what I am thinking for this type of question:

• Compare and contrast the damage and results of the Chicago Fire of 1871 with the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire of 1911.


• Compare and contrast the government's response to the Chicago Fire of 1871 with the San Francisco Earthquake of 1989.

Level four questions ask for analysis or to synthesize information. Some solid questions that ask the student to respond in this way are:

• In what ways did the Fire of 1871 have a positive impact on Chicago?


• Find at least three primary sources of the Chicago Fire. How is the information in the accounts presented in a similar fashion?  What differences exist in the accounts?


• Utilizing what you know about municipal government of the late 19th Century, how could the government have acted in a more responsive way to the Chicago Fire of 1871?  How could the disaster have been prevented with a more proactive government approach?

What is the significance of the puppy? Why do you suppose Fitzgerald included it as an element in chapter 2?

The man from whom Tom Buchanan buys the dog "bore an absurd resemblance to John D. Rockefeller," a point that seems all the more notable in a book that emphasizes the difficulty, even the impossibility for some, of attaining the American Dream: the idea that any American, through hard work and perseverance, can prosper.  Certainly, to compare, in any way, a man selling dogs out of a basket on the street with Rockefeller is unexpected, but, here, it seems to be a statement on impossibility of the dream for this man: he may work hard and even look just like a millionaire, but he will never be able to reach that level of prosperity and influence himself.

Further, Myrtle Wilson's total lack of concern for her new puppy, once she'd sent someone for a box of straw and saucer of milk, is appalling and cruel.  It sheds a great deal of light on her character.  She wants things, she wants to have things, and she wants Tom to buy them for her.  She's not, however, interested in responsibility, and she is certainly not a kind or compassionate person.  During her party,

"The little dog was sitting on the table looking with blind eyes through the smoke, and from time to time groaning faintly."  

This dog is so young that she can hardly see, if at all.  She is surrounded by loud noises and loud people that she cannot see, without anyone to hold her or pet her or reassure her, and Myrtle is completely oblivious.  

According to Romeo in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet,what sort of youth is Mercutio?

First, it is clear from the text that Romeo has a deep affection for Mercutio who is, it is clear, his best friend. When Tybalt kills Mercutio, Romeo is so overcome with rage that he throws aside his love for Juliet to avenge his friend. At the same time, Romeo believes (correctly, it seems) that Mercutio is a sort of anti-romantic who cannot understand the depths of his love for Juliet. "He," Romeo says after a bit of ribbing from his friend, "jests at scars that never felt a wound." From his frequent ribald jokes, it is clear that Mercutio is a bit of a rake who views love in sexual terms. Romeo seems to realize this, even if Mercutio has a point when he mocks Romeo for his moping over his unrequited love for Rosaline. Romeo is also aware, as is the audience, of his friend's propensity for talking. Mercutio never shuts up, and Romeo tells him at the end of his famous Queen Mab speech in the first act that he "talk'st of nothing." In perhaps his most telling quote about Mercutio, Romeo describes his friend to the Nurse as 

A gentleman, nurse, that loves to hear himself talk and will speak more in a minute than he will stand to in a month.

factors that has led to the rise of medieval universities

Many factors led to the rise of medieval universities.  Rising population growth led to a need for more clergymen--the first goal of medieval universities was to produce well-trained members of the clergy.  Universities by the Central Middle Ages produced able bureaucrats and lawyers who got their position by merit and would be able administrators for governments.  Rulers such as Frederick Barbarossa also gave protection to traveling university students, which helped unite Europe culturally as more people looked at traveling between kingdoms as "normal."  As more families grew rich in the Central Middle Ages, they could afford to send their more intellectually able sons to school, thus giving them greater opportunities.  The universities themselves often improved the finances of the cities in which they were located, as students sought out housing, food, and entertainment, similar to how cities benefit from having universities today.   

How can I write a good thesis explaining how the use of cell phones, specifically texting, has affected the youth of today and their communication...

In order to create a thesis statement for this paper you should consider the following questions:

1. What is your main argument?


2. What evidence will you present to support your argument?

Your thesis statement should frame your main argument and the supporting arguments you will present based on your evidence.

Prompt: How has the use of cell phones, specifically texting, affected the youth of today and their communication skills?

For this prompt, you will want to dive into the topic of texting as it relates to communication. What do you think about texting? Does it help or hurt young people with communication? Does it support or hinder friendships and professional relationships? How do young people communicate differently through text messages, email, and in voice conversations?

If your argument is that cell phones, and specifically texting, have had a negative impact on youth communication skills, you may consider sloppy spelling skills, antisocial behavior (inability to talk to someone in person), or problems being "in the moment" when they are wrapped up in a texting conversation.

If your argument is that cell phones, and specifically texting, have had a positive impact on youth communication skills, you may consider the development of remote friendships, social circles in texting (emojis, emoticons, memes), or the advantage of being able to proofread messages.

Of course, you may write an essay that deals with both negatives and positives. Or, you may write an essay that argues neither; maybe you instead focus on how communication has changed over time, but is no better or worse than it ever has been. Whatever your argument, you will want to research your position in detail. To get a start on this topic, check out the links below.

What are games, and how do they affect mental health?

Introduction

Games are mental and physical activities engaged in for learning, leisure, or other social reasons. They are a recognized type of play behavior, in that they are motivating by virtue of their pleasure. Play is a voluntary activity that is intrinsically motivating, suggesting that it is sustained for its meaning or pleasure. It is a normal part of human development that reflects that development, helps it advance, and provides a window into understanding any developing problems.

Play first evidences in childhood and continues throughout the life cycle. It serves many functions, including simple expression and expressions of individuality. It is also part of cognitive development, problem solving, and creative thinking and can be done with language and behavior or with thinking and imagery. It can be done in solitude or with others. As such, it may affect language, intellectual, social, emotional, motor, or other physical development. Furthermore, because play often has rules, it is related to moral development and can affect abilities to learn, recognize, respond to, obey, circumvent, or transcend rules.

Play and Games in Development and Healing

Play and games are influenced by culture, family patterns, and physical and mental capacities of individuals. First play experiences are typically with parents. Thus, the extent to which parents do or do not interact with their child or have play experiences to draw on affects what the child learns. Different cultures have different games based on their resources and history, a fact that affects the content and amount of play.

As infants progress to early childhood, they engage in symbolic play via activities involving imagined or substituted objects. Symbolic play may be done alone or with a group. As children age, they typically move from solitary to social play. In early social play, children may be in parallel or near to each other without necessarily engaging each other. As development advances, social engagement, such as playing together using imagination, occurs more frequently. For example, a little girl might first pretend to be talking on the phone by talking into a block of wood. Later, the girl and another girl may sit side by side doing the same thing but not talking to each other. Eventually, this will evolve into a conversation between the two through the make-believe phones.

As children age, they typically become involved in formal games such as sports, board games, puzzles, storytelling, and role-playing. Adults play games similar to those played by children but often with more complex rules. Also, games for adults often involve more adult content and behavior, such as use of money, as in gambling or card games, or complex roles, as in multiple role-player and sexual games.

Games as a form of play serve many purposes and shift in form and function to mirror the developmental level of individuals. However, despite these shifts, games and play behaviors continue to function as expressions of feelings, wishes, fears, and experiences and are the basis for forming and developing relationships with others. They also affect identity development, the process by which one comes to define and recognize oneself.

Thus, play and gaming are normative and healthy. They are activities that provide opportunities for learning, growth, stress reduction, social bonding, general well-being, and, therefore, good mental health. In fact, play and gaming are also useful as therapeutic strategies for mental health treatment. Play therapy, the use of play for treating mental health disorders in children, often helps children deal with traumatic events or other psychopathology. Similarly, role-playing, which entails acting out new behaviors, personae, or past or future experiences, is a helpful strategy for adolescents and adults to work on mental health problems.

Games are also used for educational purposes. Teachers use games as a way to engage different learning styles. Regular classroom teaching might involve writing on a chalkboard, reading, and taking notes. Games allow for social collaboration, competition, and tactile and kinesthetic involvement, each of which enhances learning because of the engagement of different learning styles. Teachers may also use games to help students learn rules and problem solving or to develop different ways of remembering information through the use of rhymes, songs, stories, or dances. Role-playing can also be used by teachers, even advanced professionals, to learn new skills. Finally, video and computer games can be valuable teaching aids for facilitating skills related to dexterity, hand-eye coordination, and strategy. In military applications, for example, the use of flight and war games helps in these ways and may mirror what trainees experienced earlier while playing games for different reasons.

Disorders Related to Games

Games involving violence and aggression are controversial and often a cause for concern. The risks of encouraging expression of aggressive feelings and behaviors—such as is found in some contemporary video games that feature reckless driving, weaponry, or hand-to-hand combat with virtual opponents—are balanced against any benefits in terms of stress relief, physical coordination, or strategic thought. While in a computer- or Internet-based game, one can hit a reset button, but in real life, expression of aggressive or destructive behavior can have dire consequences.

Even in competitive games, reckless competition can be dangerous and have impact. For instance, in virtual role-playing games, the reckless killing of a character whose identity and skills had been developed over many years can trigger a real-world emotional impact in the person who created the character. Because the individual’s personal identity development or psychological health was related to that character’s existence, the character’s termination may have a profound impact. Social combat between characters resulting in virtual death may also have social and psychological implications for the victor. In the worst case, such gaming behavior can lead to conditions such as depression and anxiety in losers and potential patterns of socially aggressive behavior in victors.

Extraordinary competition or excessive participation in gaming can become an obsession. Individuals may experience such problems with almost any game, including online or face-to-face gambling, multiple role-player games, board games, solitary- or social-play games that may involve cards or other props, and sexual play. For some individuals, high levels of involvement with a game may become all consuming, isolating the person from others and interfering with everyday roles and obligations in real life. For children, adolescents, and young adults, this can take the form of interfering with important social or emotional developmental tasks.

Personal resources also may become diverted to support the gaming activity. For instance, in the case of pathological gambling, individuals may spend such large amounts of money on gaming that they cannot pay their regular living expenses. In such cases, the gaming activity has become an addiction. The person may also feel inescapably compelled to participate in the behavior, as in a compulsion. People in such situations may feel depressed, anxious, and out of control or perceive actual damage done to their lives and be unable to meet basic living needs. Often, the losses related to the behavior may be hidden or concealed until the problem has escalated beyond repair. In addition to suffering feelings of isolation, the compulsive individual may later lose relationships and social support, leaving the victim alone and even more emotionally vulnerable to the gaming behavior. Furthermore, many individuals participate in gaming activities while also using substances and therefore may develop unhealthy habits of both behaviors. Different forms of excessive gaming are often tied to problems with alcohol, nicotine, sleep aids, painkillers, or other substances. In such cases, violence against others or the self, in the form of suicide, may be potential dangers as the situation deteriorates.

For some individuals, these other conditions may only follow the onset of pathological gaming. Conditions such as anxiety, depression, or social isolation may be risk factors that leave individuals vulnerable to the reinforcing nature of gaming activities, and treatment for such problems must take this into account. In general, gaming and play are developmental and healthy aspects of youth and adulthood. While these activities can create problems for some, for most they are vital to good mental health and development.

Bibliography

Brack, Greg, et al. "Individual Psychology on the Virtual Frontier: Massive Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Gaming." Journal of Individual Psychology 69.1 (2013): 24–40. Print.

Brotchie, Alastair, and Mel Cooding. A Book of Surrealist Games: Including the Little Surrealist Dictionary. Boston: Shambhala, 1995. Print.

Brown, Stuart, and Christopher Vaughan. Play: How It Shapes the Brain, Opens the Imagination, and Invigorates the Soul. New York: Avery, 2009. Print.

Cheung, Monit. Therapeutic Games and Guided Imagery: Tools for Mental Health and School Professionals Working with Children, Adolescents, and Their Families. Chicago: Lyceum, 2006. Print.

Cheung, Monit. Therapeutic Games and Guided Imagery: Tools for Professionals Working with Children and Adolescents with Specific Needs and in Multicultural Settings. Vol. 2. Chicago: Lyceum, 2014. Print.

Dibbell, Julian. Play Money; or, How I Quit My Day Job and Made Millions Trading Virtual Loot. New York: Basic, 2007. Print.

Elkind, David. The Power of Play: Learning What Comes Naturally. New York: Da Capo, 2007. Print.

Ferguson, Christopher, and Cheryl Olson. "Video Game Violence Use among 'Vulnerable' Populations: The Impact of Violent Games on Delinquency and Bullying among Children with Clinically Elevated Depression or Attention Deficit Symptoms." Journal of Youth and Adolescence 43.1 (2014): 127–36. Print.

Gobet, Fernand, Alexander de Voogt, and Jean Retschitzki. Moves in Mind: The Psychology of Board Games. New York: Psychology, 2004. Print.

Gussin Paley, Vivian. A Child’s Work: The Importance of Fantasy Play. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2005. Print.

Scholes-Balog, Kirsty E., and Sheryl A. Hemphill. "Relationships between Online Gambling, Mental Health, and Substance Use: A Review." Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 15.12 (2012): 688–92. Print.

Wetzel, Kathryn C., and Kathleen Harmeyer. Mind Games: The Aging Brain and How to Keep It Healthy. Albany: Delmar, 2000. Print.

Williams, Patrick J., Sean Q. Hendricks, and W. Keith Winkler, eds. Gaming as Culture: Essays on Reality, Identity, and Experience in Fantasy Games. Jefferson: McFarland, 2006. Print.

Young, Kimberly S. Caught in the Net: How to Recognize the Signs of Internet Addiction—and a Winning Strategy for Recovery. New York: Wiley, 1998. Print.

NO CALCULATOR: if x is equal to an unknown number. The square root of y is equal to 2x. Given that z is equal to 1386 and z = 14y, what is x....

x represents an unknown number. `sqrt(y)=2x ` . z=14y and z=1386. We are asked to determine x to three significant figures:

Since z=14y and z=1386 we have 14y=1386. Then `y=1386/14=99 ` .

Now `sqrt(y)=2x ==> sqrt(99)=2x ` .

`3sqrt(11)=2x `

`x=3/2sqrt(11) `

If you know how to extract square roots without a calculator, you will find that `sqrt(11)~~3.317 ` so that `x~~4.98 `

This is a reasonable approximation as 2(4.98)=9.96; 9.96^2=99.2016; and 14(99.2016=1388.8224 which is close to the expected 1386.

What important ideas does Harper Lee explore, and how are these ideas developed through the narrative of To Kill a Mockingbird?

Written as a bildungsroman, To Kill a Mockingbird examines the maturation of Jem and Scout as their perceptions of various ideas and people are altered by their developing objectivity. This objectivity comes as a result of their interactions with others and personal experiences.

Here are some of the important lessons developed in the narrative:

Understanding people

• Miss Caroline, the new teacher who is assigned the first grade, is misjudged by Scout, who perceives her as an outsider from the hated Winston County. Scout does try to help Miss Caroline by advising her of the history of other students, but Miss Caroline punishes her, believing Scout to be impudent. Another student who misjudges Miss Caroline is the insolent Burris Ewell, who calls her "a snot-nosed slut of a schoolteacher." Scout is appalled by him, but later learns of his dysfunctional family and cruel father.
  When she returns home, Scout talks with her father in the evening, asking if she may just stay home where he could teach her. Atticus explains that he cannot do this. Furthermore, he explains that Miss Caroline cannot know how to treat everyone as she is new in the area. He tells Scout that the best thing to do in order to understand people is to figuratively "climb into [a person's] skin and walk around in it"; then she will come to know people better.


• Further in the narrative, Jem becomes angry at Mrs. Dubose, whose house is on the way to town. One day, in retaliation for her cruel and insulting remarks about his father, Jem tears off the blossoms of her camellia bushes. After having learned of his son's behavior, Atticus makes Jem read for an hour a day for a month to Mrs. Dubose. At the end of the month, Jem and Scout both are relieved that his assignment is complete; however, Atticus informs his children shortly thereafter that Mrs. Dubose has died. He adds that she was conscious of life until her end because she withdrew from her morphine addiction. Atticus calls her a brave woman for having faced death without drugs. While neither Jem nor Scout have known that her spiteful words and actions were due to her morphine addiction, she has left Jem a box with beautiful camellia blossoms inside as a sort of peace offering.


• The children certainly misjudge Boo Radley, who makes tender offerings of friendship in secret: the mended pants, the gum and trinkets, and the carved soap figures of themselves. More than anything, Boo saves their lives when the disreputable Bob Ewell tries to kill them. When Scout walks him home and stands on his porch, the earlier words of Atticus about seeing things from another's perspective really become meaningful to her.


• At the trial of Tom Robinson, Scout, who at first thought that Tom was "just a Negro," learns that Tom is a humble and kind man who is sacrificed by "the secret courts" of hatred and bias in men's hearts. This experience of witnessing an innocent man being condemned profoundly affects Jem and Scout, especially after they learn that Tom is shot as, in despair, he tries to escape.


• Mr. Dolphus Raymond is condemned as a drunkard by the upright citizens of Maycomb because he lives on "the other side of the tracks" with the African-Americans. Scout learns that he affords these citizens a reason for his actions by pretending to be an alcoholic. In truth, he is more decent than those who condemn him.


• Scout and Jem even misjudge their father, who is actually an excellent shot. When they witness his expertise, Jem takes a new look at Atticus. Of course, the children learn many things from Atticus, especially how to find the decency in everyone. For instance, at the end of the novel, Scout tells her father that she has learned that Boo "was real nice." Atticus replies, "Most people are, Scout, when you finally see them."

The importance of family

• When Aunt Alexandra arrives in Maycomb, she conducts herself as the landed gentry of the South did years and years ago. She has Calpurnia waiting upon her immediately and talks of the social system in Maycomb county. Further, she has Atticus inform the children that they are not

"...from run-of-the-mill people, that you are the product of several generations' gentle breeding--"

Scout finds this attitude of Alexandra's pretentious, and she feels she is in a "pink penitentiary" when she must wear dresses. However, at the Missionary Tea and later on, Scout witnesses the family loyalty of her aunt and is impressed. In fact, she is so moved that she takes a tray and passes it around, even to Mrs. Merriweather. She narrates, "...After all, if Aunty could be a lady at a time like this, so could I."

• Of course, there is never a moment in which family is more meaningful than after Boo Radley saves the lives of Scout and Jem. Atticus shows his gratitude--"Thank you for my children, Arthur"--and is quite shaken by what Bob Ewell has attempted to do.

In the novel That Was Then, This Is Now, how does Bryon "get even" with himself?

In Chapter 11, Bryon is laying down reading a book when his mother says to him,

"Bryon, you got even with Mark for Cathy, then you got even with Cathy for Mark. When are you going to stop getting even with yourself?" (Hinton 156).

The traumatic events that Bryon has witnessed and life-altering decisions he has made have left him emotionless and callous. Bryon is no longer the same person he was after he sees M&M experiencing a bad acid trip. Byron is also haunted by the memory of Mike Chambers and stricken with guilt over the death of Charlie. When he discovers that Mark has been selling pills, he calls the authorities because he is sick of seeing innocent people hurt by others. Bryon feels guilty and confused about telling on Mark and gets even with himself by breaking up with Cathy. Bryon neglects the girl he loves and begins to live in a "shell." He becomes reclusive and does not care about having fun or interacting with others. Bryon essentially feels like he's ruined every relationship he's cherished and feels extremely depressed. His introvert personality and melancholy mood are also ways in which he attempts to get even with himself.

In De Niro's Game by Rawi Hage, what is the function of George?

In the novel De Niro’s Game, George functions as a symbol of how power though illegal means (and especially during war) can corrupt the young.  Within the friendship of George and Bassam, it is the character of George that functions as the instigator.  George also turns friendship into betrayal in Beirut during the Lebanese civil war.  Bassam is drawn into criminal ways only through George.  It is not long before George has initiated his friend into the world of smuggling both drugs and alcohol.  While Bassam loses his nerve, George gains power in the militia.  Unfortunately, he loses his morality at the same time.  George eventually participates in the Phalangist massacre and kills Laurent Aoudeh after a strange sexual escapade.  He also mercilessly allows Bassam to take the heat for George’s own crimes (while at the same time stealing Bassam’s girlfriend, Rana).  As Bassam begins to stalk George, Bassam finds that George is even more into political corruption than once thought.  Just as George’s own character shows how power can truly corrupt and lead to death, the game of Russian roulette (otherwise known as “De Niro’s Game”) the two play together ends with George being the unlucky one, killing himself by a bullet through the head.  Bassam then struggles to remain moral in an immoral world of war.

`int_0^1 (dx)/(x^2 + 1)^2` Evaluate the integral

First find the indefinite integral:

`int (dx)/(1+x^2)^2=int (1+x^2-x^2)/(1+x^2)^2 dx = int (dx)/(1+x^2)-int (x^2 dx)/(1+x^2)^2.`

The first summand is `arctan(x),` for the second apply integration by parts:

`u=x,`  `dv=(x dx)/(1+x^2),` so `du=dx` and `v=-1/2 1/(1+x^2).`

So  `int (x^2 dx)/(1+x^2)^2=-1/2 x/(1+x^2)+1/2 int (dx)/(1+x^2) = -1/2 x/(1+x^2)+1/2arctan(x).`

Thus the indefinite integral is  `1/2(x/(1+x^2)+arctan(x))+C,`

and the indefinite integral is  `1/2(1/2+pi/4-0-0)=1/4+pi/8.`

What are sober living environments?

Background

The sober living environment, because of its variety of development sources (for example, nonprofit, private ownership, and peer group initiatives), is a relatively new and little-studied development in standard addiction care. These environments are available across the United States. Some are faith-based and nonprofit, whereas others are privately funded; some are based in single-family group homes, and others are in apartment-style dwellings.

Sober living environments are homes that have little counselor supervision, unlike residential treatment centers, which are staffed with multiple social workers and counselors as community residents. Sober housing encourages sustained abstinence by providing a recovered addict a place to learn and practice independent coping skills away from drugs or behaviors related to addiction and abuse.

These homes promote sobriety in multiple ways. For example, they allow for a recovered addict to avoid frequenting old temptations and habits (such as particular places, hobbies, and people) by acting as a safe and stable environment. Also, they introduce recovered addicts to other people with similar concerns and histories to encourage socialization that supports continued recovery and promotes shared knowledge of relapse and recovery. The basic structure involves residency of 90 to 365 days, with rents charged to support the facility. Programs within the residence may be additionally supported by donations, nonprofit foundations, or grant awards.

Halfway houses and other sober living environments are particularly useful for people whose home or work environments before receiving addiction treatment were unstable or were not drug-free. Recovery residences introduce experiences that model new, drug-free living for many struggling addicts.

At a minimum, each sober living environment has guidelines that the residents must follow to remain in the home. Most sober living environments assign housekeeping duties and curfews to residents; these responsibilities and expectations boost self-esteem and establish time for group participation. Thus, residents work and live together for the benefit of everyone in the home. Common transitional living rules include bans on overnight guests, prohibition of any substance of abuse, and required involvement in a peer group at the home.

Unlike patients of residential treatment or inpatient programs, the residents of sober housing are expected to hold a functional place in society outside the home, such as a work position, school enrollment, or other form of community involvement. Some halfway houses exist for adolescents only, while others exist for women or men only. Housing options involve wide ranges of supervision, and many employ random drug-testing to ensure abstinence.

Mission and Goals

Sober living environments are common extenders of care in the twenty-first century, often because funding for many treatment programs remains insufficient. Longer durations of structured programming, whether in hospitalized settings, prison settings, or full-time residential treatment centers, help prevent relapse.

Sober living facilities do not provide medical care or the same level of structure as treatment centers. They do, however, embody abstinence-based living without the costs of specialized professional care, with a minimal cost burden. Sober living environments prolong the community and psychosocial support begun during detoxification or rehabilitation, after that stage of care is considered successful and complete.

A sober living environment aims to prevent recovered addicts from falling into old lifestyles that facilitate drug abuse after achieving treatment successes. Through group involvement, residents are guided toward goals of community development, in daily duties such as chores and in sharing of past treatment experiences. Sober housing frequently requires membership in a twelve-step model such as Alcoholics Anonymous or Narcotics Anonymous to foster recovery; thus, sponsors and meetings are incorporated into the sober living home to encourage trust and sobriety.

Often, members of a sober living arrangement have opportunities to participate in additional counseling or life-training sessions at the residence. Freedom to leave the residence helps achieve the goal of independent, abstinent living in the larger society outside the home. The goal of any type of sober living environment is to provide safety, support, and accountability in the early period of this abstinent living.

Sober living environments provide a routine and a schedule that are likely new and beneficial to residents, who learn to manage time and share recovery goals with the other residents. Participants in sober living environments become a network of like-minded individuals, a network that can be extended even beyond the move to independent living circumstances.

Bibliography

Heslin, K. C., et al. “Alternative Families in Recovery: Fictive Kin Relationships among Residents of Sober Living Homes.” Qualitative Health Research 21.4 (2011): 477–88. Print.

Polcin, D. C. “A Model for Sober Housing during Outpatient Treatment.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 41.2 (2009): 153–61. Print.

Rasmussen, Sandra. Addiction Treatment: Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2000. Print.

Youngs, Bettie B., Jennifer Leigh Youngs, and Tina Moreno. A Teen’s Guide to Living Drug-Free. Deerfield Beach: Health Communications, 2003. Print.

The Austro-Prussian War in 1866 was the result of Austria's opposition to unification. True False

This is false, as German unification was not complete after the war.  The war (sometimes referred to as the Seven-Weeks War) was started over a dispute over the ownership of the duchy of Schleswig-Holstein.  Denmark occupied Schleswig, and Germany occupied Holstein.  In 1846, Denmark occupied both duchies.  The combined forces of Austria and Germany went to war with Denmark in 1864 and drove out the Danish.  Schleswig was to be ruled by Germany, and Austria was to be ruled by Holstein.  In 1864, Kaiser William I of Germany and his Prime Minister Otto von Bismark thought that Austria was becoming too powerful, so Bismark, insisted on a war with Austria in order to check its growing power in Europe.  Germany (dominated by Prussia) defeated a conglomeration of Austria, Italy, and smaller southern German states.  

How does the theme "accepting others for who they are" appear in the book A Separate Peace?

In chapter 4 of A Separate Peace, Phineas and Gene argue about their differences rather than embracing them. The argument arises when Phineas wants Gene to stop studying and go for a swim with him. Gene already feels jealous of Finny's charisma and athleticism, so he feels burdened to have to always do what Phineas wants to do. It seems as though Phineas is jealous of Gene's academic achievements and Gene is jealous of Finny's athletic ones. If they simply had accepted each other for who they are, they could have avoided the next scene where Gene jounces his friend out of the tree and breaks Finny's leg. Because of this tragic incident, Phineas loses the ability to be an athlete and they both must accept the reasons behind the accident--an unaccepting nature and jealousy. 

Gene admits responsibility for breaking Finny's leg in chapter 5, but Phineas can't accept that his best friend would do something like that on purpose. As a result, they both live in denial about Gene having been ugly to his friend and Finny being forced completely out of sports, and out of the war, forever. It isn't until Phineas breaks his leg again in chapter 11 that the boys are forced to accept each other and themselves completely. For example, once Phineas breaks his leg for the second time, it is closer to the end of his senior year and the time when he would be allowed to enlist in the military. This second break drives home the reality in Finny's mind that he is too injured to go fight in the war--something he really wanted to do. Then for Gene, the second break allows him to revisit his responsibility for the first break with his friend. He and Finny both have to accept the ugliness Gene felt inside that forced him to jounce the limb like he did. Finny says the following about Gene's state of mind at the time:

"It was just some kind of blind impulse you had in the tree there, you didn't know what you were doing. Was that it?" (191).

Gene claims that Phineas analyzed the situation correctly, but that he is also very sorry about it all. Phineas shows a merciful and generous nature by forgiving Gene for breaking his leg. As a result of this final conversation between the boys, they are each able to accept each other as well as themselves for the mistakes. It is alway so much better to accept others (and ourselves) for who they are; otherwise, we are bound to make mistakes and presumptions that cause everyone unnecessary drama.

How does Yeats' "An Irish Airman Foresees His Death" represent modern Irish life?

Yeats' "An Irish Airman Foresees His Death" represents modern Irish life (i.e., life in Ireland circa 1920) by illustrating the bondage Irish citizens had to endure living under the oppressive control of the British Empire. 

The poem describes an airman's experience fighting in World War I, and it would have been indicative of many Irish citizens' attitude toward both the war and Great Britain. In the poem, the narrator asserts "Those that I fight I do not hate/ Those that I guard I do not love" (2-3). In these lines, he's referencing the fact that he, like many Irishmen, is compelled to fight a war he does not agree with for an oppressive regime he hates. Moreover, it appears that the airman has gone to war in order to die and escape his miserable existence (13-16). As such, Yeats illustrates the oppressive yoke that Irish people of his day had to endure, as he shows an Irish man choosing death in battle over a life lived beneath the heel of Great Britain's political domination. 

How does the size of a cell relate to the size of the animal or plant?

I'm unsure of exactly what you might be asking. I think one question might be about the difference in cell size between plant cells and animal cells. In general, plant cells are larger than animal cells.  

But, I don't feel that is the actual question being asked. I think that you are asking how cell size relates to the size of organisms in general. For example, do large organisms have large cells? If that is the question, then the answer is no. The size of the cell is not related to the size of the organism. Large organisms are large because they have many cells.  

The size of the cell is determined by a few factors, but the most important factor is the surface area to volume ratio. The surface area is referring to the surface area of the cell membrane, and the volume is the capacity of the cytoplasm. Cells want large amounts of surface area to help with diffusion and osmosis, but in general, a cell needs a small volume to efficiently move items throughout the cell. Since volume increases at a cubic rate and surface area increases at a squared rate, the best surface area to volume ratio is found in small cells. However, if the cell is too small, mitotic divisions struggle to occur properly. The centrioles and spindles simply do not have enough room to work. 

In Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby, what is Nick's meaning when he balances Gatsby's supposed corruption against his incorruptible dream?

That line is delivered in Chapter 8, as Nick is waving good-bye to Gatsby on the morning after the disastrous Sunday afternoon trip to the city.  It is the last time he will see Gatsby alive.  Gatsby has just told Nick the truth about who he is (originally James Gatz of North Dakota) and of how he first fell in love with Daisy.

Nick calls Gatsby "corrupt" because he is a pretender.  His money is made from selling "grain alcohol over the counter" of a string of drugstores (this is during Prohibition).   This would be shocking to the guests at his parties, who had "guessed at his corruption," that is, guessed that his money was not honestly earned or inherited, though Gatsby is passing himself off as upper-class.

Gatsby has deceived Daisy as well.  When they first met, he did not intend to fall in love with her, pursue her, and marry her.  He was a poor boy who was besotted with the kind of life she lived (her house, for example), and wanted to belong to that world.  He knew that he could never do this, so he intended just to seduce Daisy and then get away before she realized that he had deceived her.  But they accidentally fell in love.  Then Gatsby was sent away to the war, and while he was gone, Daisy married Tom.  

Gatsby has spent the last four years trying to become what Daisy thought he was, so that he can win her back "honestly."  And this is his incorruptible dream: that he can actually turn himself into someone else ... into his "Platonic ideal" of himself, as Nick calls it.  James Gatz can turn into Jay Gatsby, and he can go back and re-create the past: he can be Jay Gatsby, truly rich, truly worthy of Daisy, and he and Daisy can fall in love as they did five years ago, but get married this time.  Gatsby's incorruptible dream is the whole scene: himself, rich and sophisticated, in love with Daisy, and Daisy in love with him.  Of course, it is not possible to achieve this, but Nick sees and, in a sense, respects Gatsby's dream.

Was Jerome K. Jerome a lazy person?

We should not confuse the author of the novel Three Men in a Boat with its main character. Jerome K. Jerome is the author. He based this book on a series of actual river trips he made with two friends, but without a dog. Even though “J.,” the narrator of the story, shares some common characteristics with the author, the two are not the same individual. Jerome was a humor essayist, journalist and author. His character “J.” doesn’t seem to have much of an occupation, other than expressing his opinions and telling stories. And in Chapter XV, he lets us know what he thinks of work.

It always does seem to me that I am doing more work than I should do. It is not that I object to the work, mind you; I like work: it fascinates me. I can sit and look at it for hours. I love to keep it by me: the idea of getting rid of it nearly breaks my heart.

You cannot give me too much work; to accumulate work has almost become a passion with me: my study is so full of it now, that there is hardly an inch of room for any more. I shall have to throw out a wing soon.

The narrator paints a picture here—and elsewhere in his storytelling—that he famously tries to avoid work whenever he can. He just lets it pile up without attending to it, he says. But his actions don’t always support this claim. Yes, he would prefer that George and Harris do the heavy work on the boat. But he does his fair share when they don’t. He helped to plan and to execute this boat trip along the river, which indicates that he has organizational skills. And he makes a good third for this team of three men. Each one has a personality and a skill set that makes up for deficiencies of the others. The fact that “J.” is writing down all of these stories, or at least retelling them for the readers’ benefit, shows that he is meticulous about remembering and recording details. A truly lazy person may say, “Why bother?” I believe that neither Jerome or “J.” are lazy individuals.

By acquiring the Louisiana Territory from France, how did President Jefferson demonstrate that he had modified his beliefs as they related to the...

Thomas Jefferson believed in a strict interpretation of the Constitution. A person with a strict view of the Constitution believes you can only do what the Constitution specifically says you can do. This view is in contrast to somebody who has a loose view of the Constitution. A person with a loose view of the Constitution believes you can do anything unless the Constitution specifically says you can’t do something.

When Napoleon made us the offer to buy the entire Louisiana Territory for $15 million, most people thought this was a great idea. This purchase would double the size of the country. However, President Jefferson believed that since the Constitution didn’t specifically mention that the President could buy land, it was something he shouldn’t do. However, President Jefferson showed flexibility in his thinking and in his beliefs regarding how the Constitution should be interpreted by agreeing to make the Louisiana Purchase with France. By making the decision to buy this land, President Jefferson, at least in this case, followed the thinking of a person who believed in a loose view of the Constitution.

How is being in jail starting to change Steve's perception of himself?

While Steve is in jail, his perception of himself begins to change. Being around violent criminals all day has forced Steve to develop a tough outward personality. Steve refuses to smile out of fear that he will be viewed as weak. Steve also begins to notice that he looks similar to many of the inmates. He begins to question whether he is actually different from them or not. Steve also begins to question his outlook on life in regards to his values and morals. Listening to the other inmates trying to justify their immoral actions has made Steve question his own innocence. He wonders if he is trying to trick himself into believing that he is actually innocent like the others. Steve also questions his mental stability. When he thinks about the possibility of spending the rest of his life in jail, Steve contemplates suicide because he doesn't think that he could last that long.

How did Mrs. Johansen, Annemarie, and Ellen get to Uncle Henrik's house in Number the Stars by Lois Lowry?

In Chapter Six, Mrs. Johansen, Annemarie, and Ellen take the train to Uncle Henrik's house in Gilleleje. When they step off the train at the station, they have to walk about two miles to Uncle Henrik's house.

As it is a nice day, Mrs. Johansen suggests they take the path through the woods; all three make their way to the outskirts of the village on foot. Along the way, Mrs. Johansen shows the girls where her Aunt Gitte and her best friend, Helena, used to live. Soon, they come to a dirt path leading into the woods. Mrs. Johansen tells the girls this is where her faithful dog, Trofast, used to wait for her every afternoon after school. Upon emerging from the woods, they then come upon a 'meadow dotted with cows.' As they walk along the path that skirts the edge of the field, they can see beyond to the sea.

More walking eventually takes the women into the woods again. Mrs. Johansen and the girls are relieved to eventually come to Uncle Henrik's home in a clearing just beyond the woods.

Briefly summarize Plutarch's Roman Lives.

Roman Lives is a collection of biographies of six prominent classical Roman figures. These profiles are Plutarch's attempt to inform and remind political leaders of his time of their historical predecessors' foibles and strengths, and the ways in which these characteristics influenced history. The collection covers the lives of Coriolanus (a general during the 5th century B.C.), Pompey (consul of the Roman Republic during the 1st century B.C.), Julius Caesar (Roman dictator also of the 1st century B.C.), Mark Antony (a military and political leader, and Julius Caesar's contemporary and associate), Cicero (a philosopher and politician of the same era), and Brutus (Roman senator, military leader, and conspirator in the assassination of Julius Caesar). Through these six biographies, Plutarch offers a view of the upper echelon of political power in the Roman Empire of the time, and the violence engendered by their struggles to maintain that power.

How does Laertes behave when he returns to Elsinore after his father's death in Shakespeare's Hamlet?

From the moment Laertes returns to Elsinore in Act IV, Scene 4, he is a man of action. When we last saw him, he was preparing to leave for school. Then, he was a practical and politically astute man. He warned Ophelia to “fear” the fact that, as a prince, Hamlet’s wife would be the result of political expediency, not love (I.3.16-33). He patiently endured a rambling (second) farewell from his father, then took his leave with dignity and grace.

Compare that figure, then, to the man who storms into Elsinore in Act IV. Laertes is now leading a rebellion upon the castle:

[Y]oung Laertes, in riotous head,
O’bears your officers. The rabble call him Lord...
They cry, "Choose we! Laertes shall be king!" 
                                                     IV.4.104-10

When Laertes barges into the throne room and finds Claudius, there is no sense of loyalty or political decorum. He calls Claudius “vile king” and forcibly demands answers from him.

Laertes is enraged over his father’s mysterious death and “obscure funeral" (213), where Polonius received no political honors or rites. It seems Laertes will stop at nothing to get answers. Only Ophelia’s madness gives him momentary pause, but Claudius manages to stoke Laertes’s wrath once more and focus it on a new target: Hamlet. That done, we once again see the change Laertes has undergone since Act I as he swears he would go so far as to “cut [Hamlet’s] throat i’ the church” (IV.6.122).

From there, Laertes is just different shades of vengeful grief: jumping into his sister’s grave, getting into a fistfight with Hamlet over her body, and concocting a plot to poison the prince.

But the honorable and conscientious Laertes of Act I is not completely gone. Before striking Hamlet with the poisoned sword tip, he tells us killing Hamlet now is “almost against [his] conscience” (V.2.290). When Laertes is poisoned, his Act I self comes to the fore once more. He confesses his sin to Hamlet and points the finger at the master culprit: “The king! The king’s to blame!” (314)

All of this action is precipitated by the unjust murder of Laertes’s father. For deeper insight into the play, consider how Laertes’s actions differ from Hamlet's, who is also motivated by a father’s murder. It tells us much about the difference between these two men—and why Shakespeare chose to write a play called Hamlet and not one called Laertes.

What is bilingualism?

Introduction

Bilingualism is generally defined as the state of knowing two languages. This term is now commonly extended to include multilingualism, the state of knowing three or more languages. Bilingualism has long been of interest to psychologists because it raises interesting questions about the nature of linguistic knowledge and the nature of learning. In addition, because language is intimately tied to culture and one’s sense of group identification, bilingual people may have a more complex and multifaceted sense of self and group identity than monolinguals.

To Know a Language

Knowing a language requires, at a minimum, knowledge of vocabulary (words, how they are pronounced, and the concepts to which they refer) and grammar (the rules for combining words into well-formed sentences). Conventionally, knowing a language also means understanding how to read and write it and how to use it (for example, when to use formal or informal language, proper forms of address, and so forth). This last type of knowledge is often called "communicative competence."

Knowledge of one’s native language usually involves all these components. However, knowledge of a second or third language may be limited: for example, a bilingual person may be better at reading and writing in the second language than at listening and speaking, know only a specific vocabulary (such as that related to work), speak with a heavy accent, or produce ungrammatical sentences.

Types of Bilingualism

Bilingualism is considered to be coordinate, compound, or subordinate. In coordinate bilingualism, a person has parallel but separate systems for each language. This type of bilingualism is most common among people who grew up in two-language households and acquired both languages from infancy. In compound bilingualism, the person does not completely separate the two languages. Typically, the person has a unified concept for physical objects or abstract ideas that is expressed by two different words. Subordinate bilingualism arises when the second language is learned after childhood and sometimes in formal settings: in this case, the person is clearly less proficient in the second language than in the first. Also relevant to this discussion is the notion of language dominance. A bilingual person’s native language is usually the dominant one, but there are exceptions. For example, immigrant children who speak their native language at home may be more eloquent and literate in the ambient language, their second language.

Another common distinction is between simultaneous bilingualism, in which two languages are acquired at the same time in early childhood, and sequential bilingualism, in which the second language is learned later in life. Simultaneous bilingual people, sometimes called "early bilinguals," are typically fully proficient in both languages. However, it is also typical for one language to become more dominant than the other, based on the amount of use. Sequential, or late, bilinguals are likely to exhibit characteristics of nonnative speakers (such as foreign accents or errors in sentence construction), which has led to the idea that the age of language acquisition has an effect on the ability to learn language. The critical period hypothesis proposes that there is a critical developmental period for the acquisition of language, after which native proficiency may never be achieved.

Approaches to the Study of Bilingualism

Bilingualism is a complex, multifaceted area of study that can be approached from many perspectives, including linguistic and psycholinguistic, social, and pedagogical.

Linguistic and Psycholinguistic

In 1957, linguist Noam Chomsky proposed that human beings are endowed with an innate capacity to acquire language: all they need is exposure to language, and the acquisition device figures out the grammar. It has been a matter of some debate whether bilinguals, especially sequential bilinguals, are able to acquire their second language in the same fashion as their first or whether they require the use of general learning strategies, such as rote memorization, and the explicit learning of grammar.

It is clear that on the way to becoming bilingual, second-language learners, unlike native speakers, develop an interlanguage. Certain aspects of this interlanguage may be due to transfer of some aspect of a first language to a second: for example, second-language words may be pronounced with a foreign accent or inflections may be omitted. Other aspects may reflect a universal developmental sequence that learners of a first or second language go through. At a given point in time, a second-language learner develops a stable grammar, or set of rules, for the interlanguage.

Psycholinguistic approaches to bilingualism acknowledge a distinction between knowing a second language (as demonstrated in paper-and-pencil tests) and being able to use that knowledge under time constraints. As speakers and listeners, human beings are time bound: by some estimates, the average speaking rate is 180 words per minute, or 3 words per second. Listeners, of course, must be able to process spoken language efficiently or risk lagging behind and missing some portion of the spoken message. Reading rates, interestingly enough, are typically even faster, with proficient readers reading at a rate of 4 words per second. Hence, one focus of psycholinguistic research on bilingualism has been on the extent to which second-language learners are able to accurately extract the meaning conveyed by spoken or written language and whether they do so in the same time frame as native-language users do.

Research on the production of a second language focuses less on timing. Of course, speaking is also time constrained: listeners have trouble attending to very slow speech. However, speakers are certainly able to impose their own internal constraints on the language they produce, pausing, for example, in the face of word-retrieval difficulty. This is even truer of written production—writers may pause indefinitely—and this is one reason that this area has received relatively less attention. Issues of interest include how speakers manage to keep one language suppressed while speaking the other and the degree to which they can shut off the language that is not in use. Many bilinguals who interact regularly with other bilinguals do not do this; rather they routinely switch between languages (this is called "code switching"), sometimes several times per sentence.

Sociolinguistic

These approaches to the study of bilingualism emphasize communicative competence—knowledge of the implicit rules governing interactions with others in the same speech community. These rules include which topics are suitable in given situations, which speech styles are appropriate for different people, and even when to speak or be silent. If they lack communicative competence, even bilinguals with near-native linguistic competence will stand out as nonnative or be received uneasily by monolinguals in a given speech community. For example, American English speakers expect a response of “Fine,” “Great,” or even “Hey” to the question “How are you?” which is functionally a greeting rather than a question. Nonnative speakers may not know this.

Bilinguals’ varying degrees of communicative competence in their multiple speech communities can complicate their sense of identity and their sense of belonging to a specific community. This, combined with other factors, such as the relative social status of their languages, may increase or decrease the likelihood that they will desire (or be able) to belong to a certain speech community. Communicative competence can even vary across different situations, such as interactions with elders versus those with peers. Some bilinguals may report feeling that they do not completely belong in any given community or feeling uncomfortable using their native language because of the limited contextual rules they know for it. Others, however, report appreciating the larger social access they have because of their ability to communicate in more than one language.

Pedagogical

The pedagogical approach examines two major populations of interest: the students who are nonnative speakers of the community language (second-language learners) and the students who are native speakers of the community language and are learning another language (foreign-language learners). In general, these two types of learners acquire a target language under vastly different circumstances.

Many second-language learners are immigrants who are immersed in the new language and must gain communicative and academic competence quickly. In some cases, a student’s native language is not used at all to teach the new language. This is particularly true of school-aged students because in the United States, they are most likely to be subject to state laws regarding bilingual education. These laws determine whether and how long nonnative English speakers may receive instruction or support in their native or heritage language within American public schools. Many states do not allow any instruction in a student’s native language, and students are simply expected to acquire the language, along with communicative competence to interact in the new language in the new culture.

Foreign-language learners must gain some communicative competence in the relatively short amount of time they spend in the classroom. Foreign-language teaching methods vary depending on the context and the learners’ goals. Large classes and minimal instructor support generally require the grammar-translation method, as it includes little writing, speaking, or interaction, and instead focuses on grammar learning. Given the readily available teaching materials developed for this method, lesson preparation may be relatively less time consuming. This method is also commonly used for those who want to learn to read in a language for research purposes but do not plan to write or otherwise communicate in the language. If listening and speaking skills are the focus, then the audiolingual method may be employed. This involves listening to, repeating, and memorizing dialogues, giving a learner practice with vocabulary, word order, and pronunciation. Most basic language programs in American universities favor the communicative language teaching approach, which counts communicative competence as the ultimate learning goal, even if some grammatical accuracy is sacrificed. This is ideal for those who plan to travel, study, or work abroad for a limited amount of time, but who do not need to be highly proficient in the language. Those who need higher proficiency for work, study, or assimilation purposes typically move on to content-based learning, where a given field is studied in the foreign language (for example, business in German or literature in Russian).

Foreign-language students who wish to become highly fluent generally need a period of time in an immersion situation, living and interacting with speakers of the target language. Not only does this provide a context for the development of communicative competence, it provides a way for learners to achieve real fluency in the language through sheer practice.

Bibliography

Birdsong, David, ed. Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahwah: Erlbaum, 1999. Print.

De Bot, Kees, Wander Lowie, and Marjolyn Verspoor. Second Language Acquisition: An Advanced Resource Book. New York: Routledge, 2005. Print.

Grosjean, François, and Ping Li. The Psycholinguistics of Bilingualism. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. Print.

Kroll, Judith F., and Annette M. B. De Groot, eds. Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. Print.

Nicol, Janet, ed. One Mind, Two Languages: Bilingual Language Processing. Malden: Blackwell, 2001. Print.

Rosé, Carlos D. "Bilingual Families." KidsHealth.org. Nemours Foundation, Aug. 2011. Web. 18 Feb. 2014.

Sanz, Cristina, ed. Mind and Context in Adult Second Language Acquisition. Washington, DC: Georgetown UP, 2005. Print.

Saville-Troike, Muriel. Introducing Second Language Acquisition. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2012. Print.

Spada, Nina, and Patsy M. Lightbown. How Languages Are Learned. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2013. Print.