According to the speaker in "The Seafarer," what qualities might earn a person a place in heaven?

The speaker talks about how the days of the warrior society and its great rulers has come to an end. In doing so, he notes the transition from a warrior society to a Christian culture. The speaker is bittersweet about this, and he uses this transition to make his own transition in the poem. After lamenting his hardships at sea and making this struggle an allegory for struggles in life, the speaker begins talking more spiritually. He notes that any fame and riches a ruler or warrior might obtain in life will mean nothing to God. He therefore warns people that if they have lived a sinful life, fame and fortune will not help them get into heaven:

Opens his palms, and pours down gold

On his kinsman's grave, strewing his coffin

With treasures intended for Heaven, but nothing

Golden shakes the wrath of God 

For a soul overflowing with sin, and nothing 

Hidden on earth rises to Heaven.

The speaker goes on to list virtues that will help one get into heaven. "He who lives humbly has angels from Heaven / To carry him courage and strength and belief." In other words, humility will manifest in courage and belief (faith).

The speaker then offers a seemingly less generous version of the Golden Rule with "Treat all the world as the world deserves." This might be a combination of the warrior society's "eye for an eye" philosophy and the Golden Rule characterized in Christian teachings. However, the speaker follows this by encouraging people to practice peace, calling on them to treat others with love or with hate but "never with harm." He concludes that people should direct their thoughts to "where our home is." Here, home means Heaven, God, and/or the afterlife. In other words, people should live their lives according to God's purpose and spiritual teachings.

What is the theory of three unities? How does Shakespeare violate the three unites and how does Johnson defend him?

 Aristotle's theory of the three unities states that a play should embrace unities of action, time and place. Unity of action means that a play should follow one plot, without meandering off into subplots. Unity of time means that a play should take place within a 24-hour period, and unity of place means that a play should take place in one spot, not move from place to place. Shakespeare repeatedly violated the three unities by including subplots in his plays, by writing plays that spanned more than 24 hours and by having scenes in his plays take place in different spots, such as, Johnson notes, moving from Cyrpus to Venice in the same play. 

Johnson defends Shakespeare by saying that he does follow unity of action by writing plays that have a clear beginning, middle and end. Johnson then said that, as for time and place, people know they are watching a play and can easily adjust to different times and places. Once people engage imaginatively, they can continue to do so. As Johnson put it,  “He that can take the stage at one time for the palace of the Ptolemies, may take it in half an hour for the promontory of Actium. Delusion, if delusion be admitted, has no certain limitation.” 

Johnson also defends Shakespeare by stating that what determines whether we "believe in" a play is not so much adherence to unities or to the "facts" of history but the emotional integrity of the play. In other words, what is important is how relatable or relevant the play is to our own lives: “The reflection that strikes the heart is not, that the evils before us are real evils, but that they are evils to which we ourselves may be exposed.” Johnson also defends the plays as "pleasurable" and says that their pleasure outweighs any violations of unities. 

Why is Tybalt seeking a fight with Romeo in Romeo and Juliet?

William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet opens with an image of feuding violence.  In the prologue, the Chorus proclaims, “Two households, both alike in dignity / (In fair Verona, where we lay our scene), / From ancient grudge break to new mutiny, / Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean.”  The Chorus introduces the ongoing hostility between the Montagues and Capulets, a rivalry that is “ancient.”  Therefore, before the play even begins, the audience is aware of the enmity between the two families, so it is not surprising for Tybalt, a Capulet, to want to fight Romeo, a Montague.   

The reasons for the feud between Tybalt and Romeo arrive early in Act 1 Scene 1, where Tybalt enters and refers to the servants of the Montague house as “heartless hinds,” an alliteration that means the servants are worthless.  When prompted to put down his sword, Tybalt states, “What, drawn, and talk of peace? I hate the word, / As I hate hell, all Montagues, and thee” (I. i. 60-61).  In a simile that compares his hatred of peace to his hatred of hell, Tybalt reveals the deep-rooted anger he has toward members of the Montague house.  Further, his persistence to still fight despite being presented with a peace accord shows that Tybalt blindly follows the traditions of his ancestors, a point that gains more significance at the conclusion of the play when Romeo and Juliet die as a result of their families’ long-standing feud.

Then, in Act 1 Scene 5, Tybalt becomes angered at Romeo’s presence at the Capulet ball.  Tybalt delivers the following lines to his uncle:   

This, by his voice, should be a Montague.—

(to his PAGE) Fetch me my rapier, boy.—

What, dares the slave

Come hither, covered with an antic face,

To fleer and scorn at our solemnity?

Now, by the stock and honor of my kin,

To strike him dead I hold it not a sin (I. iv. 52-58)

Again indoctrinated with the ancient feud of his ancestors, Tybalt is furious that Romeo has come to the party and he professes that it is not a crime to kill him.  Tybalt repeatedly refers to Romeo as a “villain” and boils with anger.  However, Capulet, Tybalt’s uncle, orders Tybalt to leave Romeo alone and to not start a fight.  Tybalt states, “Patience perforce with willful choler meeting / Makes my flesh tremble in their different greeting. / I will withdraw, but his intrusion shall / Now seeming sweet, convert to bitterest gall” (I. iv. 88-91).  Tybalt agrees to let Romeo attend the banquet without any conflict, but promises to exact revenge on him at a later time.  Thus, he tries to fight Romeo in Act 3, Scene 1, where the pair finally engage in a duel and Tybalt dies.

What are 2 of your least favorite parts of The Outsiders by S.E Hilton?

A reader's two least favorite parts of The Outsiders will be different for different readers.  Your teacher likely does not care which two parts that you pick.  Almost guaranteed, you are going to be asked why those two parts are your least favorite parts of the book.  Only you can answer that, because your feelings and attitudes about the book are likely very different from mine.  

Perhaps you do not like the scenes where Ponyboy and Cherry are talking together.  You might not like those scenes, because you do not believe that Cherry would be talking to Pony in the first place.  

Perhaps your least favorite part is when Johnny dies, because you really liked Johnny.  Or maybe you really liked Dally, so your least favorite part is when he dies.  

Or maybe your least favorite part is when Ponyboy reads Gone with the Wind to Johnny, because it makes the boys look not tough. 

As long as you can defend your choice, you should be good to go for this question. 

What is a colectomy?

Cancers treated:
Colon cancer

Why performed: For patients at high risk for colon cancer, colectomy is performed to remove precancerous lesions or to prophylatically remove the entire colon, thereby preventing the disease. For patients with colon cancer, colectomy is performed to remove the diseased colon segment with a margin of healthy tissue and all draining lymph nodes, as well as other lesions and involved structures, thereby curing or controlling the disease. For patients with advanced colon cancer, colectomy is performed to manage obstructions, perforations, hemorrhages, or other symptoms.

Patient preparation: Medical tests are completed to plan effective treatment and to evaluate the patient’s fitness for major surgery. If an ostomy is needed, then a specialist counsels the patient and helps choose the location for the stoma. For the colectomy, certain patient medications may need to be stopped, the patient’s bowel must be cleaned, and the patient’s stomach must be emptied.

In an emergency, patient evaluation and preparation may be limited. If the patient’s colon is partially obstructed, then the obstruction is relieved before the colectomy. If the patient’s colon is completely obstructed, perforated, or bleeding profusely, then the bowel cannot be prepared, and emergency surgery (colectomy or an alternative) is performed once the patient is stabilized.

Steps of the procedure: Colectomy is performed in an hospital. Before the surgery, sensors are placed to monitor the patient’s condition. An intravenous (IV) line is started, and an antibiotic is infused. General anesthetic is administered, and a breathing tube is placed. The patient is positioned, a urinary catheter is inserted, and the incision site is prepared.

Colectomy has four steps: opening and evaluation, tissue removal, anastomosis or stoma formation, and inspection and closure. Details vary with the part(s) of the colon involved (ascending, transverse, descending, or sigmoid); why the colectomy is needed (prevention, cure/control, or relief); and the surgical approach chosen (open or laparoscopic). In an emergency, these steps may be reordered or performed as separate procedures.

To begin, the surgeon opens the abdomen with one large incision; four to five small incisions, when using a laparoscope; or a combination of these approaches. Within the abdomen, the surgeon looks for cancer and other abnormalities, then evaluates the colon segment to be removed. If the colon segment cannot be removed safely, then a bypass procedure is performed instead. If the colon segment is removable, then the colectomy continues.

To remove tissue, first the major blood vessels to that colon segment are tied. The colon segment is freed from attachments. The mesentery for that colon segment is clamped and divided; the tied blood vessels are divided and sealed; and then that colon segment is divided and removed, as well as any adjacent tissues that are diseased. All tissues are taken to the laboratory for histopathologic evaluation.

Either the remaining ends of the bowel are connected, forming an anastomosis (colo-colo, colo-rectal, or colo-anal), or the lower end is sealed and the upper end is rerouted. When rerouting, first an ostomy opening is made in the abdomen. The upper end is passed through the ostomy opening; the bowel segment is sized to an appropriate length; and the edge of the cut end is folded back and stitched to the abdomen, forming a stoma.

Finally, the inside of the abdomen is inspected and cleaned, and the incision is closed.

After the procedure: Anesthesia is stopped, and the breathing tube is removed. The urinary catheter and the IV line are kept. If an ostomy was needed, then a clear collection pouch (ostomy appliance) is fitted over the stoma. The patient is transferred to the recovery room and then to a hospital room. Medications are given to control pain and infection. The patient slowly progresses to a normal diet and learns to regulate bowel function. If an ostomy was needed, then it is monitored; once the stoma starts functioning, the patient learns to care for it and to empty and change pouches. At home, the patient follows the physician’s instructions about medications, activities, and diet. Additional treatment with radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or both may be recommended.

Risks: Colectomy is moderately safe, with low mortality, but it is riskier in emergencies. The risks relate to anesthesia, infection, and inadvertent damage to structures. Side effects are common, with the most frequent ones being urinary infection, wound infection, and problems related to anastomosis or ostomy. Less frequent side effects are bleeding, perforation, abscess, fecal contamination, incisional hernia, bowel obstructions, and peritoneal seeding.

Results: Long-term outcome varies with patient-specific factors (such as life-threatening condition, disease stage, and overall health) and therapeutic combinations (such as type of radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or both after surgery). Curative removal is possible for many first-time patients, but otherwise recurrence rate is high. Five-year survival is excellent for patients with localized cancer but is poorer for patients with more advanced disease.

Amer. Cancer Soc. "Surgery for Colorectal Cancer." Cancer.org. ACS, 31 Jan. 2014. Web. 17 Sept. 2014.

Daller, John A. "Large Bowel Resection." MedlinePlus. US NLM/NIH, 29 Jan. 2013. Web. 17 Sept. 2014.

Levin, Bernard, et al., eds. American Cancer Society’s Complete Guide to Colorectal Cancer. Atlanta: Amer. Cancer Soc., 2006.

McCoy, Krisha. "Colectomy—Laparoscopic Surgery." Health Library. EBSCO, 7 May 2014. Web. 17 Sept. 2014.

McCoy, Krisha. "Colectomy—Open Surgery." Health Library. EBSCO, 8 May 2014. Web. 17 Sept. 2014.

Soper, Nathaniel J., and Dixon B. Kaufman. Northwestern Handbook of Surgical Procedures. Austin: Landes, 2011. Digital file.

Unlike other elements, why doesn't hydrogen have even a single neutron?

All the elements, except hydrogen, have at least 1 neutron in their nucleus. In fact, this statement is only partially correct. There are isotopes of hydrogen that have neutron/s. The isotope, protium, does not have any neutron, but deuterium has 1 neutron and tritium has 2 neutrons.

Neutrons are the stabilizers in the nucleus of an atom. The nucleus of almost all the elements consist of protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged particles and as such will repel each other (since same charges repel each other); for that reason, the nucleus would not be stable if there were only protons in it. The presence of neutrons stabilize the nucleus. Neutrons add strong forces to the nucleus, which are sufficient to overcome the electrostatic repulsion of the protons, thereby stabilizing the nucleus. This is the reason that most of the elements have about the same number of protons and neutrons in them.

In the case of hydrogen, there is only 1 proton (for protium) and hence there is no need of a neutron. This is the reason why, unlike other elements, the hydrogen atom (protium atom) does not have a neutron.

What are natural treatments for female infertility?

Introduction

There are many possible causes of female infertility. Tubal disease and
endometriosis (a condition in which uterine tissue begins to
grow where it should not) account for 50 percent of female infertility; failure of
ovulation is the cause of about 30 percent; and cervical factors cause another 10
percent.

An immense industry has sprung up around correcting female infertility, using
techniques that range from hormone therapy to in vitro (test-tube)
babies. Although these methods have their occasional stunning successes, there is
considerable controversy about the high cost and low rate of effectiveness of
fertility treatments in general. The good news is that apparently infertile women
often become pregnant eventually with no medical intervention.

Proposed Natural Treatments

Women with a condition known as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) may be
infertile. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study evaluated the effectiveness of
N-acetylcysteine (NAC) in 150 women with PCOS who had
previously failed to respond to the fertility drug clomiphene, a
commonly used medication to induce ovulation. Participants were given clomiphene
plus placebo or clomiphene plus 1.2 grams daily of NAC. The results indicated that
combined treatment with NAC plus clomiphene was markedly more effective than
clomiphene taken with placebo. Almost 50 percent of the women in the combined
treatment group ovulated compared to about 1 percent in the clomiphene-alone
group. The pregnancy rate in the combined treatment group was 21 percent, compared
to 0 percent in the clomiphene-alone group.

Black
cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa), an herb with
estrogen-like effects, drew the attention of researchers who were interested in
whether it might be helpful for women with unexplained infertility who were also
being treated with clomiphene but had yet to conceive. Roughly 120 women were
randomly divided into two groups. Both groups continued to receive clomiphene, but
the women in one of the groups also received 120 milligrams (mg) of black cohosh.
Pregnancy rates were significantly higher in the black cohosh plus clomiphene
group compared to the clomiphene-only group.

In a small, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, the use of bee propolis
at a dose of 500 mg twice daily resulted in a pregnancy rate of 60 percent,
compared to 20 percent in the placebo group. This difference was statistically
significant.

Because of its effects on the hormone prolactin,
the herb chasteberry has been tried as a fertility treatment.
However, the only properly designed study of this potential use was too small to
return conclusive results. A larger study evaluated a combination containing
chasteberry, green tea, arginine, and multiple vitamins and minerals. In this
double-blind study, ninety-three women experiencing infertility were given either
the combination treatment or the placebo for three months. After three months, 26
percent of the women given the real treatment were pregnant compared to 10 percent
of those in the placebo group, a difference that was statistically
significant.

Weak evidence hints that vitamin D and calcium may also be helpful for
infertility. Another small study found some evidence that supplements containing
isoflavones may increase the effectiveness of in vitro fertilization
(IVF). Another study reported that vitamin C supplements
slightly improved pregnancy rates in women with a condition called luteal phase
defect, but because researchers failed to give the control group a placebo and
instead merely left them untreated, the results are not meaningful. Another study
that had severe defects in design reported that multivitamin supplements may
slightly increase fertility. Stress may lead to infertility, and treatments for
reducing stress might help increase fertility. The herb maca (Lepidium
meyenii)is widely advocated as a fertility-enhancing herb. However,
the only basis for this claim are a few animal studies.

Caffeine avoidance has also been recommended for improving fertility, but there
is no evidence that it helps. Acupuncture has a long history of traditional use
for infertility, but the supporting evidence for its use is weak. A few open
trials appeared to show that acupuncture can enhance the success
rate of IVF. Two better-designed studies, however, failed to find acupuncture more
effective than placebo. A 2008 analysis of seven randomized trials, involving a
total of 1,366 women, found that, on balance, acupuncture may significantly
improve the odds of pregnancy in women undergoing IVF. However, because not all
seven studies used sham (fake) acupuncture as a control, the reliability of this
conclusion is questionable. Moreover, a second analysis in the same year of
thirteen randomized-control trials investigating the effectiveness of acupuncture
in 2,500 women undergoing a specialized IVF procedure, in which sperm is injected
directly into the egg, found no evidence of any benefit. In a subsequent review of
thirteen trials, a different group of researchers concluded that acupuncture may
improve the success rate of IVF, but only if it is used on the day of embryo
transfer (when the fertilized egg is placed into the womb). According to this
study, acupuncture is not effective when used up to three days after embryo
transfer or when eggs are being retrieved from the ovaries.

Traditional
Chinese herbal medicine also has a long history of use for
infertility, but there is no meaningful evidence to indicate that it is effective.
One case report has linked the use of a Chinese herbal product with reversible
ovarian failure. Other treatments sometimes recommended for female infertility
include ashwagandha, false unicorn, and beta-carotene, but there is no evidence
that these treatments work.

Bibliography

Ali, A. F. M., and A. Awadallah. “Bee Propolis Versus Placebo in the Treatment of Infertitily Associated with Minimal or Mild Endometriosis.” Fertility and Sterility 80, suppl. 3 (2003): S32.

Domar, A. D., et al. “The Impact of Acupuncture on In Vitro Fertilization Outcome.” Fertility and Sterility 91 (2009): 723-726.

El-Toukhy, T., et al. “A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Acupuncture in In Vitro Fertilisation.” BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 115 (2008): 1203-1213.

Manheimer, E., et al. “Effects of Acupuncture on Rates of Pregnancy and Live Birth Among Women Undergoing In Vitro Fertilisation.” British Medical Journal 336 (2008): 545-549.

Shahin, A. Y., et al. “Adding Phytoestrogens to Clomiphene Induction in Unexplained Infertility Patients.” Reproductive Biomedicine Online 16 (2008): 580-588.

Unfer, V., et al. “Phytoestrogens May Improve the Pregnancy Rate in In Vitro Fertilization-Embryo Transfer Cycles.” Fertility and Sterility 82 (2004): 1509-1513.

Westergaard, L. G., et al. “Acupuncture on the Day of Embryo Transfer Significantly Improves the Reproductive Outcome in Infertile Women.” Fertility and Sterility 85 (2006): 1341-1346.

Westphal, L. M., M. L. Polan, and A. S. Trant. “Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study of Fertilityblend: A Nutritional Supplement for Improving Fertility in Women.” Clinical and Experimental Obstetrics and Gynecology 33 (2006): 205-208.

What are homeopathic remedies for hypertension?

Scientific Evaluations of Homeopathic Remedies

Researchers have completed two studies of homeopathic remedies for treating
hypertension. However, neither study yielded encouraging
results. A four-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study enrolling thirty-two
participants evaluated the possible efficacy of Baryta carbonica
15c (centesimals) in the treatment of hypertension. This study found no
statistically significant difference between the treatment and control groups.

A small, double-blind, crossover study enrolled ten people with essential hypertension and compared individualized homeopathic treatment to standard drug therapy. These participants were examined on a weekly basis for sixteen weeks. Homeopathic treatment proved ineffective.

Traditional Homeopathic Treatments

Classical homeopathy offers possible homeopathic treatments for
hypertension. These therapies are chosen based on various specific details of the
person seeking the treatment. Baryta carbonica is traditionally
used for people with hypertension who are extremely shy, lack concentration, and
often display immature behavior. The symptom picture of this remedy includes high
blood
pressure that is made worse by exertion or by lying on the
left side, along with a tendency toward gripping pains in the stomach that improve
when one lies on one’s stomach.

Aurum is often recommended for people whose high blood pressure is caused by slow-burning, long-term stress, which is often associated with one’s career or ambition. Lachesis may be used for a person with high blood pressure who has a flushed look to the face, whose behavior is overactive, and who has a tendency to engage in compulsive talking, as if an inner boiler were always about to explode.

Bibliography

Bignamini, M., et al. “Controlled Double Blind Trial with Baryta carbonica 15CH Versus Placebo in a Group of Hypertensive Subjects Confined to Bed in Old People’s Home.” British Homeopathic Journal 76 (1987): 114-119.

Loizzo, M. R., et al. “Hypotensive Natural Products: Current Status.” Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry 8 (2008): 828-855.

Teut, M., et al. “Homeopathic Treatment of Elderly Patients.” BMC Geriatrics 10 (2010): 10.

Tirapelli, C. R., et al. “Hypotensive Action of Naturally Occurring Diterpenes: A Therapeutic Promise for the Treatment of Hypertension.” Fitoterapia 81 (2010): 690-702.

How did a knight's position influence his everyday life?

The knight was expected to protect his lord or king so his daily life was organized around that responsibility.  While he was expected to offer military service at least forty days a year during periods of peace, most of his days were driven by the desire to train.  On a daily basis, the knight would hone his riding and fighting skills.  He would also be expected to understand the latest military and warfare strategies.  As the Middle Ages progressed, the knight was expected to be more cultured and would have to practice dancing and other activities to demonstrate chivalry. Another responsibility, and the major source of income for a knight, was to manage his estate.  Daily inspections and other maintenance of the estate were also common for knights in the Middle Ages.  

In Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, why do Maycomb officials bend the rules for the Ewells? Is this the right thing to do?

The Ewells are treated differently than other residents of Maycomb on a few occasions. Most notably, the Ewell children aren't forced to attend school (they generally show up on the first day and then aren't seen for the rest of the year). The reason the Ewell children get special treatment is because their family is generally considered the disgrace of Maycomb. In particular, their father, Bob Ewell, is a mean-spirited man who seems to care little for anything besides himself, and he especially does not care about educating his family. As such, school officials get the Ewells to show up on the first day of school, but have resigned themselves to being unable to force Mr. Ewell to motivate his children to attend school regularly. 

While understandable, this decision to overlook the Ewells is probably not the right thing to do. Bob Ewell is poor and uneducated, and failing to get his children into school only ensures that the cycle of poverty will continue into future Ewell generations, as education is a reliable means of improving one's opportunities in life. As such, though a hands-off approach with the Ewells is probably the most practical thing to do, it also does nothing to help the Ewells better their miserable situation.  

What are clinical trials?

Indications and Procedures

Clinical trials offer the most reliable process for bringing new drugs and medical treatments into public use. The process has features that can protect human participants, avoid biases, ensure that patient improvements are due to the experimental treatment and not to other factors, and allow accurate comparison of the experimental treatment with others on the market. Clinical trials are usually initiated and managed by academic institutions (often with grant funding), pharmaceutical companies, or government research agencies, such as the National Cancer Institute.

In 1998, it was estimated that the cost of developing a new drug was, on average, $500 million, and the process could take twelve to fifteen years—from discovery and laboratory testing, through clinical trials, to Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval, and finally getting the drug to market. By the late 1990s, a new drug might go through sixty-eight clinical trials. The average number of patients enrolled in a trial was 3,800.

Clinical trials fit into one of four types. Phase I trials, which usually involve only twenty to one hundred seriously ill patients, try to determine how to administer a new drug, the maximally tolerated dose (MTD), how the human body processes the drug, and any significant side effects. Phase II trials, which are usually randomized, treat up to several hundred patients who all have measurable rates of disease. These trials study the effectiveness of the drug. Phase III trials, which are usually randomized and blinded and which treat hundreds or thousands of patients, have more relaxed criteria for inclusion and are usually multicenter (held simultaneously at more than one site). These trials try to determine whether the new drug is better than current, standard ones. Phase IV trials, conducted once a drug is on the market, are often informal. Pharmaceutical companies may simply ask physicians to submit reports on how their patients are responding to the drug.

Uses and Complications

The 1979 Belmont Report detailed three ethical principles to guide clinical trials. They include respect for persons (abiding by their opinions and choices as autonomous agents), beneficence (doing no harm and maximizing the possible benefits while minimizing possible harm), and justice (distributing the benefits and burdens of research fairly).

Two standard features of clinical trials help ensure that ethical principles are being followed. First, all clinical trials in the United States must be approved and monitored by an Institutional Review Board (IRB), which includes both scientists and laypersons. Multicenter trials must also have a data safety and monitoring board composed of independent experts. This group monitors data from the trial regarding the treatment’s effectiveness and any adverse reactions. Second, the detailed informed consent document that patients must carefully consider and sign gives a number of categories of information. Most important, anticipated physical risks and discomforts are explained, as are financial risks. Similar practices are followed in countries other than the United States as well.

Perspective and Prospects

In October, 1948, The British Medical Journal published an article reporting on what was probably the first study using all the methodological features of the randomized clinical trial. Since then, the randomized clinical trial has come to be regarded as perhaps the most important medical achievement of the twentieth century. It transformed biomedical research and allowed physicians to make treatment choices based on scientific evidence rather than on personal opinion and experience.

The National Cancer Institute (NCI)
and other sources reported a small participation rate in clinical trials—ranging in the late 1990s from 3 to 20 percent of patients. One of many causes was that insurance companies and managed care providers frequently refused payment for experimental treatments. Their concerns were that they might be liable for adverse reactions or additional care after the trial ends and that clinical trials are more costly than conventional treatments. Because so many insurers would not cover the costs of clinical trials, researchers had trouble finding patients willing to participate, thus slowing the development of more effective drugs and treatments. Insurers gradually realized that more widespread coverage of the costs of trials might speed the development of better drugs, which could ultimately save them money. In 1998, US states began to pass laws requiring insurers to cover the routine medical costs (such as tests and office visits) of treatment in clinical trials of drugs for life-threatening diseases.

Criticism has been leveled at clinical trials for insufficient inclusion of women, children, people of color, and the aged. When these groups are underrepresented, there is no certainty that a drug will be effective or without side effects for them.

In June 2000, the FDA added a regulation that would place a clinical hold on a phase I trial of a drug or treatment for a life-threatening disease affecting both women and men if either gender was excluded because of risk to their reproductive potential. That same month, President Bill Clinton signed an executive memorandum directing Medicare to reimburse senior citizens for routine medical costs incurred in clinical trials. A major impetus for this change came from reports that only 33 percent of cancer clinical trial participants were over sixty-five, while 63 percent of all cancer patients are over sixty-five.

Bibliography

Beer, Tomasz M., and Larry Axmaker. Cancer Clinical Trials: A Commonsense Guide to Experimental Cancer Therapies and Clinical Trials. New York: DiaMedica, 2012.

"Clinical Trials." MedlinePlus, May 3, 2013.

"Clinical Trials of Medical Treatments: Why Volunteer?" US Food and Drug Administration, Jan. 4, 2010.

Finn, Robert. Cancer Clinical Trials: Experimental Treatments and How They Can Help You. Sebastopol, Calif.: O’Reilly, 1999.

Green, Stephanie, Jacqueline Benedetti, and John Crowley. Clinical Trials in Oncology. 3d ed. Boca Raton, Fla.: Chapman & Hall, 2012.

Harrington, David P. “The Randomized Clinical Trial.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 95, no. 449 (March, 2000): 312–315.

"Learn about Clinical Studies." ClinicalTrials.gov, Aug 2012.

Malay, Marilyn. Making the Decision: A Cancer Patient’s Guide to Clinical Trials. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett, 2002.

"Overview of Clinical Trials." CenterWatch Clinical Trials Listing Service, n.d.

Quinn, Susan. Human Trials: Scientists, Investors, and Patients in the Quest for a Cure. Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2002.

What are some tragic flaws of Julius Caesar and how do his tragic flaws lead to his down fall in Julius Caesar by Shakespeare?

Julius Caesar is arrogant, power-hungry, and ambitious.

At the beginning of Shakespeare's drama, in anticipation of the return of Julius Caesar to Rome, Flavius and Marullus, two tribunes who are opposed to Caesar's growing power, chastise the citizens who are excited about Caesar's victorious return. The tribunes remind these citizens of the beloved Pompey, who was part of the triumvirate with Caesar, but has been killed in the civil war with Caesar:

And do you now put on your best attire?....
And do you now strew flowers in his way
That comes in triumph over Pompey's blood? (1.1.50-54)

So, now only Caesar is left, and Flavius and Marullus are concerned that the Roman Republic, which was designed to be anti-monarchy, may soon change.

After Caesar arrives, the crowds cheer him and he revels in the adulation. When the soothsayer tells him to beware of the Ides of March, Caesar calls him a dreamer, and arrogantly dismisses him. His inflated opinion of himself later leads Caesar to also dismiss his wife's fears before he goes to the Senate on the Ides of March. This action, of course, directly leads to his downfall. 

In addition to his inflated ego, Caesar appears eager for power as described by Casca, who reports to Brutus how Marc Antony offered Caesar a coronet three times, and although Caesar refused it each time, he seemed loathe to do so. Such a report, as well as the observations of Brutus regarding Caesar's victory over Pompey, who was once his friend and ally, cause Brutus much consternation. He worries that Caesar will "disjoin [separate]/ Remorse from power"(2.1.19) and become tyrannical if he is granted the power and authority of kingship. It is, indeed, this concern of Brutus about Caesar's arrogance and lust for power that leads him to join in the conspiracy to assassinate Caesar. With the influential Brutus on their side, the conspirators then slay Caesar.

What do we know about Gortsby's mood from lines 1-3 in "Dusk" by Saki?

The scene depicted of Gortsby is that of a solitary figure in an almost deserted place. This scene suggests that Gortsby is, perhaps, despondent or embittered because he seems to desire no human company.

In the first lines of Saki's story, the reader finds Norman Gortsby sitting with his back to a "sward," which is an open area of short grass that is fenced off; before him is the street [Row, when capitalized, means street as in Church Row]. This is separated from Gortsby by a "wide stretch of carriage drive."

Apparently, then, Gortsby is feeling cynical about his fellow man and separate from them. He sits alone at dusk, a time when people who move about seem mere shadows of human beings, with outlines or form and possessing no distinguishable features. They are but silhouettes that glide past, static representatives of people without individuality or dimension. Since he feels himself a part of this tableau, Gortsby counts himself among "the defeated."

Certainly, Saki's subtle descriptions of setting create a mood to which the story returns at the end with Gortsby's failed attempt to rehabilitate his cynicism. For, when he sees the soap under his bench after the young man departs angrily because his tale was discredited, Gortsby scolds himself, "It's a lesson to me not to be too clever in judging by circumstances." But, then, when the old gentleman returns to retrieve the bar of soap which he dropped while sitting on the same bench, Gortsby realizes that he is yet among "the defeated," remaining with his back to a bush-planted sward and apart from the Row.

What are waterborne illnesses and diseases?

Definition

Waterborne illnesses and diseases are transmitted primarily through the ingestion of
water that is contaminated (infested) by microorganisms or toxins. Contact with infested water
that allows pathogens to enter through broken skin is another method of
disease transmission.

There are four primary types of waterborne illness: waterborne disease, which is contracted by ingesting contaminated drinking water; water-washed disease, which is spread through an improper or inadequate sewage system; water-based disease, which is transmitted by an organism that lives in the water, such as a worm or fish; and water-related vector-borne disease, which is transmitted by vectors (such as mosquitoes) that breed in water.

Global Reach

Waterborne illness is a major global health problem, as nearly 900 million people worldwide do not have access to potable (drinkable) water and 2.5 billion people live without basic sanitation. Diarrheal diseases contracted as a result of inadequate sanitation are the leading cause of illness and death globally. Approximately 2 million people worldwide, most of whom are children less than five years of age, die each year from waterborne diarrheal illnesses.

Waterborne illnesses are common in developing areas in the world, where poverty, political conflict, and other factors prevent the construction of infrastructures that provide adequate sanitation and sewage treatment facilities. Sporadic outbreaks of waterborne diseases still occur, however, in countries with well-established water-purification and sewage systems.

Water may be contaminated either at the source or at post-purification as it
travels through the drinking water supply system (DWSS). Although waterborne
illnesses are commonly associated with drinking water and sanitation, other
points of human contact with water also can cause infection and disease. Humans
can become infected through water-based recreation, bathing, food production, and
irrigation.

Unsafe Drinking Water

Although considered a basic human right by the United Nations, one in six
people worldwide do not have access to potable water. Most of the diseases
transmitted through drinking water are spread through fecal-oral
transmission and are therefore directly linked to poor
sanitation. The major microorganisms causing waterborne diseases through
contaminated drinking water are bacteria, viruses, and protozoa.
More than 1,415 species of pathogenic microorganisms have been identified as
causing waterborne disease; however, in countries with adequate sanitation systems
and clean drinking water, most of these diseases are not of special concern for
public health officials.

The major bacterial contaminants of drinking water that cause illness in humans
are Escherichia coli
, Enterococcus faecalis
, Salmonella
species (spp.), Shigella
spp., Aeromonas
spp., Vibrio cholerae
, Yersinia enterocolitica
, Campylobacter
spp., Legionella pneumophila
, Leptospira
spp., and various mycobacteria. Most of these organisms cause gastroenteritis and diarrhea, although several
Salmonella strains and Leptospira spp. cause
infectious fevers; L. pneumophila and mycobacteria cause
respiratory infections. All of these organisms are excreted in human feces, with
the exception of L. pneumophila, Leptospira
spp., and mycobacteria.

Major viral human pathogens in drinking water include enterovirus (polio, coxsackie, and echo), rotavirus, adenovirus, hepatitis A
and E, and norovirus. All of these pathogens have the potential to cause fatal diseases,
with rotavirus being one of the most dangerous gastrointestinal viruses for
children. All are transmitted by human feces except the norovirus, which is
carried through water and can be deposited on and retrieved from inanimate objects
(fomites). The enteroviruses cause meningitis, polio, and
encephalitis. Adenoviruses and rotaviruses cause
gastroenteritis, while the hepatitis viruses cause infectious hepatitis
(hepatitis
A) and liver damage. Viruses are difficult to detect in
drinking water because they are not identifiable by traditional cell-culture
techniques.

The pathogenic protozoa of concern for drinking water are
Cryptosporidium parvum
, Cyclospora cayetanensis
, Entamoeba histolytica
, Giardia intestinalis
(also known as G. lamblia), and Toxoplasma
gondii
. All of these pathogens cause diarrhea or dysentery in humans, except T. gondii. Most pathogenic
protozoa are transmitted through human or animal feces into water in the cystic
phase of the life cycle, making them highly resistant to chlorination.
Furthermore, bacteria may live within protozoa, protecting the bacteria from
chlorination.

In the United States and other developed countries, most water contamination occurs after the purification process. That is, contamination occurs in the water system, at the distribution point (tap or fountain), during the transfer and processing of water to be bottled, or during storage. In 2005-2006, a reported 612 cases of waterborne illness in the United States were caused by water for drinking, resulting in four deaths. More than one-half of the waterborne illnesses were caused by organisms introduced after disinfection, and the majority of these cases were caused by Legionella.

Bacterial
infections were contracted by a reported 135 people. Most of
the illnesses were caused by Legionella spp., 32 were caused by
Campylobacter spp., and the remainder were caused by other
pathogens. All four deaths were caused by Legionella, which
regrows in warm-water systems, and all occurred in hospitals or long-term care
facilities. Viral pathogens were the causative agents of 212 cases of illness, 196
from norovirus and 16 from hepatitis A. These outbreaks were associated with
untreated well or spring water at private residences. G.
intestinalis and Cryptosporidium spp. were associated
with 41 and 10 cases of illness, respectively.

Water-Based Diseases

Water-based diseases are transmitted by an organism that lives in the water,
such as a worm or a fish, and are contracted by contacting or ingesting the water.
The most recognized examples of water-based diseases are schistosomiasis and ascariasis.
Both of these infections are common in developing countries and are caused by
trematodes and helminths, respectively. Humans usually contract these diseases
when bathing or playing in contaminated water, where larvae or eggs enter the body
through broken skin. As the parasites reproduce, they cause severe abdominal and
intestinal symptoms that can be fatal.

Waterborne illnesses can also be transmitted through bodies of water used for recreational activities, such as lakes, reservoirs, pools, and water parks. Recreational lakes and reservoirs can contain fecal contaminants from humans and animals, especially E. coli, Shigella spp., Salmonella spp., enterococci, norovirus, Cryptosporidium spp., and G. intestinalis. Contaminants enter the water from improperly treated or leaking wastewater from residential areas and farms, from already-infected swimmers, and from wildlife. In 2005 and 2006 in the United States, there were 245 cases (6 percent of total cases) of waterborne diseases contracted at untreated water facilities. The primary bacteria involved were Leptospira spp. and Shigella sonnei. Cryptosporidium spp. accounted for most of the protozoan infections, and norovirus was the causative agent of all of the viral infections. Because of the types of activities involved, these illnesses result in not only intestinal infections but also skin, eye, ear, nose, throat, and respiratory infections.

Waterborne illnesses at treated water parks accounted for 94 percent of all
cases reported in 2005 and 2006 in the United States. The overwhelming majority of
these cases (87 percent) was caused by protozoa, as protozoa are difficult to kill
with chlorination; 98 percent of all protozoan infections were cryptosporidiosis. Only 6 percent of cases was caused by
bacterial pathogens and 2 percent by viral pathogens. The bacterial pathogens were
transmitted either in swimming pools, in which a number of toddlers wearing
diapers were present, or in warm-water spas for adults.
Cryptosporidium spp. transmission occurred in several splash
parks and water parks across the United States that did not have ozone or
ultraviolet light disinfection units (which can kill cysts) as a backup to
chlorination. In these and other outbreaks, the cryptosporidiosis could be
attributed to already-infected visitors to the park contaminating the water
supply. Cryptosporidiosis is highly infectious and can be transmitted with the
ingestion of as few as ten cysts.

Water-Related Vector-Borne Diseases

Water-related vector-borne diseases are transmitted by insect vectors that
breed in stagnant pools of water. These diseases include malaria and
West Nile
virus infection, both of which are transmitted by mosquitoes
that lay eggs in stagnant water.

Prevention

Chlorination (chlorine, chloramines, chlorine dioxide) is used to disinfect drinking water. This method is usually sufficient, provided the source water is reasonably clear. Along with chlorination is filtration, which removes particulate matter, and microfiltration, which removes protozoa in the cyst phase. Many water-treatment facilities use a combination of purification methods to ensure that all types of microorganisms have been eliminated.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), ozone is the most effective disinfection method because it can eliminate
Cryptosporidium species. WHO recommends a combination of ozone
and chlorine for maximum purity of drinking water. In developing countries,
thermal or ultraviolet disinfection is a potential option because of its
relatively low cost and because of the lack of chemical additives. In poor areas
where power is unavailable at the household level for boiling water or for
ultraviolet disinfection, WHO proposes that disinfection can be performed using
solar heating. Other less common methods of water purification include
precipitation of impurities with coagulation agents, adsorption of impurities onto
organic materials, ion-exchange treatment, and treatment with acids or bases.

A main source of contamination of drinking water after purification is sewage
influx from industrial and residential areas; cities pose the greatest risks.
Other sources of post-purification contamination include flood waters, which
introduce sewage overflow; microorganisms resistant to disinfectant procedures;
increased virulence of pathogens; and emerging new pathogens. Drinking
water can also be recontaminated through biofilms. As water flows through the DWSS, solid materials settle onto pipes,
providing a surface onto which microorganisms can adhere and grow; this adherence
leads to the formation of biofilms. Biofilms comprise a small ecosystem of various
types of interacting microorganisms. Because of their complexity, biofilms present
a challenge to keeping water clean in the DWSS.

Pathogens that were previously nonthreatening to human health also present concern for public health officials. Changes in the climate or environment may alter the microbial composition of the source water, requiring a change in the purification process. Previously controlled pathogens may develop resistance to disinfection procedures or may become more virulent, meaning that a smaller number of organisms are required to cause disease. Emerging pathogens (such as Epsilonproteobacteria and Helicobacter pylori) that have not been considered a threat to the drinking water supply are now being monitored. All of these circumstances require changes to the purification and monitoring protocols.

In the United States, public drinking water quality is regulated by the
Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). Limitations have been established for more than ninety
microbiological and other contaminants. For the disease-causing microorganisms
Cryptosporidium spp., G. intestinalis,
L. pneumophila, and viruses, the requirement is 99.9 percent
removal/inactivation. Other nonpathogenic bacteria commonly found in source water
are also tested to evaluate the maintenance of the water system (no requirement).
Tests for coliforms including E. coli are performed as indicators
of the presence of other pathogens (limit 5 percent).

Recreational water facilities in the United States are variously regulated. For treated water facilities, including water parks and swimming pools, state and local agencies are responsible for the development and oversight of any health codes. Untreated recreational areas are regulated by EPA guidelines. For fresh-water recreational areas, the EPA limits are 33 colony-forming units (CFU) per 100 milliliters (mL) for enterococci and 126 CFU per 100 mL for E. coli. For ocean beaches, the guideline is 33 CFU per 100 mL for enterococci, with each locality having final authority over closure of swimming areas.

Impact

The impact of waterborne diseases worldwide is staggering, as they currently
account for 4 percent of the global disease burden. Approximately two million
people worldwide die each year from waterborne diarrheal illnesses, 75 percent of
whom are children. Cholera is still present in more than
fifty countries, causing 3 to 5 million cases and 100,000 deaths annually. From
2004 to 2008, the number of cholera cases increased 24 percent, indicating an
increase in the number of people living in crowded, unsanitary conditions.

Schistosomiasis infects 207 million people worldwide, causing about 200,000 deaths per year, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa. Ascariasis infects up to 10 percent of people in developing countries, leading to approximately 60,000 deaths per year. Both diseases target children who frequently play in infested waters.

Water quality has been the focus of the health improvement programs of several global health organizations. In the forefront is the United Nations, which addresses water quality in the seventh of its 2015 Millennium Development Goals. One component of this goal is to cut by one-half by 2015 “the proportion of the [world’s] population [that lives] without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.” The U.N. is on track to meet this goal, having provided 86 percent of the world’s population access to safe drinking water. However, the goal to provide basic sanitation will likely not be met.

Demands for clean water are exceeding the supply of potential fresh-water sources, as the world’s population continues to increase. The increased diversion of water supplies for agriculture has resulted in less water for human consumption and in higher contamination of drinking water with farm wastewater. Experts also predict that climate change will adversely affect drinking water sources globally.

Bibliography

Ashbolt, Nicholas J. “Microbial Contamination of Drinking Water and Disease Outcomes in Developing Regions.” Toxicology 198 (2004): 229-238. Summary of the most common pathogens causing waterborne diseases and of the extent of these diseases in developing nations.

Brettar, Ingrid, and Manfred G. Hofle. “Molecular Assessment of Bacterial Pathogens: A Contribution to Drinking Water Safety.” Current Opinion in Biotechnology 19 (2008): 274-280. A summary of detection methods for bacterial pathogens in drinking water.

Bridge, Jonathan W., et al. “Engaging with the Water Sector for Public Health Benefits: Waterborne Pathogens and Diseases in Developed Countries.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 88 (2010): 873-875. A brief overview of waterborne illnesses as a public health issue and of recent outbreaks in developed countries.

Percival, Steven L., et al. Microbiology of Waterborne Diseases. San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2004. Major pathogenic waterborne microorganisms are described in terms of physiology, reproduction, clinical features and treatment of infection, and survival in the environment.

Snelling, William J., et al. “Bacterial-Protozoa Interactions and Update on the Role These Phenomena Play Towards Human Illness.” Microbes and Infections 8 (2006): 578-587. Discusses the bacterial-protozoan interactions in water systems that hinder the detection and eradication of pathogenic organisms in drinking water.

Soller, Jeffrey A., et al. “Estimated Human Health Risks from Exposure to Recreational Waters Impacted by Human and Non-human Sources of Faecal Contamination.” Water Research 44 (2010): 4674-4691. This study compared the risks associated with human, gull, chicken, pig, and cattle fecal contamination of recreational swimming areas.

Woodall, C. J. “Waterborne Diseases: What Are the Primary Killers?” Desalination 248 (2009): 616-621. A brief review of frequently reported causative agents of waterborne diseases.

Why do people cough?

Our airways are designed to carry gasses and non-solid materials. To have anything in our airways that is larger than a speck of dust can be detrimental to our lung health and cause our lungs to become damaged or not work to their full capacity. Should something move down our larynx and into our trachea (windpipe) that could cause harm, our body reflexively attempts to jettison the obstruction. 

Coughing is an automatic reaction controlled by our spinal cord and brain stem. When the hair-like appendages in the respiratory tract (cilia) encounter a problem, they send a signal saying the lungs need to be cleared. The brain stem then tells our diaphragm, the large muscle below our rib cage, to contract, quickly forcing out a lot of air in an attempt to clear out whatever may have been trying to make its way into our lungs. 

Where do Jesse, Miles, and Mae take Winnie in Tuck Everlasting by Natalie Babbitt?

Jesse, Miles, and Mae Tuck take Winnie back to their house.  

In chapter five, Winnie decides to give her running away idea a test run. She decides to go alone into the woods near her house. Once there she stumbles upon a boy drinking from a little spring by a tree. That boy is Jesse Tuck. Jesse does everything he can to stop Winnie from drinking from the spring, and he is about to fail when Miles and Mae show up. Mae quickly grasps what has happened, and together the three Tucks gather up Winnie and begin taking her to their home a few valleys over. Winnie is sure that she is being kidnapped, but she also feels like the Tucks are being way too nice for it to be a true kidnapping. The Tucks explain on the way to their house why they had to take Winnie. They had to get her away from the spring to protect her from it and explain its dangers.  

And Miles said, "We'll explain it. . . soon as we're far enough away."

The trip and the explanation takes several chapters, and the foursome arrives at the Tuck home in chapter nine. 

As you read "The Scarlet Ibis," describe two or three things you can infer about its narrator as well as any conclusion you come to about him .

This question is fairly open ended, so the answer will be slightly different for different readers.  Different readers will read into the narrator a bit differently.  As long as you can somewhat explain why you listed the two or three things that you listed, you should be good to go.  

Two things that I infer about the narrator is that he likes nature, and he notices small details.  When reading the first paragraph, it is striking to me at all of the beautiful little descriptions that brother is able to give about a simple nature scene.  

The flower garden was strained with rotting brown magnolia petals and ironweeds grew rank amid the purple phlox. The five o'clocks by the chimney still marked time, but the oriole nest in the elm was untenanted and rocked back and forth like an empty cradle.

That passage is full of color and analogy.  It really paints a picture in a reader's mind.  Keep in mind that the narrator is a male.  It's not that men can't talk like that or notice things like that, it's just that a person doesn't hear it very often.  

I also can infer that the narrator is much older now than he was during the events of the story that he is narrating.  The second paragraph alerts readers to this fact.  

It's strange that all this is still so clear to me, now that summer has long since fled and time has had its way.

Lastly, based on the first two paragraphs, a reader can infer that the story brother is going to tell is not going to be a happy one.  The first paragraph talks about "graveyard flowers" and "names of our dead."  The second paragraph mentions a "bleeding tree."  For a narrator that notices such small details about nature, it's foreboding that he is choosing to focus on items dealing with death and pain.  

In My Brother Sam Is Dead by Christopher and James L. Collier, what does father die from?

My brother Sam Is Dead is a young adult historical fiction novel that is set during the time of the American Revolution. The main character—Tim Meeker—is a 14-year-old young man who is caught between two other characters with strong opinions about the war.

Tim's brother, Sam, has decided to join the Continental Army in support of secession from the British. Tim's father, Eliphalet, is loyal to Britain. Because of this loyalty, he is accused by the rebels of selling beef to the British and forced onto a prison ship. While on the prison ship, he contracts Cholera and dies from the disease.

As can be assumed from the book title, Sam also dies after he is executed by his own army when he is falsely accused of stealing cattle from his family.

How does Scout Finch from To Kill a Mockingbird experience growth and maturity? How does Scout remodel herself?

Scout Finch grows into a young lady who empathizes with others. 

Most of us change when we grow up. Scout experiences a lot during the years this book takes place. Throughout the course of her childhood she grows and matures into someone who considers the feelings of others as well as her own. 

Scout’s father Atticus tries to teach her empathy from a young age. He impresses upon her the importance of not making fun of the Radleys or spewing their family business in the yard for all to see. He also asks her to think about things from others’ points of view when she has trouble with her teacher. Atticus tells Scout to get inside another person’s skin and walk around in it to see things from the other person’s perspective. 

Atticus said I had learned many things today, and Miss Caroline had learned several things herself... We could not expect her to learn all Maycomb’s ways in one day, and we could not hold her responsible when she knew no better (Chapter 3).

This growing sense of perspective is evident in Scout’s perception of the trial. She becomes upset when people insult her father and asks him what he is doing that people take such an issue with. Atticus explains he is just defending a black man, and that is unpopular in Maycomb but he has to do it because it is the right thing to do and it is his job. 

During the trial, Scout watches the proceedings with growing understanding. Mayella Ewell, the white girl who accused Tom Robinson of rape, seems very lonely to Scout. She realizes things are not always as they seem. 

As Tom Robinson gave his testimony, it came to me that Mayella Ewell must have been the loneliest person in the world. She was even lonelier than Boo Radley, who had not been out of the house in twenty-five years (Chapter 19). 

Scout understands there are issues of class at work here. Dolphus Raymond can live with his black woman and their kids, and people say it is just his way because he is from a good family. Mayella lives by the dump, and her father drinks away the Ewell family's welfare money. No one just accepts her the way she is.

Understanding her brother is sometimes harder for Scout.  As they get older, Scout and Jem grow apart. Scout does not understand Jem's behavior or perspective all the time, and she feels lonely. She always wants to be on equal footing with Jem, but there always seems to be a difference, either because of her gender or age. 

Scout comes full circle when she and Jem are rescued by Boo Radley. Bob Ewell attacks them and Boo saves them. Scout gets to live out a childhood fantasy by taking the gentle man’s hand and walking him home. Once on the Radley porch, Scout reflects on perspective: 

Atticus was right. One time he said you never really know a man until you stand in his shoes and walk around in them. Just standing on the Radley porch was enough (Chapter 31). 

Scout has turned into a little lady. She went from wandering around in overalls and climbing trees to helping her aunt host ladies' church meetings. Scout has an understanding of her place in society, and she has slowly come to accept it.

What are different ways to prove a chemical reaction took place?

1. Temperature change: a change in temperature is a key way to show a chemical reaction occurred because it is indicative of an energy exchange. All reactions exchange energy, whether that energy is lost by combining compounds or elements or gained by breaking bonds. 

2. Precipitate forms: a precipitate is a solid particle that randomly forms in a liquid solution. 

3. Change in color: each particle reflects and absorbs light differently (which produces colors), so when a reaction occurs the particle is altered and therefore so is the color.

4. Gas bubbles form: gas bubbles occur when a reaction occurs because the original compounds have been rearranged and changed into new compounds of a different phase, such as occurs during the formation of carbon dioxide or oxygen.

5. Light: this occurs mostly in combustion reactions, but when bonds are broken violently energy can be released quickly, resulting in light.

6. Change in odor or taste

7. Change in boiling or melting point: every compound has a unique melting point, so if this changes it is a key sign a reaction occurred.

Which of the following key terms relate to Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird: Black Tuesday, Hot Steams, the Egyptian period, Missouri...

Many of the listed key terms both directly and indirectly relate to Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird.

Black Tuesday was the historic day of October 29, 1929, upon which over 16 million shares were sold on the stock market, causing the fatal stock market crash that began the Great Depression. Black Tuesday was preceded by Black Monday upon which the Dow Jones Industrial Average fell by 12.8 percent, which created widespread panic, leading holders of stock to sell all their shares. Widespread panic led to the significant financial losses that began the Great Depression.  Though Black Tuesday is never specifically referenced in the novel, the novel is set during the Great Depression, showing us the connection between Black Tuesday and Lee's novel. We know the novel is set in the midst of the Great Depression because, in the opening chapter, Scout describes Maycomb as moving slowly at the time the novel was set due to the following reasons:

There was no hurry, for there was nowhere to go, nothing to buy and no money to buy it with, nothing to see outside the boundaries of Maycomb County. (Ch. 1)

Scout further states that the novel is set during a "time of vague optimism for some people: Maycomb County had recently been told that it had nothing to fear but fear itself" (Ch. 1). This serves as a reference to President Franklin D. Roosevelt's first inaugural address. President Roosevelt was elected in the midst of the Great Depression due to his progressive reforms to help get the country out of the depression.

The National Recovery Act (NRA) was one of the progressive reforms President Roosevelt implemented in order to raise prices to stimulate economic recovery and create new jobs. Scout references the NRA soon after Tom Robinson's trial and untimely death. She narrates the ways in which Maycomb's citizens had moved on with their lives since his trial and death. In particular, she notes that "people had removed from their store windows and automobiles the stickers that said NRA--WE DO OUR PART" (Ch. 27).

Which process affects the speed of dissolution?a. particle size and stirring onlyb. stirring onlyc. particle size, temperature, and stirring...

Dissolution is, in fact, affected by all three: stirring, particle size, and temperature.

Stirring ensures solute particles are uniformly mixed throughout the solvent and that solute and solvent particles have ample opportunities to interact with each other, which leads to dissolution.

Compared to smaller particles, larger particles are slow to dissolve in a solvent. This can be observed by dissolving sugar cubes and granular sugar particles in water. With a smaller particle size, there are more chances of interactions between solute and solvent particles, which speeds up the dissolution process.

Temperature is another key variable. At higher temperatures, particles have more kinetic energy and thus move faster, resulting in more collisions between solute and solvent particles, which results in faster dissolution of solute in the solvent.

Thus, among the given options, only option C is correct.

Hope this helps.

Suppose the current equilibrium GDP for a country is $14.5 trillion and potential GDP is $14.3 trillion. Will decreasing government purchases by...

Neither of these fiscal policies will restore the country’s economy to its potential gross domestic product (GDP).  Both of them will close the inflationary gap, but they will both go too far and create a recessionary gap instead of bringing the economy exactly to its potential GDP.  The reason for this is the multiplier effect.

When actual GDP is higher than potential GDP, a country has what is called an inflationary gap.  It is producing more than it can sustainably produce in the long term.  Therefore, it will experience inflation.  In order to do away with this gap, the country should engage in contractionary fiscal policy.  That is, it should decrease spending and/or increase taxes.  In your scenario, the country would take the correct kind of action because it would either reduce spending or increase taxes.

However, when the government changes spending or tax levels, it cannot just do so by the exact amount of the inflationary gap.  This is because of the multiplier.  If the government reduces spending by $200 billion, GDP will actually fall much more than that.  Let us say that the government reduces spending by this much. GDP immediately falls by $200 billion, erasing the inflationary gap.  But then GDP falls further.  When the government paid out that $200 billion, the people who received it then went out and spent most of it.  They bought goods like groceries and services like haircuts.  The people who provided the groceries and haircuts got paid, and GDP increased.  Now, when the government stops spending the $200 billion, the people who used to receive it (and then spend it) will no longer do so.  They will no longer spend this money on groceries and haircuts.  Therefore, the total amount spent on all goods and services will decline much more than $200 billion.

When we look at fiscal policy, we have to understand that there is a multiplier effect.  If the government increases spending, GDP goes up by much more than the amount of the spending increase as people use their new income to buy more goods and services.  Conversely, if the government decreases spending, GDP drops but much more than the amount of the decrease because people cut back on their purchases as consumers.  Therefore, either of these changes will decrease the country’s GDP much more than is needed to close the inflationary gap.

In Animal Farm, examine Orwell's tone when he describes the way the animals think of themselves under Napoleon's rule. In which way does his tone...

Orwell generally assumes a mocking or ironic tone in his descriptions of how the animals feel about themselves during Napoleon's rule. Some of the descriptions are somewhat humorous in that they target the general naivety and inability of the animals to completely comprehend exactly what is happening to them. What makes this, at times, particularly laughable is the fact that the character, Benjamin the donkey, knows exactly what is going on but because of his apathy and stubborn refusal to get involved, the charade continues and the animals remain none the wiser.  

After Napoleon has expelled Snowball, he assumes leadership of the farm and throughout this period, the animals present a variety of perceptions about themselves, depending on a particular situation or circumstance. From the outset, Napoleon assumes a dictatorial position. He begins by banishing all meetings and decide that the pigs will henceforth make all the decisions and the animals will have to abide by these instructions.

In chapter six we learn that the animals are working very hard and they have a general feeling of well-being.

But they were happy in their work; they grudged no effort or sacrifice, well aware that everything that they did was for the benefit of themselves and those of their kind who would come after them, and not for a pack of idle, thieving human beings.

The irony here is pertinently clear. The animals, in believing that they are doing it all for themselves, are unaware that they, just as much as they did in Jones' time, are not really working for themselves but for the pigs, who do no physical labour but benefit the most and live lives of privilege. This mistaken belief is further emphasized later in the chapter:

If they had no more food than they had had in Jones's day, at least they did not have less. The advantage of only having to feed themselves, and not having to support five extravagant human beings as well, was so great that it would have taken a lot of failures to outweigh it. 

It is pitiful that they do not realize that the pigs consume the most and literally enjoy the cream of the crop whilst they have to starve.

In general, Napoleon's manipulation and propaganda make the animals doubt themselves. They are never quite sure of what they do and do not know, which makes them feel insecure and uncertain. Their poor intelligence adds to the problem. As such, they tend to believe whatever they are told by both Napoleon and especially by Squealer.

He assured them that the resolution against engaging in trade and using money had never been passed, or even suggested. It was pure imagination, probably traceable in the beginning to lies circulated by Snowball. A few animals still felt faintly doubtful, but Squealer asked them shrewdly, "Are you certain that this is not something that you have dreamed, comrades? Have you any record of such a resolution? Is it written down anywhere?" And since it was certainly true that nothing of the kind existed in writing, the animals were satisfied that they had been mistaken.

The animals also felt quite proud of themselves at times, especially when they completed the windmill and when they saw Napoleon giving instructions to a human. We read in chapter six:

Nevertheless, the sight of Napoleon, on all fours, delivering orders to Whymper, who stood on two legs, roused their pride...

By the autumn the animals were tired but happy. They had had a hard year, and after the sale of part of the hay and corn, the stores of food for the winter were none too plentiful, but the windmill compensated for everything.

Probably the most dutiful and dedicated animals on the farm, of those who did not receive privileges, were Clover and Boxer. Boxer believed that every problem could be solved if he should work harder and he adopted the maxim, 'I will work harder!' The other animals felt cold and hungry. Only Boxer and Clover never lost heart, we are told in chapter seven.  Even after the execution of many animals during Napoleon's purge, Boxer remained positive:

"I do not understand it. I would not have believed that such things could happen on our farm. It must be due to some fault in ourselves. The solution, as I see it, is to work harder. From now onwards I shall get up a full hour earlier in the mornings."

It is unfortunate that such a powerful animal as he would remain so loyally obedient. Orwell essentially mocks him for his dumb allegiance to the greedy pigs. What makes Boxer's slavish belief even more difficult to swallow is the fact that he adopts another maxim that, 'Napoleon is always right.' Surely, one would ask, in spite of the fact that he is not bright, Boxer should have realized at some point that they were being abused? But he never does, not even after Napoleon's dogs attack him for having said something inappropriate.

After Napoleon's bloody and wholesale execution of the animals who confessed to a variety of acts of betrayal, the animals were miserable and frightened. They felt vulnerable and exposed, as we read in chapter 7:

When it was all over, the remaining animals, except for the pigs and dogs, crept away in a body. They were shaken and miserable.

Overall, the animals felt satisfied, even during Napoleon's tyranny, because they emphatically believed that they were masters of their own destinies. Instead of working for, and being abused by humans, they were now free and were working for themselves. Their naivety, gullibility, and stupidity are fully exploited by the avaricious pigs who enjoy lives of luxury and privilege as much as the humans did.

In the end, the animals cannot distinguish the pigs from the humans. The irony is that they, the general animal public on the farm, not only allowed this to happen but actually assisted the pigs in making it happen. 

What are maca's therapeutic uses?

Overview

Maca is a Peruvian root vegetable used as both food and medicine. It is sometimes called Peruvian ginseng, not because the plants have any botanical relationship, but because their traditional uses are somewhat similar. Traditionally, maca has been said to increase energy and stamina and to enhance both fertility and sex drive in men and women.

Therapeutic Dosages

The usual dose of maca is 500 to 1,000 milligrams (mg) three times a day.

Therapeutic Uses

Maca is widely marketed for improving male sexual function, female sexual function, and both male fertility and female fertility. However, at present there is no reliable evidence that it actually provides any benefits. Much of the evidence for maca comes from animal studies. In one study in rats, use of maca enhanced male sexual function. Animal studies have had mixed results regarding male and female fertility.

There are two published human trials on maca, performed by a single research
group. In one small twelve-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, use of
maca at 1,500 mg or 3,000 mg increased male libido. While this was an interesting
finding, the study did not report benefits in male sexual function, just in
desire. Since loss of sexual function (for example, impotence) is
a more common problem in men than loss of sexual desire, these results do not
justify the widespread claim that maca has been shown to act like a kind of herbal
Viagra.

Another small study found that four months of maca use increased sperm count
and sperm function. This study failed to use a control group, and for this reason,
its results are essentially meaningless. There have been no human trials on maca
for female fertility or female sexual function. Contrary to widespread reports,
maca does not appear to increase testosterone levels or, in fact, to
affect any male hormones.

Other animal studies hint that maca might offer benefits for prostate
enlargement, stress, diabetes, and high blood pressure. However, this evidence is
too weak to justify any claims regarding maca and these conditions. One human
trial evaluated a combination of maca and cat’s claw
for osteoarthritis, but because it failed to include a placebo group, its results
mean little.

Safety Issues

In the two reported human clinical trials, use of maca has not led to any serious adverse effects. However, this herb has not undergone comprehensive safety testing. Safety in young children, pregnant or nursing women, and people with severe liver or kidney disease has not been established.

Bibliography

Gonzales, G. F., et al. “Effect of Lepidium meyenii (Maca), a Root with Aphrodisiac and Fertility-Enhancing Properties, on Serum Reproductive Hormone Levels in Adult Healthy Men.” Journal of Endocrinology 176 (2003): 163-168.

_______.“Effect of Lepidium meyenii (Maca) on Sexual Desire and Its Absent Relationship with Serum Testosterone Levels in Adult Healthy Men.” Andrologia 34 (2002): 367.

_______.“Lepidium meyenii (Maca) Improved Semen Parameters in Adult Men.” Asian Journal of Andrology 3 (2002): 301-303.

Lopez-Fando, A., et al. “Lepidium peruvianum chacon Restores Homeostasis Impaired by Restraint Stress.” Phytotherapy Research 18 (2004): 471-474.

Mehta, K., et al. “Comparison of Glucosamine Sulfate and a Polyherbal Supplement for the Relief of Osteoarthritis of the Knee.” BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7 (2007): 34.

How does infectious disease affect developing countries?

Definition

Infectious diseases cause between 40 and 50 percent of all deaths in developing countries. For children younger than five years of age in these countries, infectious diseases cause almost 70 percent of deaths. Poverty, lack of education, inadequate or absent clean water and sanitation systems, crowded living conditions, unsafe sex, limited health care facilities, and lack of vaccines lead to the disproportionate burden of infectious diseases in the developing world. The chronic infectious disease-related disabilities suffered by adults in their prime working years leads to more poverty, continuing the cycle for the next generation.

Respiratory infections, including tuberculosis and pneumonias; diarrheal illnesses; malaria; and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) contribute most to the infectious disease death toll in economically impoverished areas of the world; these and other infections, including the neglected tropical diseases, also contribute to substantial rates of chronic disease and disability.

Malaria

Malaria is a parasitic disease transmitted by the bite of the female
Anopholes mosquito, which is endemic to more than one hundred
countries, including areas of Africa, Southeast Asia, Central America, South
America, India, and parts of India and Oceania. Infection with any of the four
species of Plasmodium causes fever, chills, and muscle aches, but
the most dangerous kind of malaria, falciparum malaria, can cause
serious disease in all ages. It results in significant mortality in children
younger than five years of age.

The battle against malaria is fought on two fronts: with mosquito control and with effective antimalarial medication. In developing countries, there are many inherent difficulties with both methods. Mosquito control has historically been approached by widespread use of insecticides, including dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT). Because of worldwide bans on the use of DDT, other approaches have been taken, including very limited use of DDT.

The main mosquito-control tool in campaigns against malaria is the insecticide-treated bed net (ITN), which keeps mosquitoes away from people who are sleeping at night, the time when biting mosquitoes are most active. As of 2008, about 31 percent of African households in malarious areas had an ITN, and about 24 percent of children younger than the age of five slept under one. Several countries, including Rwanda, Tanzania, Eritrea, Sao Tome and Principe, Zambia, and Zanzibar, have achieved even higher ITN coverage, with a resultant 50 percent reduction in malaria cases and deaths in those areas. These significant improvements were aided by expanded international funding of malaria control programs to help meet the goal of the United Nations (UN) to decrease childhood mortality by two-thirds by 2015; this effort was part of the UN Millennium Development Goals program. In 2010, 145 million nets were distributed.

The other major goal of malaria control campaigns is the widespread
availability and use of artemisinin drugs to treat malaria.
Although older malaria drugs, such as quinine and chloroquine, are
inexpensive and available in most developing countries, the malaria parasites have
developed resistance to these drugs, rendering them ineffective in many areas of
the world. Artemisinin drugs, though more expensive, are much more effective as
long as they are used in combination with a second drug; otherwise, resistance
will quickly develop. The use of these combination drugs is called
artemisinin-based combined therapy (ACT). Because some signs of resistance to
artemisinins have been reported in Southeast Asia, the World Health
Organization is leading an initiative to carefully monitor
malarious countries for the presence of artemisinin resistance and to contain it
if found. International funding continues to go to agencies working on wider
access to artemisinins.

HIV and Tuberculosis

In 2014, more than thirty-six million people worldwide are infected with HIV, and a disproportionate number of them reside in developing countries. HIV is most prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa, and in that region; 70 percent of all HIV cases are in the region. In Africa, HIV is transmitted nearly exclusively by heterosexual sex. Culturally and socially, females lack the ability to protect themselves from diseases transmitted by male sex partners or by rape, which is a widespread practice in some areas.

As more girls and women become infected, more newborns will become infected with maternally transmitted HIV. Transmission also occurs through breast milk, which is the only economical way to nourish infants in many impoverished areas. Decreasing the risk of mother-to-child HIV transmission is possible and requires only one dose of an antiretroviral drug during labor and one dose for the newborn to reduce risk by about 40 percent. More complicated and probably more effective regimes require girls and women to take multiple drugs during late pregnancy and until breast-feeding ends, but these practices have been difficult to implement in many areas. Maternal and paternal deaths from acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), the advanced stage of HIV infection, have resulted in an enormous increase in the number of so-called AIDS orphans in many areas of Africa. However, progress has been made: as of 2014, more than 70 percent of pregnant women with HIV were treated to prevent transmitting the disease to their babies.

Outside Africa, growing areas of concern are in Asia, especially in Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam. Contributing to dramatically increased rates of HIV infection in these areas are the female sex-worker trade, a lack of condom use, stigmatization of HIV testing, and the transient population.

A surge in the number of new cases of tuberculosis (TB) has accompanied the HIV epidemic in both developed and undeveloped countries, but the latter are particularly unprepared to deal with increases in this serious disease. Some of these cases represent strains of TB that are resistant to many of the existing tuberculosis drugs. Asymptomatic TB infection is common in developing countries; when a healthy person inhales Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the body effectively walls off the infection in the lung, and the infected person does not become ill or contagious. As that person is infected with HIV, which gradually destroys the immune system, however, inactive TB becomes active, causing cough, fever, weight loss, and death if untreated. Coinfection with HIV and TB is a disabling, deadly combination.

Treatment of TB requires accurate diagnosis, which is often unavailable in undeveloped areas, and also requires long-term compliance with a daily medication regimen. Both factors contribute to the increase in new infections and incompletely treated infections. With the HIV epidemic in these areas, tuberculosis has become a priority in many disease-control programs.

International efforts to contain both the HIV epidemic and the upsurge in TB have focused on prevention, testing, and treatment. Prevention has focused on safer-sex practices and the empowering of girls and women to avoid sexually transmitted infection. HIV testing has increased but remains problematic because testing is stigmatized, and the stigma increases for persons whose test results are positive.

Progress has been made in the availability of antiretroviral drugs for HIV treatment; according to UN AIDS, between 2006 and 2012, the number of people in sub-Saharan Africa receiving the drugs doubled.

Diarrheal Illness and Measles

Diarrheal illness and its nearly inevitable complications of dehydration
and malnutrition are large contributors to the disease burden in
developing countries, particularly in children younger than age five years. While
diarrhea is considered a minor, self-limiting illness in the developed world, in
undeveloped countries, diarrhea kills more children each year than HIV, measles,
and malaria combined. Diarrhea can be caused by many types of viruses, bacteria,
and protozoa, but it is mostly a result of impure drinking water and fecal
contamination of the living environment.

Even with access to decent sanitation and clean water, a child who does contract a diarrheal illness in a developing country is much less likely to have access to simple treatments that could save his or her life. One simple diarrhea treatment strategy that can save lives includes giving an ill child oral rehydration with a special salt solution (often referred to as ORS) and a zinc supplement, while continuing to feed the child to avoid malnutrition. WHO and other public health entities have also launched social marketing campaigns encouraging stigmatization of defecation in public (a significant problem in India, in particular) and encouraging handwashing with soap to avoid infection.

Immunization with rotavirus vaccine is another strategy
that can decrease diarrhea in children, but this vaccine has yet to be included in
immunization programs in developing countries. Better access to measles vaccine
might also reduce the number of deaths from childhood diarrhea, as diarrhea is
often a debilitating symptom of measles in very young children.

Measles is another childhood disease that affects children
in undeveloped countries significantly more than it does in developed countries,
primarily because, in developed countries, measles vaccination is routine at age
twelve to fifteen months (with a booster at school entrance in most developed
countries). Vaccination of young children in some areas of Africa and Asia has
been limited.

The Measles Initiative, a consortium including the American Red Cross, the United Nations Foundation, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), and WHO, had committed to reducing measles worldwide by 90 percent by 2010. Since 2000, the initiative has helped prevent 15.6 million deaths through vaccination. As a result, 84 percent of the world's children have been immunized. The biggest impact has been in Africa, and in the eastern Mediterranean region, which includes Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, and Somalia.

For children not immunized and who are infected with measles, the disease can
manifest as a mild respiratory infection, or it can be a serious illness. Serious
complications of the infection include pneumonia, ear infection, blood
abnormalities, and encephalitis (inflammation of the
brain), which can cause permanent neurologic effects or death.

Neglected Tropical Diseases

Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) infect billions of people worldwide, yet they are often unknown in developed countries. As a result, less funding has gone to NTDs for disease control or elimination programs. In the later decades of the twentieth century, the attention to NTDs increased somewhat. The NTDs contributing the largest burden of disease are lymphaticfilariasis (elephantiasis), onchocerciasis (river blindness), schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminth (worm) infections, and trachoma.

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a disfiguring disease caused by thin, microscopic
worms and is transmitted by mosquito bites. The tiny worms live in and damage the
lymphatic system and, after long periods of time, can result in severe swelling of
the arms, legs, breasts, and genitalia, leading to substantial disability. When
chronically swollen areas become thickened and hardened, the resultant condition
is referred to as elephantiasis. LF affects a minimum of one billion people in
eighty-three countries, primarily in tropical and subtropical areas of India,
Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Nigeria. LF can be treated with annual doses of
inexpensive antiparasitic drugs, including albendazole and diethylcarbazine, which
do not kill adult worms in the body but kill the immature worms that can transmit
the disease person-to-person through mosquito bites and thereby interrupt the
cycle of transmission.

Onchocerciasis, also known as river blindness, is
transmitted from person to person by the bite of a black fly; the disease affects
eighteen million people in thirty-five countries. The disease causes skin rashes
with intense itching and eye damage that can result in blindness. An annual dose
of the drug ivermectin can prevent the disease.

Schistosomiasis affects two hundred million people in
seventy-four countries. It is caused by a parasite called a fluke, which lives in
fresh-water snails and causes several different syndromes in humans; these
syndromes can result in kidney, bladder, and liver disease, and death.

Soil-transmitted helminths (worms) cause malnutrition, vitamin deficiencies, anemia, and intestinal obstruction in more than one billion people worldwide, with many more persons at risk. It is easily treated by administration of mebendazole or albendazole twice yearly. Partners for Parasite Control, a WHO group, is working toward the goal of treating 75 percent of all at-risk children with these drugs.

Trachoma is a bacterial infection of the eye caused by
Chlamydia trachomatis, which causes scarring of the lining of
the upper eyelid and leads to blindness. It is spread from person to person by
direct contact and affects more than eighty-four million people in fifty-five
countries. The International Trachoma Initiative is dedicated to eradicating this
disease by using a treatment and prevention strategy known as SAFE: surgery,
antibiotics, face-washing hygiene, and environmental changes.

Impact

Infectious diseases in developing countries remain a huge global problem. Recognizing their responsibility to respond in a humanitarian way, many of the wealthy nations of the world are committed to finding solutions to these diseases. WHO, the Global Health Council, UNICEF, and other international organizations are working toward disease eradication, with polio and measles the most likely initial targets for eradication. National efforts, such as the US President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), which was reauthorized in 2008, will continue to pump economic aid to programs that are researching ways to control HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, and other diseases around the world.

Bibliography

Abdool, Karim S. S., et al. “HIV Infection and Tuberculosis in South Africa: An Urgent Need to Escalate the Public Health Response.” The Lancet 374 (12 Sept. 2009): 921–33. Print.

"Access to Antiretroviral Therapy in Africa Status: Report on Progress towards the 2015 Targets." UNAIDS. United Nations, 2015. PDF file.

Batterman S., et al. “Sustainable Control of Water-Related Infectious Diseases: A Review and Proposal for Interdisciplinary Health-Based Systems Research.” Environmental Health Perspectives 117.7 (2009): 1023–32. Print.

"Eliminating Measles, Rubella, and Tetanus." Unicef.org. UNICEF, 3 Feb. 2015. Web. 31 Dec. 2015.

Greenwood, Brian M., et al. “Malaria: Progress, Perils, and Prospects for Eradication.” Journal of Clinical Investigation 118.4 (2008): 1266–76. Print.

Packard, Randall M. The Making of a Tropical Disease: A Short History of Malaria. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2007. Print.

Plotkin, Stanley A., Walter A. Orenstein, and Paul A. Offit. Vaccines. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2013. Print.

Santosham, Mathuram, et al. “Progress and Barriers for the Control of Diarrhoeal Disease.” The Lancet 376 (3 July 2010): 63–67. Print.