How did physical geography climate influence the development of civilization in India?

There are a number of advantages that the geography and climate of India offers.  Many of these led to the development of civilization on the subcontinent. The availability of rivers was important for farming.  The earliest civilizations developed along the Indus River, which was fed by the Saraswati River.  The Ganges River was another important body of water in India.  Rivers provided water for irrigating the fields but also were an excellent means of transportation which encouraged trade and commerce.  

The climate is warm with a rainy season caused by the seasonal monsoons. These conditions also made India favorable for farming.  While the monsoons could cause the rivers to flood, this was also a positive because when the waters receded, a mineral-rich layer of silt was left behind.  The mountains and deserts around the Indus River Valley were also important because they protected the river valleys from invasion by nomadic warriors.  All of these geographical advantages enabled the development of prosperous civilizations along the rivers of India.  

What is a brief overview of antidepressant medications?

Introduction

In the early 1950s, psychotherapy was being used to treat people with major depression, but researchers were looking for more effective means of treatment, including pharmaceuticals. The first
antidepressant, iproniazid, was discovered accidentally while it was being used to treat tuberculosis. This monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) was found to improve the mood of the patients it was used to treat, and this suggested that depression could be treated through pharmacological means. When this first antidepressant was found to cause damage to the liver, it was replaced by imipramine, the first tricyclic antidepressant. Although imipramine was effective in treating nearly two-thirds of the cases of major depression, it was accompanied by a number of side effects, including sleepiness, palpitations, dry mouth, and constipation.

Second-Generation Antidepressants

Over the next quarter century, there were many attempts to synthesize antidepressants that were not fraught prowith side effects. It became apparent that both MAOIs and tricyclics affected multiple neurotransmitters and thus had numerous side effects. Therefore, researchers directed their attention to the development of a medication that would affect a single neurotransmitter only. In 1971, the first antidepressant medication to block the uptake of only one neurotransmitter was released in the form of fluoxetine (Prozac). This medication, still widely used, was the first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). Since the 1970s, the second-generation antidepressants Prozac, paroxetine (Paxil), and sertraline (Zoloft) have been the most commonly used antidepressants.

Additional Antidepressants

The pharmaceutical industry has improved technology to the point where drug makers are capable of producing antidepressant medications that act on more than one neurotransmitter without causing large numbers of side effects. This category of drugs is commonly referred to as the dual reuptake inhibitors. The most common of these dual reuptake inhibitors are the serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). SNRIs include venlafaxine (Effexor) and duloxetine (Cymbalta). These SNRIs increase the levels of both serotonin and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) in the brain by inhibiting the reabsorption of these neurotransmitters by brain cells. Although the mode of action by which these dual reuptake inhibitors function is uncertain, it is believed that the increased levels of serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain enhance the transmission of nerve impulses, thereby improving and elevating affect. These and other modern antidepressants fall into the category of atypical antidepressants. Medications that are considered atypical antidepressants do not easily fit in any other category of drugs while inhibiting the uptake of several neurotransmitters within the brain. Another commonly used drug in this category is buproprion (Wellbutrin). These medications are typically taken orally and in pill form.

Natural Antidepressants

There are dozens of over-the-counter remedies and supplements that are marketed as antidepressants. For many of these substances, there is little, if any evidence of their safeness or effectiveness. One herbal supplement, St. John’s wort, is quite commonly used to counter depression and has been shown to be highly effective in some studies. This herbal remedy comes from a plant with yellow flowers. Derivatives of this plant were first used medicinally in ancient Greece. Although St. John’s wort was initially used to treat pain or for sedation, it has come to be used mainly as an over-the-counter antidepressant. Studies are ongoing to determine if St. John’s wort really has antidepressant effects or if people are merely responding to their own expectations (creating a placebo effect).

Bibliography

Baumel, S. Natural Antidepressants: Tried and True Remedies from Nature’s Pharmacy. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998. Print.

Breggin, Peter R. The Anti-Depressant Fact Book: What Your Doctor Won’t Tell You About Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, Celexa, and Luvox. Cambridge: Perseus, 2001. Print.

Glenmullen, J. The Antidepressant Solution: A Step-by-Step Guide to Safely Overcoming Antidepressant Withdrawal, Dependence, and “Addiction.” New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006. Print.

Hansen, R. A., et al. “Efficacy and Safety of Second-Generation Antidepressants in the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder.” Annals of Internal Medicine 143 (2005): 415–26. Print.

Kee, Joyce LeFever, Evelyn R. Hayes, and Linda E, McCuistion. Pharmacology: A Patient-Centered Nursing Process Approach. 8th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier, 2014. Print.

Kirsch, Irving. The Emperor's New Drugs: Exploding the Antidepressant Myth. New York: Basic, 2011. Print.

Hart, Carl L., and Charles Ksir. Drugs, Society, and Human Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011. Print.

Muir, Alice Jane. Overcoming Depression. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2013. Print.

Sharp, Katherine. Coming of Age on Zoloft: How Antidepressants Cheered Us Up, Let Us Down, and Changed Who We Are. New York: Harper Perennial, 2012. Print.

How should teachers deal with disrespect in the classroom?

Confrontational or defiant students can cause teachers to lose face in the classroom and therefore affect the teachers' ability to help the other students learn. If a student is disrespectful, most experts agree that a teacher should not confront the student in front of other students (see the NEA article in the link below). Instead, a teacher should ask the confrontational student to stop by after class and speak with the student in a respectful and fair manner that emphasizes coaching the student to behave better. If a student is being highly disruptive, he or she should be asked to leave the classroom for some period of time. When the student returns--whether it's later that day or the next--the student should be allowed an opportunity to be reintegrated into the classroom to convey to the student and the other students that the teacher doesn't hold a grudge. For example, a teacher can ask that student a question or assign him or her a specific role, such as acting as a note-taker during a class discussion. 

Finally, the teacher should do his or her homework about this student by speaking with people in the school who know him or her, including previous teachers, psychologists, administrators, etc. If the teacher understands why the student is acting out (for example, the student might be facing personal issues or trouble at home), the teacher will be more likely to help integrate that student into the classroom in a productive way. 

In Chapter 9, what is the name of the woman who helps Brent build the whirligig?

If you are referring to the female artist Brent met in Weeksboro, Maine, the answer is that the author never reveals the name of the woman.

Both Brent and the artist share an intimate heart-to-heart talk at the artist's home, but they never exchange names. So, how does the artist help Brent? Basically, her help is largely psychological in nature. She helps Brent to see that his art is meaningful and that he is still a good person who has much happiness to give the world. She encourages Brent to forgive himself and to understand that everyone makes mistakes.

After Brent confesses his part in Lea's death, the artist demonstrates her support for his project by allowing him to mount his finished whirligig on a metal pole on her property. Later, despite her invitation, Brent does not stay for dinner but politely bids farewell to the artist. While preparing for his trip home, he feels 'oddly buoyant' because his confession to the artist has been emotionally cathartic. Her understanding and compassion has allowed him to believe that, even though the guilt will never fully go away, his future need not be dark and hopeless. He realizes that he can continue Lea's legacy, and he contemplates planting a whirligig in every state in America in her memory.

Why is space called space? As in, who named it?

This is an interesting question. First, it should be noted that while we aren't able to absolutely say who first used the word "space" to refer to the vacuum of outer space, we are able to say with some confidence that the earliest usage of the word in that context may have occurred in 1667 in the epic poem Paradise Lost by John Milton. This implies that it was at least already being used somewhat commonly with this meaning. 

Prior to Milton, the word "space" has its history in English stretching back as far as the 14th century, variously meaning "place, extent of time, territory, distance between two points." The word descends from the Old French word "espace", ultimately from the Latin "spatium", with more or less the same meaning as its English descendant. Though we now know that outer space is not entirely "empty", we can see the relationship between the concept of space as the empty void between the heavenly bodies and the idea of the word space referring to the empty area between places or points in time. 

What are gastrointestinal complications during cancer treatment?

Related conditions:
Nausea, vomiting, oral mucositis, diarrhea, constipation, impaction, bowel obstruction, radiation enteritis

Definition:
Upper gastrointestinal complications of cancer treatment include nausea and vomiting, decreased appetite, mouth sores or inflammation (mucositis), and thrush (yeast infection of the mouth). Lower gastrointestinal complications of cancer treatment include diarrhea, constipation (infrequent passage of dry, hard stools), fecal impaction (accumulation of dry, hardened feces in the rectum or colon), bowel obstruction (blockage), and radiation enteritis (inflammation of the bowel lining due to radiation therapy).

Risk factors: Upper and lower gastrointestinal complications may occur as a result of cancer treatment, such as chemotherapy or other medications given to treat cancer, radiation therapy to the pelvis or abdomen, or surgery. These symptoms also may be the result of an underlying condition, including cancer, central nervous system disorders, bowel obstruction, diverticulitis (outpouchings of the colon), and hernia.

Upper gastrointestinal symptoms may occur as signs or symptoms of esophageal, laryngeal, and other cancers. Lower gastrointestinal symptoms may occur as signs or symptoms of gastric cancer, colon cancer, rectal cancer, bowel cancer, and other cancers. These symptoms also may occur upon the growth or spread of these types of cancer.

Anxiety about cancer or cancer treatment can contribute to the development of gastrointestinal symptoms. In addition, a history of lactose intolerance can increase the patient’s risk of developing lower gastrointestinal complications associated with cancer treatment. Aging and declining health are other contributing factors.

Etiology and the disease process: Chemotherapy and radiation therapy can cause changes in the function of the intestines, including increased or decreased peristalsis (the wavelike contraction of the muscles to propel contents through the digestive tract). An increase in peristalsis can cause stool to move more quickly through the intestines, leading to diarrhea and cramping. A decrease in peristalsis can cause stool to move more slowly through the intestines, leading to constipation, difficulty passing stool, and, in severe cases, fecal impaction, a condition requiring emergency attention. Chemotherapy can also change the normal bacteria in the intestines, causing abdominal pain, cramping, or gas. Fungal, parasitic, or viral pathogens also may contribute to diarrhea.

Partial or complete intestinal or bowel obstructions may occur as the result of a tumor, postoperative adhesion, or a hernia.

Nausea is controlled by part of the central nervous system, and vomiting is a reflex controlled by the brain and stimulated by various triggers, including inflammation in the body. Chemotherapy drugs as well as radiation therapy directed to the gastrointestinal tract, liver, or brain can cause nausea and vomiting. Nausea can also be caused by constipation.

Incidence: Gastrointestinal complications are very common among patients undergoing cancer treatments. The rate of gastrointestinal complications is variable, depending on the type of cancer as well as the extent of the treatment. Side effects may not be the same for each patient or even for patients having the same treatments. In addition, a patient’s side effects may change from one treatment session to the next. The National Cancer Institute reports that 70 to 80 percent of patients undergoing cancer treatment experience nausea and vomiting, and 25 percent of patients experience severe diarrhea.

Symptoms: Gastrointestinal symptoms range from moderate to severe and vary among patients. Symptoms can impede cancer treatment, resulting in a delay, dose reduction, or discontinuation of therapy.

Symptoms of nausea and vomiting may occur during chemotherapy treatment and last a few hours to a few days after treatment. If vomiting occurs for more than twenty-four hours, it is important for patients to notify their physician right away, especially if it is accompanied by abdominal pain or cramping.

Changes in stool frequency, consistency, or volume, or the presence of blood, mucus, or pus in the stool may indicate an underlying disease. If diarrhea occurs more than six times a day or does not resolve within twenty-four hours after taking prescribed antidiarrheal medications, patients should call their physician.

Screening and diagnosis: A thorough review of the patient’s medical history and a physical exam are performed to diagnose gastrointestinal problems. Blood tests can be performed to identify neutropenia, electrolyte imbalances, and renal insufficiency. Stool tests can be performed to identify blood and bacterial, fungal, parasitic, or viral pathogens. Diagnostic tests include upper endoscopy, upper gastrointestinal series (barium swallow), abdominal x-rays, sigmoidoscopy, and colonoscopy.

Treatment and therapy: Symptom management is critical to avoid an interruption in the delivery of cancer treatment. A registered dietitian can provide nutritional therapy to help patients develop eating plans that meet dietary requirements while reducing upper and lower gastrointestinal side effects, helping to make treatment more tolerable. In some cases, antinausea or antidiarrheal medications may be prescribed to help prevent or reduce these troublesome side effects. It is important for patients to ask their physician first before self-treating these side effects, as some over-the-counter remedies could interfere with cancer treatment.

Conservative self-management techniques can be used to manage gastrointestinal complications in many cases. Techniques to manage nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea include the following:

• Increasing fluid intake to prevent dehydration





• Eating bland foods in small amounts





• Following a clear liquid diet of juices and broth until symptoms subside





• Avoiding spicy, high-fat, and sugary foods





• Eating small, frequent meals





• Eating slowly and chewing food completely before swallowing





• Drinking cool beverages after meals





• Taking medication with food, unless advised otherwise





• Eating foods at room temperature

Many of these guidelines are also helpful in managing decreased appetite. Nutritional supplements may be recommended to ensure sufficient caloric and nutrient intake.

Additional tips for managing diarrhea include avoiding high-fiber foods, dairy products, caffeine, and alcoholic beverages and including high-potassium foods, as advised by the doctor.

Techniques for managing abdominal pain include avoiding aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, unless prescribed; avoiding alcohol and nicotine; and limiting caffeine. Techniques for managing constipation include exercising and increasing consumption of fluids and high-fiber foods.

In addition to these recommendations, relaxation techniques such as deep breathing and guided imagery may help. Patients should follow their physician’s specific guidelines for managing treatment side effects and should call the doctor when symptoms are severe or persist for more than twenty-four hours.

Hospitalization is recommended for patients with dehydration, fever, neutropenia, bowel obstruction, fecal impaction, and nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea that results in the inability to maintain adequate hydration or nutrition. Hospitalization is also recommended for patients with chronic diarrhea that does not resolve within twenty-four hours after taking prescribed antidiarrheal medications. Intravenous fluids can be given, and the patient can be closely monitored in the hospital.

Treatment for a bowel obstruction includes surgical removal, a nasogastric tube to relieve a partial obstruction, or a gastrostomy tube to relieve fluid and air buildup. In some cases, an ileostomy or a colostomy may be recommended.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: Gastrointestinal symptoms can be effectively managed with conservative treatments and medications, and they are generally relieved when cancer treatments are completed. There usually are no long-term effects of gastrointestinal symptoms that are properly managed, according to the American Cancer Society.

Left untreated, chronic gastrointestinal symptoms, particularly diarrhea and vomiting, can cause significant morbidity and mortality due to nutritional deficiencies and fluid and electrolyte imbalances that may result in life-threatening dehydration or impaired kidney function. Constipation can lead to fecal impaction, which can be a life-threatening condition requiring immediate medical attention.

Although cancer treatments can create gastrointestinal complications that are temporarily unpleasant to the patient, the potential side effects should be measured against the cancer-fighting benefits of a particular treatment.

American Society of Clinical Oncology. Optimizing Cancer Care: The Importance of Symptom Management. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt, 2001. Print.

Jervoise, H., and N. Andreyev. "Practice Guidance on the Management of Acute and Chronic Gastrointestinal Problems Arising as a Result of Treatment for Cancer." Gut 61.2 (2012): 179–92. Print.

Moore, Katen, and Libby Schmais. Living Well with Cancer: A Nurse Tells You Everything You Need to Know about Managing the Side Effects of Your Treatment. New York: Putnam’s, 2001. Print.

National Cancer Institute. Chemotherapy and You. NIH Publication No. 07-7156. Bethesda: Natl. Institutes of Health, Dept. of Health and Human Services, 2007. Print.

Pettersson, Anna, et al. "Effects of a Dietary Intervention on Acute Gastrointestinal Side Effects and Other Aspects of Health-Related Quality of Life: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Prostate Cancer Patients Undergoing Radiotherapy." Radiotherapy and Oncology 103.3 (2012): 333–40. Print.

Sharma, R., et al. “Management of Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea, Vomiting, Oral Mucositis, and Diarrhea.” Lancet Oncology 6 (2005): 93–102. Print.

Tyson, Leslie B., and Joanne Frankel Kelvin. One Hundred Questions and Answers about Cancer Symptoms and Cancer Treatment Side Effects. Sudbury: Jones, 2005. Print.

Vehreschild, M. J., et al. "Diagnosis and Management of Gastrointestinal Complications in Adult Cancer Patients: Evidence-Based Guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Working Party (AGIHO) of the German Society of Hematology and Oncology (DGHO)." Annals of Oncology 24.5 (2013): 1189–1202. Print.

In "There Will Come Soft Rains" what is the meaning behind the phrase "tick tock"?

The ticking noise represents the technology and the impact it has had on the house as time passes. 

Something terrible happened in this story that turned the people into nothing but spots in paint.  There was a catastrophic event, probably a nuclear bomb.  Since it was obviously a technology that caused the damage, created by people, the house’s technology is significant.  Throughout the story, the house ticks itself closer to its doom. 

In the living room the voice-clock sang, Tick-tock, seven o'clock, time to get up, time to get up, seven o'clock! as if it were afraid that nobody would. The morning house lay empty. The clock ticked on, repeating and repeating its sounds into the emptiness. 

The house is fully automated, and these automations are designed for the convenience of the people.  It is comforting people who are no longer there.  However, they also make the house almost alive too.  It continues to cater to people who are long gone, until its own inevitable destruction. 

The ticking of the clock not only represents the technology that has destroyed the people, it also foreshadows their doom.  As the clock ticks its way through its routine, it is getting closer and closer to the fire. 

Eight-one, tick-tock, eight-one o'clock, off to school, off to work, run, run, eight-one! But no doors slammed, no carpets took the soft tread of rubber heels. It was raining outside. The weather box on the front door sang quietly: "Rain, rain, go away; rubbers, raincoats for today…" And the rain tapped on the empty house, echoing. 

The people do not come back.  They are never coming back.  Yet the storm that destroys the house is an act of nature, not technology.  The house cannot save itself.  Slowly but surely, everything is going back to nature, and back to nothing.  The clock will tick no more.

What are the impacts, positive or negative, of conducting business in an ethical manner?

First off, in this context we generally use the term ethical to mean:

"being in accordance with the rules or standards for right conduct or practice, especially the standards of a profession" (see www.dictionary.com link below).

Likewise, in discussions of this topic, it is common to view "negative" impacts as being those which reduce a company's profit, market share, or value to its shareholders, while positive impacts improve these metrics.  However, to really discuss ethical business practices, we benefit from considering all of the "stakeholders" in a situation.  These are all of the entities affected by a business's actions, even if those effects aren't captured in the normal market price/profit dynamics.  For example, communities benefit in non-financial ways by having certain types of employers, while people can be affected adversely by pollution without having any way for that to negatively impact the polluter's profits.

Stakeholders generally include the firm and its shareholders, PLUS local communities, labor unions, the environment, and government.  What is "ethical" may not always be clear, as these stakeholders may have differing ideas of what constitutes "right behavior".  Therefore, we have to choose whose perspective we are adopting before we can say an action is ethical or not.  Then we can move on to determining its effects. 

Finally, when it comes to measuring effects, we also need to consider the timeframe.  Many decisions may appear to have positive short-term effects, but in the long run lead to severe negative consequences.  Many "breaches" of business ethics fall into this category.

Here's an example:

A company is considering moving production from its home country to a foreign location with dramatically lower labor costs.  The shareholders may consider this ethical, as it represents their right in a capitalist system to place their business as they wish.  The town losing the production may view this as unethical, perhaps because they consider there to be an "implied commitment" on the part of the employer to support the local community, to be a "good citizen".  The impact can be positive for the shareholders, in that lower labor costs are achieved, but this impact may turn negative in the long run if their "disloyalty" results in loss of consumer goodwill and sales drop.

Examples are endless.  To summarize, the question really has no specific answers, but the key elements of the analytic framework are (a) which entity's perspective are you looking through, and (b) how are you measuring positive and negative, and over what timeframe.

If a parent cell has 24 chromosomes how many does each daughter cell have?

The answer to your question depends on whether cells are dividing after mitosis or meiosis.  I will give explanations for both.

During mitosis, the nuclear content of the cells divides just prior to cytokinesis when the cell itself divides.  Prior to mitosis, the DNA contained in the parent cell is duplicated.  This happens during the S (synthesis) phase of interphase.  When mitosis starts the cell still has 24 chromosomes, but there is an extra copy of each.  You can see these as each chromosome, once condensed, appears as an "X".  Each side of the X, is a sister chromatid.  Sister chromatids are exact copies of each other.  

During the process of mitosis the nuclear envelope disappears, chromosomes condense, line up along the metaphase plate, sister chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of the cell, and the nuclear envelope reforms.  After mitosis, the cell splits by cytokinesis.  Because the nuclear content had been copied prior to mitosis, the combination of mitosis and cytokinesis results in 2 identical daughter cells.  After mitosis, the daughter cells would still each have 24 chromosomes.

Nuclear content is also copied prior to meiosis, but the ultimate goal of meiosis is to create sex cells (eggs and sperm) so two rounds of meiosis occur in order to reduce the nuclear content by the end of the process.  During the first round, meiosis I, the nuclear envelope disappears, chromosomes condense and exchange homologous content, homologous chromosomes pair and line up at the metaphase plate, homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles of the cell, the nuclear envelope reforms, and then cytokinesis occurs.  During meiosis II the process is very similar to mitosis.  The nuclear envelope disappears, chromosomes condense, chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate, sister chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of the cell, and the nuclear envelope reforms.  Cytokinesis follows in both daughter cells resulting after meiosis I.  

Because there are two rounds of division without duplication in between, the genetic content is cut in half.  Each of the 4 daughter cells will only end up with half of the genetic content of the parent cell.  Therefore, after meiosis, the daughter cells would have only 12 chromosomes each.  This makes sense because as sex cells they can combine with the sex cell of the opposite sex (each having 12 chromosomes) to create a zygote which would again have the 24 chromosomes.

Why must Thisbe in A Midsummer Night's Dream be played by a man?

In the Elizabethan era, either boys, or youth who had not quite entered puberty, played female roles because acting for women was associated with prostitution. Therefore, women didn't act in legitimate theater groups. In Shakespeare's time, Thisbe would have had to be a male. Shakespeare alludes to this in the play when he has Flute worry that his beard will grow in before he can play the part. 

However, Shakespeare also has Flute play the female Thisbe for laughs. For example, when Thisbe (Flute) is coming close to the hole in the wall where he/she meets "her" lover, "she" says "I kiss the wall's hole/not your lips at all," showing that these not-so-polished players are aware that they are performing roles. This reveals that they are not great actors. 

Today, we obviously don't ban women from the stage, but since Flute, the character who plays the female Thisbe, is a male, it makes sense to keep Flute/Thisbe male, so as not to lose the laugh lines. 

What is the overall mood in Chapters 1-7 of Great Expectations by Charles Dickens? Why do you think Dickens begins the book with this mood?

The first section of Great Expectations narrates Pip’s childhood experiences, and so depicts innocence coming face-to-face with wickedness. The novel starts with Pip in the churchyard, visiting the graves of his parents and siblings. He is confronted by an escaped convict from a nearby prison ship. The convict (Abel Magwitch) threatens him if Pip does not get him a file and some food. Pip does so, but he is now frightened of the law who captures Magwitch and another escaped convict. He fears that the convict will come back for him, or the law will discover that he has stolen the file and food from his sister (with whom he lives) and aided the convicts. This dread establishes the mood of fear, guilt, and lurking punishment until Pip grows up and becomes an apprentice to his brother-in-law, Joe Gargery. During this time, he and Joe also live in fear of Pip’s sister, called Mrs. Joe. She bullies and abuses both of them, and they form a comradeship of mutual protection.

The purpose of this beginning is a reflection of Dickens’s own childhood fears, having been forced to work in a blacking factory while his father is in debtors’ prison (he deals with this in a more direct way in his novel David Copperfield). Dickens’s work often reflects the fears of innocent childhood, caused by the actions of adults. By depicting juvenile characters in this way, Dickens appeals to the child in all of his readers, who often are the victims of the grown-ups in our lives, at least in our own minds. This quickly gains the sympathy of the reader, even after the character grows up. Dickens’s themes often deal with characters who are victims of authority, whether criminals or government policy.

What is the main theme of chapter 3 of To Kill a Mockingbird?

A theme is a unifying or dominant idea found within a text. For chapter three in To Kill a Mockingbird, Scout learns a couple of lessons about tolerance and respect from  Calpurnia and Atticus. First, Calpurnia teaches Scout to be a good hostess by tolerating company. Because Scout criticized Walter Cunningham for drowning his vegetables in syrup, Calpurnia teaches her that it is not up to Scout to look down on other people simply because she has more education, opportunities, and privileges. More specifically, Calpurnia says the following:

"Don't matter who they are, anybody sets foot in this house's yo' comp'ny, and don't you let me catch you remarkin' on their ways like you was so high and mighty! Yo' folks might be better'n the Cunninghams but it don't count for nothin' the way you're disgracin' 'em--" (24-25).

Next, Atticus teaches Scout about tolerance because she doesn't understand why her teacher, Miss Caroline, doesn't want her reading with her father. She also doesn't understand why her teacher smacked her in class for simply telling the truth. After her horrible experience with her first teacher, Scout decides that she doesn't want to go back to school ever again. She figures that since she already knows how to read, her father can educate her like his father did. Atticus doesn't have time for that, though, because he's a lawyer and needs to work every day. As a result, he helps Scout by saying the following:

"First of all. . . if you can learn a simple trick, Scout, you'll get along a lot better with all kinds of folks. You n ever really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view--until you climb into his skin and walk around in it" (30).

Atticus tells Scout to consider her teacher's point of view and experience and maybe it will help her to feel differently towards the situation. This skill helps Scout to learn how to deal with people with more kindness and tolerance, rather than getting angry, throwing fits, yelling, or beating people up.

Why shouldn't the United States have dropped the atomic bomb on Japan? Please answer with three criteria.

There were reasons for and reasons against the United States dropping the atomic bombs on Japan. I will focus on why we shouldn’t have dropped the atomic bombs on Japan.

One reason why we shouldn’t have dropped the two atomic bombs on Japan was that it would kill many innocent civilians. Many Japanese people would die from the radiation and/or would suffer long-term consequences. This weapon wouldn’t just affect the Japanese soldiers. It would affect many Japanese people for generations to come.

Another reason for not dropping the atomic bombs was that it would usher in the atomic age. There would be other countries that would try to get the atomic bomb. If one of these countries got the atomic bomb and believed in different ideologies and philosophies than we believed, it could cause serious worldwide problems. Back in the 1940s as well as today, we worry about the “wrong” countries getting atomic or nuclear weapons.

A third reason for not using the atomic bomb is that we didn’t give Japan enough time to respond to the Potsdam Ultimatum. It was only one week after we issued the warning that the first atomic bomb was dropped. Then we dropped the second bomb just three days after the first atomic bomb was dropped. Many people believe we should have waited longer before dropping the first atomic bomb and then dropping the second atomic bomb.

Finally, some people believe Japan was near defeat in 1945. If we used conventional warfare involving the air force, the army, and the navy, Japan may have surrendered without using these devastating bombs.

There were several reasons why the atomic bombs should not have been dropped on Japan.

How does Miss Emily's odd behavior when her father dies foreshadow the end of the story?

When Miss Emily's father dies, she refuses to let go of his body or even to admit that he has died. When the women of the town visit to offer condolences she has "no trace of grief on her face" and tells them "that her father was not dead." This shows that she has difficulty letting go and foreshadows the fact that she will not let Homer Baron leave her. The town had thought she would marry Homer, but he has stated that he is "not a marrying man." Rather than let him leave and go back to the North, she poisons him. As she did with her father, she refuses to let go of Homer.

Furthermore, by refusing to let go of her father's body she is holding onto decay, and this foreshadows the ending of the story as it becomes evident from the indentation in the pillow and the "long strand of iron gray-hair" upon it that Emily has been lying next to the skeleton of Homer Baron. Next to Emily's pillow lies Homer Baron, whose "body had apparently once lain in the attitude of an embrace."

Which aspects of Whitman's style in "When I Heard the Learn'd Astronomer" help communicate the beauty of nature?

This small bit of Whitman’s Leaves of Grass, eight lines, is a perfect encapsulation of Whitman’s view of nature. The “perfect silence” as he walks in the “mystical moist night-air” contrasts with the drone of the lecturer and the noise of the applause, which made him “sick and tired.” Just as “the charts and diagrams” are contrasted with the actual stars that Whitman sees, but that the lecturer imagines he is measuring, so the outside night air is contrasted with the artificial ambience of the lecture-room. This is how Whitman deals with all human reaction to Nature throughout his book: He acknowledges the activities of Man, his occupations, his travels, his strengths, his foibles, his experiences as a part of civilization (including "charting and measuring"), and then compares it with the sheer, naked beauty of Nature herself; for example, this tribute to Friendship, steeped entirely in natural metaphor:

 “I saw in Louisiana a live-oak growing,

All alone stood it, and the moss hung down from the  branches;

Without any companion it grew there, uttering joyous  leaves of dark green,

And its look, rude, unbending, lusty, made me think  of myself”

a tribute to Friendship, steeped entirely in natural metaphor.

     Whitman believed (taught?) that while Civilization was to be respected, one should never lose sight of Nature in its perfection.

Identify an example of a product whose demand was once inelastic but is now elastic.

In order to answer this question, we should look at the factors that cause demand for a good or service to be elastic or inelastic.  We should then try to think of a product for which these factors have changed over time.

Although different scholars and textbooks use different lists of factors that affect elasticity, I would argue that there are three factors that we should look at here.  These are:

1. Is the good a necessity or can you do without it? If it is a necessity, demand will be inelastic.


2. Are there substitutes that you can buy instead of that good?  If there are no substitutes, demand will be inelastic.


3. What proportion of your income does it take to buy it?  If a good or service costs a small proportion of your income, demand will be inelastic.

What we must do, then, is to look for goods that were once necessities but are not now, goods for which there are now substitutes but for which there previously were no substitutes, and/or goods that were once cheap but are now expensive.  We will be able to find examples of each of the first two of these.

It is not hard to come up with an example of a good that was once a necessity but which is now more of a luxury.  All we have to do is to think of things that have been supplanted by new technologies.  One good example of this would be horses and all things related to keeping horses (stables, harnesses, horseshoes, etc.).  Horses were once a necessity for a large proportion of the population.  Now, horses are simply a recreational “item” for almost everyone.  Therefore demand for horses and their accoutrements is much more elastic today than it once was.

It is also quite easy to think of goods or services for which there were previously no substitutes.  Perhaps the most obvious of these is telephone landlines.  Not long ago, the telephone hooked up to the wall was the only way to communicate with people by voice if they were not near to you.  There was no substitute good that could perform the same function.  Now, there are cell phones that serve as more or less perfect substitutes for landlines.  Therefore, the demand for landlines is much more elastic than it once was.

These are two examples of products whose demand is much more elastic than it once was.  If you need more examples, think of other things that were once indispensable but which can now be substituted or which are now completely unnecessary.

Who betrayed Jesus?

The word “betrayed” is a little misleading, according to one view of the events:  if one believes that the events were preordained and part of the “plan” of the Deity, then all the actions of Peter, Pontius Pilate, and others can be seen in a different light.  But given the political situation in the Roman-occupied areas of Jerusalem, the “betrayal” might be seen as the result of the Jewish leaders at the time.  But they had very little actual power in these situations.  As for Judas and the thirty pieces of silver, this “betrayal” was only the pointing out to the Roman authorities which of the group in the garden of Gesthemene was Jesus, the leader of the apostles (not necessarily familiar to the soldiers by sight).  Another “betrayal” can be seen in Pilate’s poor judgment in releasing Barabbas instead of Jesus, although the actual Jewish population cried out for Barabbas.  This “betrayal” is encapsulated in Lord Francis Bacon’s comment:  “What is truth, said Pontius Pilate and did not stay for an answer.”  Finally, Peter's denial of Jesus' friendship, which was predicted, might be seen as a temporary "betrayal."

What is the role of social media in education?

I would say social media has more than one role in education, and these various roles confer significant advantages and disadvantages. Educators have the responsibility to ensure students benefit from social media in a classroom setting.

Social media can be thought of as another technological tool in a teacher's toolbox. Social media can constructively be used in many ways. For example, a classroom project might be creating a Facebook page for a literary character by choosing favorite quotes, books, and music for the character and uploading photos of what the character might like.  Think about what a page for Jay Gatsby might look like! It might include photos of gangsters and flappers or a clip of people doing the Charleston. Many authors have a Facebook presence today, too, and students could comment on their pages, saying what they like or do not like about their writing. Many authors are happy to accept new Facebook friends. A group can be created on Facebook for group projects or for the entire class. Twitter can be used to summarize a story or to write poems such as haikus. LinkedIn, a form of social media used for professional networking, can be used to construct a student's professional appearance. Social media can also be used as object lessons in how not to bully others or how not to have uncivilized discourse online. These are just a few of the ways a creative teacher can use the resources of social media in education. 

The disadvantages of social media lie in its ability to distract, celebrate the trivial, present negative behaviors to others, and harm mental health and relationships. Students today often cannot seem to put down their devices and focus in their classrooms or on their homework assignments. Some teachers require all electronic devices to be off in the classroom, since it is difficult to control their use. There is little of educational value in learning what a classmate ate for breakfast or looking at more pictures of animals. They have also caused harm in the lives of students foolish enough to post pictures of themselves drinking alcohol or using illegal drugs. Relationships on social media, for teachers and students, can be fraught with risk. Feelings are frequently hurt on Facebook, I am told; people are bullied, and research supports the notion that young people who are users of social media can have feelings of social isolation and depression because of it. While this is not a direct educational harm, it can take away from the feelings of community that every classroom should ideally have. Teachers must be very careful, too, in their social media participation, since all of it can be scrutinized. The faces we present on social media must be above reproach!  

Social media is here to stay, I think. It can be a force for good or evil. It is up to educators to use social media in a way that enhances learning.

What are the conflicts in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twin?

There are a number of the different types of conflicts in the novel.

Man vs. Man:

Tom has adversarial relationships with a number of different characters throughout the novel. The big man vs. man conflict of the novel is between Tom and Injun Joe, since Tom knows about Injun Joe's role in the murder and testifies against him. However, Tom can also be at odds with Becky and Aunt Polly at times in the novel, such as when he and Becky are trying to make each other jealous or when Aunt Polly is punishing him for one of his many exploits. 

Man vs. Nature:

As a kid who roams free through nature during a lot of his childhood, it is to be expected that nature sometimes causes conflict. A major example of this is when Tom is trapped in the caves. Another is the storm on Jackson Island, when a tree is knock right into the boys' camp. 

Man vs. Society:

This conflict is common for Tom, who often scorns what he needs to do to be "respectable," such as wearing shoes and going to church. The conflict is even more important for Huck, though, whom the Widow Douglas attempts to civilize at the end of the book. This is torment for Huck, who is accustomed to living in a wild and free way that makes him an outcast. Though he doesn't like being mistreated, he struggles to act in a way that society can accept.  

In what ways is the narrative about Atticus's fighting racism and prejudice in To Kill a Mockingbird?

Atticus Finch, an aberration in the South of the 1930's, practices with fairness to all in a town firmly entrenched in Jim Crow, and he tries to prevent his children from contracting "Maycomb's usual disease" through his teachings, actions, and speech.

Harper Lee's novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, depicts a Southern town in which little change has occurred in decades. Then, when a lonely "white trash" girl is caught breaking "a rigid and time-honored code" of the town, she attempts to put the evidence of her offense "away from her" by making false accusations against the kind-hearted black man who walks past her yard on his way home and sometimes helps her with tasks. When her father catches her kissing him, he beats her, but still charges Tom with rape in order to cover up both their actions.
After Atticus is assigned the task of defending this black man named Tom Robinson, he becomes the recipient of many invectives, even from members of his extended family. At holiday time, Scout is told by her cousin Francis, 

"Grandma says it's bad enough he [Atticus] lets you all run wild, but now he's turned out a nigger-lover we'll never be able to walk the streets of Maycomb agin. He's ruinin' the family, that's what he's doin'." 

Mrs. Dubose, a neighbor, accuses Atticus of being no better than the "n****s and "trash he works for!" Further, she tells Scout that she will only be waiting on tables when she grows up, then adds,

"Not only a Finch waiting on tables but one in the courthouse lawing for n*****s."

Despite all the negative comments about him, and the challenge of the mob who have come for Tom at the jailhouse before the trial, Atticus has the integrity to do his job. He challenges the men by sitting before the jailhouse door, adamant that no lynch mob may have Tom. Moreover, Atticus firmly believes that a fair trial is for everyone, not just white people. In his closing arguments at Tom's trial, he speaks to the jury, reminding them that in a court of law, "all men are created equal."

Although Atticus has lost in the trial, there are those who respect him, such as Miss Maudie, who tells Alexandra, his sister, that Atticus has been paid a high tribute because he was entrusted with the task "to do right" as he has done for Tom.

What are gender roles and gender role conflicts?

Introduction

Although many people hold certain beliefs about gender and its impact on men and
women's capabilities, these perceived truths are actually evolved psychosocial
constructions called gender roles. Although the sex of a
person is based in biology, gender roles are learned social norms. Although there
are significant biological differences between the sexes, gender is largely viewed
as a social construction that affects individuals' psychosocial
development. Therefore, gender roles are subject to change
over time, and there are significant differences in cross-cultural perspectives on
gender and gender roles.

Family Life

Researchers have found that the gender roles of married couples tend to become
more clearly defined following the birth of a child. Often the woman assumes the
primary responsibility for child care and the greater part of the housework. Some
people see these family gender roles and the unequal distribution of familial
responsibility as unfair and claim that each parent should take equal
responsibility. They argue that placing too much stress on one
parent is not good for the family. In most countries, even women who work outside
the home complete a majority of the housework involved in raising their children
and maintaining their homes. Researchers have found that these working mothers
have fragmented leisure time because their off-work hours are consumed by
household and child-care chores. Since the 1970s, when the women's rights
movement began gaining traction, men's participation in
housework in the United States has nearly doubled, and their time spent on child
care has tripled. However, women still complete the majority of household chores
and child care responsibilities, in accordance with traditional concepts of gender
roles, even in families in which women work equivalent or longer hours outside the
home and earn salaries that are equal to or higher than their husbands. On the
other hand, men are more likely to work longer hours outside the home than women,
and surveys have indicated that a majority of men would prefer to have more time
to dedicate to raising their children.

The household structure in which a person is raised has been shown to correlate
with the degree to which the person as an adult believes in and follows
traditional gender roles. It makes sense logically that family members become used
to a structure they have lived with for all or most of their lives and interpret
it as the norm, especially if they have not experienced any other family
situation. Members of such a family may not even be aware of the existence of
other functional family structures. Kelly found that a significantly higher number
of girls than boys participated in household cleanup, a chore traditionally
associated with women: according to researcher Alison Kelly, 72 percent of
eleven-year-old girls as compared with 29 percent of eleven-year-old boys
participated in household chores. Such childhood experiences are likely to produce
adults who tend to follow traditional gender roles.

Occupation

Occupation is another area in which gender stereotypes abound, and gender roles
can have a significant impact on men's and women's career trajectories and
lifetime earnings. Common gender stereotypes hold that men are better at so-called
"left-brained" skills such as logic mathematics and that women are better at
"right-brained" skills such as language and communication. Kelly found that
parents had a tendency to guide their children toward certain occupations and
interests based on the child's gender. According to Kelly's research, the jobs of
nurse, social worker, and teacher were traditionally seen as more fitting for
women, and manual jobs such as electrician and engineer were considered more
suitable for men. However, Kelly noted that parents did not link all professions
with a specific gender: Jobs such as doctor, manager, and computer operator were
not viewed as being more suitable for either men or women. Kelly concluded that
women business professionals may gain acceptance more easily than women who choose
to work in a trade or craft. Furthermore, social-science research indicates that
the lack of same-gender role models and mentors in traditionally gendered
fields—particularly science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)
careers for women and care-giving careers such as nursing for men—have a
significant impact on dissuading individuals from pursuing their interest in a
particular career.

Salaries and wages are also affected by traditional concepts of gender roles.
According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD), women across the developed world earn approximately
16 percent less than men employed in similar full-time jobs and with similar skill
and experience levels. This wage discrepancy becomes even larger for women with
children, particularly in countries that do not ensure paid maternity and/or
paternity leave following the birth of a child. The pay gap becomes even larger
when comparing all working mothers, not just full-time employees, as many women
opt to return to work part time following the birth of a child, particularly when
they do not have access to maternity leave or affordable child care. This
phenomenon, dubbed "the mommy penalty," relates directly to women's traditional
gender role as the primary caregivers to their children. Women who take time away
from their jobs to have and raise children are often penalized for their absence
with lower wages and fewer opportunities for advancement.

One of Kelly’s major findings is that most of parents interviewed believed in
equality of education and occupational opportunities for both genders, but with
limitations. The parents’ formal commitment to equality coexisted with other
attitudes that might make equality difficult or even impossible, such as a belief
that women have the right to work but only if their work does not interfere with
their roles as mothers. Many parents were idealistic about equality of education
and work, but they saw equality as an ideal rather than as a practical, reachable
goal. Therefore, in essence, these parents exhibited a subtle but real
sexism that likely shaped their children's perceptions of
gender and gender roles.

Education

The behavior of boys and girls at school differs, according to researchers Susan
Jones and Debra Myhill of Exeter University. Boys may underachieve because they
feel that they are supposed to be “macho” or “tough,” and they may view sitting in
a classroom, quietly doing written work, as “wimpy” or “compliant” and therefore
undesirable behavior. Another possible cause of underachievement in boys is that
they typically have weaker hearing than girls; therefore,if they are placed in the
back of the classroom, they may strain to hear the teacher's words and will find
it harder to follow along and accomplish the assigned tasks.

Similarly, Jones notes that girls were once viewed as struggling in a
male-dominated classroom and suffering from low self-esteem
and poor self-confidence as a result. People often repeat the notion that girls
are inferior at math and science, although this attitude is slowly growing less
common. Research has shown that the gender achievement gap in math and science
closes in countries that have high levels of gender equity. In countries with the
highest levels of gender equality, both boys and girls perform better on
standardized mathematics tests. Several researchers have explored the concept of
stereotype
threat, which holds that when individuals are aware of
negative stereotypes about their group (and most children are aware of their
culture's sex stereotypes at a young age), they are likely to conform to those
negative or positive expectations. In a 2001 study by N. Ambady and colleagues,
Asian American girls in kindergarten through the eighth grade were presented with
tasks intended to highlight either their female identity, their Asian identity, or
neither identity, and the girls then completed a grade-level-appropriate
standardized math test. Compared to the group of girls who were not primed to
consider either their racial or sexual identity, girls whose gender had been
emphasized performed worse (conforming to the stereotype that girls are not good
at math) while those girls whose race had been emphasized performed better
(conforming to the stereotype that Asians are good at math). Stereotype threat may
also explain boys' relative underachievement in language arts, as children may not
be motivated to try in certain subjects if they believe they have a particular
gender deficit in that area. Ultimately, long-standing educational gender
stereotypes have the potential to become self-fulfilling prophecies when it comes
to overall achievement in school or in specific subjects, to the detriment of both
girls' and boys' academic performance.

The stereotypes that portray girls as compliant and boys as challenging also
affect the kind of attention that teachers give to each student. Jones argued that
the stereotype of girls as more compliant may make it harder for teachers to
identify underachieving girls than underachieving boys. If teachers do not see
these girls’ performances as problematic, they are not likely to intervene and
help them do better. This results in teachers paying greater attention to
underachieving boys than to underachieving girls, thereby affecting the quality of
the education that the children receive.

Implications

Gender roles have both positive and negative influences on society. One task for
researchers is to find ways, beginning in childhood, to minimize or alter the
negative effects that gender roles have on psychological and intellectual
development. Society may be difficult to change, but gradual alterations in the
definitions of gender roles could help. Another way to minimize negative effects
is to eliminate the inferiority associated with various gender traits.

Bibliography

Bonvillain, Nancy.
Women and Men: Cultural Constructs of Gender. 4th ed.
Upper Saddle River: Pearson, 2007. Print.

Buchanan, Tom. "The Influence of Gender Role
Attitudes on Perceptions of Women's Work Performance and the Importance of
Fair Pay." Sociological Spectrum 34.3 (2014): 203–21.
Print.

Jones, Susan, and
Debra Myhill. “’Troublesome Boys’ and ’Compliant Girls’: Gender Identity and
Perceptions of Achievement and Underachievement.” British Journal of
Sociology of Education 25.5 (2004): 547–61. Print.

Kelly, Alison, et al.
“Gender Roles at Home and School.” British Journal of Sociology of
Education 3.3 (1982): 281–95. Print.

Lindsey, Linda A. Gender Roles: A
Sociological Perspective. 5th ed. Boston: Pearson, 2010.
Print.

Miville, Marie L. Multicultural
Gender Roles: Applications for Mental Health and Education.
Hoboken: Wiley, 2013. Print.

OECD. Closing the Gender Gap: Act
Now. N.p.: OECD, 2012. PDF file.

Patten, Eileen, and Kim Parker. "A Gender
Reversal on Career Aspirations." Pew Research Social and Demographic
Trends. Pew Research Center, 19 Apr. 2012. Web. 31 July
2014.

Perrone-McGovern, Kristin M., Stephen L.
Wright, Desiree S. Howell, and Emily L. Barnum. "Contextual Influences on
Work and Family Roles: Gender, Culture, and Socioeconomic Factors."
Career Development Quarterly 62.1 (2014): 21–28.
Print.

Rampell, Catherine. "The 'Mommy Penalty,'
around the World." Economix. New York Times, 17 Dec. 2012.
Web. 31 July 2014.

Smoreda, Zbigniew, and
Christian Licoppe. “Gender-Specific Use of the Domestic Telephone.”
Social Psychology Quarterly 63 (2000): 238–52.
Print.

Stone, Pamela. Opting Out? Why
Women Really Quit Careers and Head Home. Berkeley: U of
California P, 2008. Print.

Walker, Alexis.
“Couples Watching Television: Gender, Power, and the Remote Control.”
Journal of Marriage and the Family 58.4 (1996): 813–23.
Print.

What are some solutions to the problems caused by using non-renewable resources?

All species use up resources around them as they forage for food, create homes of mud or debris, and survive in a space. Most of the time this is not an issue as populations tend to have a way of balancing themselves out--large populations use up too many resources and the population shrinks allowing resources to regrow.

Humans, on the other hand, are one of the most successful species of our time and we have become masters of our resources and surroundings. In our growth as a species we have found more and more resources and spread out to cover much of the globe to take advantage of all the space. This has created an issue, as the once "infinite" resources we use turned out to be quite limited. We are fully facing the mortality of our resources, and thus our way of life. There are a few areas that are the most critical to human survival, and these include:

Energy: Our current energy infrastructures rely on oil, natural gas, and coal. These have been our staples since the industrial revolution and have helped propel us into being the technological giants we are today. All of these resources are also being quickly diminished as we surpass 7 billion humans and continue to grow exponentially. To continue our growing trend we need to find new solutions for energy, and we've found a few. Wind and solar are proving to be reliable forms and are growing in popularity. Scientists are also researching machines that can harness the kinetic energy of waves and ocean tides to spin turbines for energy. 

Plastic: Gasoline is used as a fuel source, and it can also be used to make plastics. These are used to make everything from plastic shopping bags to toys to cars and other machines. Once our stores of oil run out we will have to find other more renewable resources to replace our black gold. Wood can't replace it as it also cannot be reliably renewed and other materials such as bamboo or cotton are just not as feasible as plastics. To alleviate this issue we turn to recycling efforts to keep as much usable material as we can in the production cycle. 

Fresh water: The amount of usable fresh water on our planet is extremely small when compared to the amount of water on the planet. This presents issues especially in arid and drought-ridden places, where rain is sometimes the only water source. As we continue to pollute and use up our fresh water sources we reduce the area that is livable significantly. To fix this growing issue, communities are turning to collecting rain water and even removing salt from sea water (which is an expensive and high-energy task). We also reuse sewage water after it has been thoroughly cleaned and sanitized. 

There are many other resources that we are using to an extreme (arable land, clean sand for concrete, etc.) each with their own answers and solutions. While our usage and recycling methods may change, there is one thing that will never change: There is no such thing as a limitless resource, and we need to plan our future accordingly. 

How did Heinrich Himmler claim the evacuation of the Jews would help the German nation?

Himmler, a prominent Nazi, was part of the narrative in Germany that stated that the Jews could not be trusted.  His pseudo-scientific approach to understanding race was that the Jews were a less developed form of humanity and they must be removed in order for the Aryan race to fulfill their destiny.  Himmler also tied Communism to being Jewish since many of the leaders of the Russian Revolution were of Jewish ancestry.  In order to cleanse the state of disloyal people, Himmler authorized sending Jews to concentration camps in the name of racial purity.  He also made it illegal for Aryans to marry Jews.  In places the Nazis occupied, such as Austria and the western Soviet Union, he rounded up millions of Jews and sent them to camps so that the land could be occupied by loyal Aryans.  Himmler's distortion of science to serve his own ends was bought into by many Germans who believed that the best hope for the German nation resided in creating a race of pure Germans.  

Is Odysseus a good leader?

When answering this question, it is vital that the reader look to both the Iliad and the Odyssey to determine whether Odysseus meets the criteria of a good leader. First, let us examine his role in ending the siege of Troy and ensuring victory for the Greeks. When all of the invading Greeks have given up hope after the almost ten year long stalemate at the gates of Troy, and after many of his fellow leaders have died (Achilles, Ajax, et all) Odysseus formulates a plan using cunning and subterfuge to penetrate the gates of Troy by hiding himself and other Greeks in the faux gift of the Trojan horse.

The plan requires stealth and creativity, and it also requires Odysseus to convince his comrades that such a ruse could possibly work, when many are skeptical. Of course, the plan does work and leads to the fall of Troy. Without a doubt, this victory proves Odysseus' leadership skills in battle. He gets his men to trust and follow him, using persuasive rhetoric and by appealing to his men's patriotism and desire to get home. These are the hallmarks of a great leader.

Yet in the Odyssey, Odysseus certainly makes some questionable decisions, and all of his countrymen eventually die on that voyage. That said, the voyage home is plagued by the wrath of Poseidon, Aphrodite and other gods who oppose the Greeks and hate Odysseus for sacking Troy. Poseidon controls the seas on which Odysseus and his men travel, and it is debatable whether another leader could have steered his men home safely. They are all so tired from the Trojan War and face such obstacles that their deaths are less an indictment of Odysseus's leadership than a demonstration of Odysseus’ remarkable skill as a survivalist, and the strength of his guardian, Athena.

To examine Odysseus' skills as a leader during his voyage home, one can look to the Island of the Lotus Eaters, where Odysseus's scouts could have been stranded forever, hooked on the narcotic that delays so many there forever. Instead, Odysseus manages to find his men and take them away from the island by force so that they do not become captives to their own sloth, forget their homes and families, and succumb to addiction. Odysseus again displays his creative leadership when he forces his men to fill their ears with wax as they travel by the Sirens, whose sweet songs have shipwrecked thousands of men on the sharp rocks nearby. 

Yet the perils of the ocean and the wrath of gods set against him are too great. Odysseus manages to outsmart the Cyclops, Polythemus, who kills many of his men and enslaves Odysseus for a time. He manages to navigate his ship between the sea monsters, Scylla (the hydra-headed leviathan) and Charybdis (the whirling vortex), and even though many of his men die, others survive because of Odysseus' bravery and unwillingness to succumb to despair.

Odysseus' remaining countrymen die because they fail to heed the warnings of Tiresias and Circe, who tell them not to eat the cattle on the Island of Helios. Odysseus himself does not eat the cattle, and thus survives. Again and again, Odysseus tries to instill in his men the same stoicism and self-control that he possesses, but they are not able to do so. For that reason, it is difficult to lay the blame for their deaths on Odysseus' lack of leadership. If anything, his men might have perished much sooner without his problem solving skills and ability to find inspiration and hope when hope seems like madness.

Can we create new atoms?

Atoms have two very important constituents: a nucleus and an electron cloud. The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, while the electron cloud contains the negatively charged electrons. Atoms form elements and thus are all around us. We can also make new atoms, by one of the two processes: nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. Fusion is the reaction in which smaller nuclei come together to form larger nuclei. Fission, on the other hand, breaks down heavier nuclei into smaller nuclei. 

The process of nuclear fusion takes place in stars, where hydrogen is converted to helium and so on. This process can go on, depending on the mass of the star, until we get iron. During the last moments of the star, further fusion causes heavier elements to be formed, all the way up to uranium. Scientists have successfully created heavier elements (beyond uranium) by bombarding elements with other elements or particles and have achieved atoms of newer, heavier elements. The only downside is that these super-heavy nuclei are unstable and decay to smaller nuclei.

Nuclear fission can be used to break larger nuclei into smaller ones and thus we can create atoms of lighter elements. An example is the decay reaction of uranium which generates lead atoms.

The process of creating atoms is very difficult; in general scientists don't do this.

Hope this helps. 

What is a summary of Beka Lamb?

Beka's story is introduced with conversations about Beka's school award that "befor' time" Beka, a Creole, could not have even qualified for and surely could not have won. Beka had earlier been cautioned by all those whom she knew that awards go to "bakras, panias, or expatriates." But things are changing in Belize "fi sure," as Gran says, and "long befor' time," Beka "wouldn't be at no convent school."

Gran and Miss Eila and Beka (Gran is "Miss Ivy" to Miss Eila) do work, sit, and talk in the evening cool. Gran very early in its history became a member of the People's Independence Party, when it was first forming, and feels personal responsibility for the improvements in Beka's life that allow her to be "a person with 'high mind'" and allow her escape from the "washing bowls underneath the house bottom." Beka sits, instead, in a "classroom overlooking the Caribbean." Supporting the theme of social contrasts resulting from changes in their culture, Gran always tries to answer Beka's questions about what her life would have been "befor' time" with stories from the past. Beka's mother protests this practice and demands Gran stop, fearing that the "befor' time" stories will weaken Beka's resolve to try.  

The tragedy of Toycie is introduced during Beka's conversations and reminiscences. We find out that Toycie, Beka's best friend and schoolmate, has been dead for four months and that Miss Eila is her aunt, not her mother, for her mother "lent" Toycie to Eila and left. Beka thinks about having a private wake for Toycie "in the privacy of [her] own heart" because Eila couldn't afford to give a proper nine day wake--or even a one day wake. But this moment, after receiving her award, is not the right time, and she promises, "I'll keep a wake for you when I wake, I swear by jumby's block." Beka's dream and her later conversation with her father further develop the picture of society in Belize and introduce how her father makes a living at Blanco's Import Commission Agency.

A continuing theme is that Beka's education, if she can manage to pass each term, will allow her "to reach a clearing" where there are "more opportunities nowadays." A contrast between the "miraculous order" in the part of town by the sea, where the girls take their Sunday evening walks, and "the core of the town," where things "always seemed staler, dirtier, noisier and altogether less pleasant," develops a theme about how society divides and constrains the racial groups. Toycie was Beka's companion on these walks, which introduces the story of what happened to Toycie, who had been warned by the Sisters at St. Cecilia’s convent school not to go off with the boys, for she would become pregnant. Revealing more about society, Beka and Gran continue talking about the contrasts between the present time in Belize and the "befor' time" that Gran says "died":

  Beka's Granny Ivy was crying. Her apron tail over her face, and she said again and again,
   "It died, Beka, it died."

The story turns as Beka decides, following her nap that afternoon, to keep her private wake for Toycie by recalling every detail of her own life from the previous April, "when she had failed first form, until today." That earlier April had introduced a big change in her life when "she decided to stop lying."

One change in Beka's life is that she confesses she has failed school, but her parents give her one more chance, which is metaphoric of the chance that Gran and others in the People's Independence Party hope to give to Belize, since the story of Belize is woven in with the story of Beka: Gran's "befor' time" stories and Beka's reminiscences make Belize the fabric of everything happening to Beka and her best friend, Toycie.

Beka returns to school. But Toycie refuses to listen to the sisters' warnings and persists in sneaking off with the pania boy (Spanish and South American Indian) Emilio (Milio). She believes his promise that he will marry her, especially if she gets pregnant. Toycie does become pregnant, but Emilio abandons her, just as her own mother and father had earlier abandoned her and just as the school will now abandon her. Beka's father, acting on Toycie's behalf, tries to convince the Sisters of Charity at the convent school to exhibit charity and take Toycie back as a student. They continue to refuse even though to do so, with Toycie unwed, means that Toycie will be relegated to the lowest castes and end up as a washer-woman, raising her baby in poverty, or as a prostitute.

Toycie's pregnancy is revealed at school because she throws up in the chapel. Toycie can't stand the thought of her life and attempts to drown herself. Although she is saved, regaining her mental stability is futile. She goes out wandering in a hurricane and is struck in the head by a tree uprooted in the storm. Although attempts are made to save her again, she dies. Miss Eila, reduced to near-poverty herself because of the "devaluation" of Belize currency, has Toycie buried without a wake. This is why Beka feels such a strong need to hold a wake in her heart for Toycie: Toycie was not remembered in death and not bidden farewell to, and Beka must do it, even if only privately.

Beka's reminiscences of from "April past" up "until today," which include Toycie's story, end where Beka's story begins, with the award she has won for passing first term. Beka, Gran, Toycie and Belize weave a story about a time when things "change, fi sure," a time that overcomes their lives and culture--even while it gives new opportunities--during the battle against colonial rule and for the freedom of independence.

What are streptococcal infections?

Causes and Symptoms

Among the many bacteria that belong to the genus
Streptococcus, two groups are distinguished for their pathogenicity, the group A streptococci and the group B streptococci. Group A streptococci, common pathogens found in the throat and skin, cause a variety of symptoms in the body, ranging from skin lesions and sore throat to severe, life-threatening infections. The most common infection caused by the group A streptococci is a sore throat commonly known as strep throat. If untreated, the disease may spread to involve other organs, causing otitis media, sinusitis, or tonsillitis. Some children may exhibit later sequelae such as rheumatic fever, and organs such as the heart and joints may be involved. Scarlet fever
is another manifestation, with a rash that starts on the face and moves downward.
Group A streptococci can also affect the skin and cause impetigo
(yellow-crusted, pus-filled lesions), cellulitis, and even infection with the dreaded “flesh-eating bacteria,” necrotizing fasciitis. These bacteria have also been implicated in toxic shock syndrome, previously thought to be caused only by Staphylococcus bacteria.

Group B streptococci, on the other hand, cause mostly severe diseases and mainly affect newborns and pregnant women. These bacteria, found in the genital and intestinal tracts of 20 to 35 percent of healthy adults, can infect a newborn during the birth process. They are the most common cause of neonatal meningitis and sepsis, can cause pneumonia, and are a cause of neonatal death. Group B streptococci also affect pregnant women and can cause amnionitis, urinary tract infections, and stillbirth. They have also been implicated in causing disease in the elderly and in adults with chronic medical conditions.

Treatment and Therapy

Strep throat is diagnosed readily in the clinic by a rapid strep test and can be treated easily with common antibiotics, such as penicillin or cephalosporins. Prevention is the key to avoiding complications of the disease. Maintenance of hygiene (such as washing one's hands after sneezing or coughing), visiting a doctor to rule out streptococcal disease in cases of severe sore throat, and taking any antibiotics prescribed should keep complications at bay. Keeping all wounds clean should prevent the occurrence of skin infections. Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome is an emergency siuation and requires hospitalized care.

Pregnant women should be screened for group B streptococci, and antibiotics are administered during labor to women who are carriers of these bacteria. This practice is quite effective in preventing neonatal meningitis and sepsis. Babies affected by the disease can be treated effectively with antibiotics and management of symptoms.

Bibliography

Fauci, Anthony S., et al, eds. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. 18th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012.

Frazier, Margeret Schell, and Jeanette Wist Drzymkowski. Essentials of Human Diseases and Conditions. 5th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Saunders/Elsevier, 2013.

"Group A Streptococcal Infections." National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Jan. 28, 2010.

"Group B Strep (GBS)." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Mar. 16, 2012.

Randall, Brian. "Strep Throat." Health Library, Sept. 30, 2012.

"Streptococcal Infections." MedlinePlus, May 7, 2013.

Tapley, Donald F., et al., eds. The Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons Complete Home Medical Guide. Rev. 3d ed. New York: Crown, 1995.

What are natural treatments for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)?

Introduction

Chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a permanent lung
condition most often caused by cigarette smoking. The disease begins with a
wheezing cough and gradually progresses to a shortness of breath that accompanies
even the slightest exertion, such as dressing or eating. COPD encompasses both
emphysema and chronic bronchitis.

Emphysema consists of the destruction of the tiny air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs and the weakening of the support structure around them. This leads to a collapse of the small airways in the lungs, especially on inhalation, and reduces the body’s ability to take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide.

Chronic bronchitis consists of chronic inflammation of the airways, causing a
persistent productive cough. This inflammation also impairs the body’s ability to
exchange new air for old. COPD also involves spasm of the airways similar to what
occurs in asthma. Finally, occasional flare-ups occur when bacteria
grow in the lungs, leading to acute exacerbation of symptoms.

Because cigarette smoking contributes to both emphysema and chronic bronchitis,
smokers who have COPD should stop smoking. Quitting smoking will not reverse the
condition, but it might stop COPD from getting worse. Airborne irritants such as
chemical fumes exacerbate symptoms and should also be avoided. Standard treatment
for COPD includes using bronchodilators, such as ipratropium and albuterol, to
reduce muscle spasms and taking corticosteroids to control inflammation
in the airways. Acute flare-ups are treated with antibiotics.
Severe COPD may require continuous oxygen therapy.

Malnutrition is common among people with COPD and seems to
correspond to the severity of the condition. It has been suggested that the
caloric needs of people with COPD increase as the disease progresses. Because
malnutrition in turn can worsen lung function and make people more prone to
infection, many researchers now recommend that persons with COPD receive
supplemental nutrition as part of their treatment.

Principal Proposed Natural Treatments

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) may improve breathing in people with COPD. NAC is a
specially modified form of the dietary amino acid cysteine. Regular use of NAC may
diminish the number of severe bronchitis attacks. A review and meta-analysis
of available research focused on eight reasonably well-designed double-blind,
placebo-controlled trials of NAC in COPD. The results of these studies, involving
about fourteen hundred persons, suggest that NAC taken daily at a dose of 400 to
1,200 milligrams (mg) can reduce the number of acute attacks of severe bronchitis.
However, a subsequent three-year, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 523
people with COPD failed to find benefit with the use of 600 mg of NAC daily.

NAC was once thought to aid lung conditions by helping to break up mucus. However, continuing research casts doubt on this explanation of its action.

Other Proposed Natural Treatments

Evidence from three double-blind, placebo-controlled studies that enrolled forty-nine persons suggests that the supplement L-carnitine can improve exercise tolerance in COPD, presumably by improving muscular efficiency in the lungs and other muscles.

Eucalyptus is a standard ingredient in cough drops and in oils sometimes added
to humidifiers. A combination essential oil therapy containing
cineole from eucalyptus, d-limonene from citrus fruit, and alpha-pinene from pine
has been studied for a variety of respiratory conditions. Because these oils are
in a chemical family called monoterpenes, the treatment is called essential oil
monoterpenes. A three-month double-blind trial of 246 persons with chronic
bronchitis found that oral treatment with essential oil monoterpenes helped
prevent acute flare-ups of chronic bronchitis. A previous double-blind study, too
small to provide reliable results, hints that oral use of essential oil
monoterpenes can enhance the effects of antibiotics for acute flare-ups once they
do occur. It is thought that essential oil monoterpenes work by improving the
lungs’ ability to clear secretions.

A mixture of extracts from echinacea, wild indigo, and white cedar has shown promise for treating a variety of respiratory infections. A well-designed double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of fifty-three people tested its benefits in acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. All participants in this trial received standard antibiotic therapy. The results showed that people receiving the herbal medication experienced more rapid improvements in lung function than those given placebo.

In one poorly designed and reported study, the use of an Ayurvedic herbal combination appeared to offer some benefit. It also has been suggested that the sports supplement creatine might improve muscle strength in people with COPD, but results from small double-blind studies have been inconsistent. Slight evidence from a small open trial suggests that coenzyme Q10 improves lung function in persons with COPD.

The herbs ivy leaf and plantain have been suggested for chronic bronchitis, but there is no meaningful evidence that they actually help. Another study failed to find pomegranate juice helpful for COPD.

Observational studies suggest a correlation between respiratory problems and
diets low in antioxidants from food, such as vitamin A, vitamin E,
vitamin C, and beta-carotene. However, such studies do not prove that taking
supplements of such nutrients will help. A double-blind study of vitamin E and
beta-carotene supplementation found no effect on COPD symptoms. The effects of
other antioxidant supplements on COPD have not been studied.

Evidence from several studies suggests that the standard approved diet, low in fat and high in carbohydrates, worsens exercise performance and lung function in people with COPD, whereas a low-carbohydrate diet may improve COPD symptoms. Carbohydrates cause the body to produce increased amounts of carbon dioxide, and people with COPD have trouble getting rid of carbon dioxide.

Herbs and Supplements to Use Only with Caution

Various herbs and supplements may interact adversely with drugs used to treat chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, so one should be cautious when considering the use of herbs and supplements.

Bibliography

Cerdá, B., et al. “Pomegranate Juice Supplementation in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60 (2006): 245-253.

Deacon, S. J., et al. “Randomised Controlled Trial of Dietary Creatine as an Adjunct Therapy to Physical Training in COPD.” American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 178 (2008): 233-239.

Decramer, M., et al. “Effects of N-acetylcysteine on Outcomes in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.” The Lancet 365 (2005): 1552-1560.

Faager, G., et al. “Creatine Supplementation and Physical Training in Patients with COPD.” International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 1 (2006): 445-453.

Fuld, J. P., et al. “Creatine Supplementation During Pulmonary Rehabilitation in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.” Thorax 60 (2005): 531-537.

Hauke, W., et al. “Esberitox N as Supportive Therapy When Providing Standard Antibiotic Treatment in Subjects with a Severe Bacterial Infection (Acute Exacerbation of Chronic Bronchitis).” Chemotherapy 48 (2002): 259-266.

Kuethe, F., et al. “Creatine Supplementation Improves Muscle Strength in Patients with Congestive Heart Failure.” Pharmazie 61 (2006): 218-222.

Murali, P. M., et al. “Plant-Based Formulation in the Management of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.” Respiratory Medicine 100 (2005): 39-45.

Sridhar, M. K. “Nutrition and Lung Health: Should People at Risk for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease Eat More Fruit and Vegetables?” British Medical Journal 310 (1995): 75-76.

What happens to the farm in Washington Irving's Rip Van Winkle?

In the first part of the story, before Rip Van Winkle falls asleep, he neglects his farm. "In a word, Rip was ready to attend to anybody’s business but his own; but as to doing family duty, and keeping his farm in order, he found it impossible." Rip thinks it is useless to work on his farm because the land is no good and something inevitably goes wrong. But Rip is much more interested in working and helping his neighbors. He also looks for any excuse to get away from his wife. So, he tries to get away from his home and farm whenever he can. Whether his land is good or not, it is neglect that allows his farm to deteriorate. He would much rather fish, hunt, or talk leisurely with the men in town. As a result, his land withers: 

. . . so that though his patrimonial estate had dwindled away under his management, acre by acre, until there was little more left than a mere patch of Indian corn and potatoes, yet it was the worst-conditioned farm in the neighborhood. 

Rip was not a fan of hard work when it was his own. But he would help his neighbor even if that required hard labor. He did whatever he could to avoid his own farm. 

When Rip wakes up from his twenty year long sleep, his house and farm have decayed, having been even more neglected than when he was awake.