What are hiccups?

Causes and Symptoms

A hiccup is caused by an involuntary, spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm, the large partition of muscles and tendons that separates the chest from the abdomen. The diaphragm draws air into the lungs through rhythmic contractions. When it contracts suddenly, an opening located toward the top of the trachea (windpipe) between the vocal cords in the larynx (voice box) called the glottis snaps shut abruptly. The combination of air being forced through the vocal cords in the larynx and the abrupt closure of the glottis causes the sound associated with hiccups.

There are a number of causes of hiccups, the most common being overdistension of the stomach. Other causes include gastric irritation from spicy or rich foods and nerve spasms. There is some indication that hiccups are controlled by the central nervous system.

Hiccups generally last for a very short time, usually stopping within minutes. People who suffer from hiccups for more than twenty-four hours or who have repetitive attacks are said to suffer from chronic hiccups. This condition is very rare.

People of all ages can suffer from hiccups. Pregnant women report that fetuses sometimes have hiccups in the womb.

Treatment and Therapy

An attack of hiccups is not serious and is generally self-limiting. A number of techniques to stop are practiced, including holding one’s breath, drinking a glass of water, breathing deeply, or breathing into a paper bag.

Babies often suffer from hiccups, particularly during nursing. Some mothers report that feeding the baby a quarter of a teaspoon of sugar mixed in 4 ounces of water calms the hiccups. Doctors suggest that hiccup-prone babies be fed before they are overly hungry and when they are calm.

Bibliography

Gluck, Michael, and Charles E. Pope II. “Hiccups and Gastrointestinal Reflux Disease: The Acid Perfusion Test as a Provocative Maneuver.” Annals of Internal Medicine 105 (1996): 219–220.

Heuman, Douglas M., A. Scott Mills, and Hunter H. McGuire, Jr. Gastroenterology. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1997.

Howes, Daniel. "Hiccups: A New Explanation for the Mysterious Reflex." BioEssays 34, 6 (June, 2012): 451–453.

Hurst, Duane, Catherine Purdom, and Michael Hogan. "Use of Paced Respiration to Alleviate Intractable Hiccups (Singultus): A Case Report." Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback 38, 2 (June, 2013): 157–160.

Kaneishi, Keisuke, and Masahiro Kawabata. "Continuous Subcutaneous Infusion of Lidocaine for Persistent Hiccup in Advanced Cancer." Palliative Medicine 27, 3 (March, 2013): 284–285.

Launois, J. L., W. A. Bizec, J. C. Whitelaw et al. “Hiccup in Adults: An Overview.” European Respiratory Journal 6 (1993): 563-575.

Shay, Steven D. S., Robert L. Myers, and Lawrence F. Johnson. “Hiccups Associated with Reflux Esophagitis.” Gastroenterology 87 (1984): 204–207.

How did the Black Death bring about a crisis and recovery in Europe?

The Black Death brought about a crisis in Europe because it killed such a huge number of people.  Because records for the time are so sketchy, we do not have an accurate figure for the number or percent of people who were killed.  However, if we say that around 50% of the population of Europe died because of the Black Death, we are probably not far off.

Imagine what a crisis this would be if it happened today.  If that many people died, our society would be devastated.  We would lose many of our leaders and teachers.  We would lose many people who own companies and create jobs.  We might lose large numbers of police and firefighters.  When half your population dies suddenly, all sorts of important people die and society is thrown into an uproar.  Now add to that the fact that Europeans of the time had no idea what was happening.  They did not understand why diseases happen or how they are spread.  From their point of view, people were dying terrible deaths at random with no discernable reason.  This eroded faith in the Church, which was a major institution in those times.  It also just caused people to be frightened, perhaps more than we can even comprehend.  In these ways, the Black Death caused a major crisis in Europe as it weakened society in many ways.

However, by killing so many people the Black Death brought about economic opportunity and economic change for those who survived.  Excess crops and food stores meant that food prices dropped and people could afford more food than they previously could.  Because so many workers of all sorts died, those who remained were much more valuable.  They could command higher wages.  They could force their employers to treat them better in order to keep them on as workers.  Many people who had been serfs and peasants left the countryside and moved to cities where they helped to drive economic growth.  In short, the Black Death created a situation where the workers had more power and could build better lives for themselves.  This helped drive an economic recovery in Europe and may have helped pave the way for modernization and further increases in prosperity.  In this way, the Black Death may have caused a crisis at first, but it (at least arguably) was good for society as a whole in the long run.

Why were the early months of World War ll referred to as the phony war?

After the Germans invaded Poland, France and Great Britain declared war on Germany. There was fighting in Poland and eventually Germany occupied the country. After the fighting ended in Poland, there was no significant fighting in Europe for several months. This is known as the phony war.

The phony war existed during the winter months. Fighting would be difficult during the harsh European winters. As a result, Germany waited for the winter to end before beginning another round of major military operations. Germany was also able to build up its military forces and prepare for future military operations during this period of relative inactivity. In April 1940, the Germans conquered Denmark and Norway. In May 1940, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands fell to the Germans. France fell in June 1940.

It is important to note that some military actions occurred during the phony war. Ships were being sunk and air raids were being conducted. Thus, it was a period with some military activity.

What is the main idea of “The Chimney Sweeper” poems by William Blake?

William Blake wrote two poems called "The Chimney Sweeper" for Songs of Innocence and of Experience. In the iteration of the poem in Songs of Innocence, we are treated to a childlike view of the chimney sweeper's lot in life, one that justifies a corrupt social hierarchy by asserting that those who "do their duty" (24) will go to Heaven. Conversely, in the version in Songs of Experience, Blake presents us with a chimney sweep abandoned by hypocritical parents who "'praise God and his Priest and King, / Who make up a heaven of our misery'" (11-12). The main idea of both poems is to illustrate the corrupt nature of a society that exploits human labor, but the way in which both poems come to this idea is different. The Experience version is overt in its dealing with corruption, as it's hard to miss Blake's blatantly critical tone. The Innocence poem, however, is more subtle; in it, the chimney sweepers are satisfied with their lot, as they have been convinced that performing their miserable duty will earn them eternal salvation. In communicating this notion, Blake subtly suggests that society has twisted religion in order to oppress the working classes, thus making the main idea of this poem more indirect than the Experience poem. 

In Act 5 of Romeo and Juliet, Juliet shows a side to her we have never seen before. When does she reveal this side of her and what is it like?...

In this act, Juliet actually speaks very little, and only in scene III, when she first awakens and finds herself in her family's vault.  Juliet's brief speech emphasizes her newfound decisiveness.  Consider how long and how much she had to say when she learned that Romeo had slain Tybalt; she spent quite a while working through her conflicting responses and trying to decide what to do and how to feel.  Recall, also, the lengthy speech she gave just prior to drinking the potion that Friar Lawrence had given her or her need to seek out the friar's advice when she learns that she will be made to marry the County Paris.  No, now, Juliet acts against the friar's wishes and quickly makes the decision to end her life and be with Romeo.  She does not take time or need to consider her options; there are none in her mind.  This side of her is revealed when she realizes that her husband is dead.

Juliet certainly seems a great deal more self-assured in this scene than she has in any other.  There is no need for her to ponder, no need to question or worry over what consequences her actions might have.  Realizing that there is no more poison left in Romeo's vial, and hearing voices outside, she says, "Yea, noise?  Then I'll be brief.  O happy dagger, / This is thy sheath" (5.3.174-175).  Thus, in the sense that Juliet has become more and more capable of taking decisive and immediate action, she seems to have developed a sense of certainty in her decisions that she's not exhibited before. 

In Elie Wiesel's Night, how did Elie survive?

The fact that Elie Wiesel survived his ordeal of being sent to the ghettos and then various concentration camps seems to be mere luck.  Wiesel answers this very question in the "Preface to the New Translation:"

"I don't know how I survived;  I was weak, rather shy;  I did nothing to save myself.  A miracle?  Certainly not......It was nothing more than chance."   Night, VII-VIII, Elie Wiesel

When examining the struggle of Wiesel and his father from the ghettos to the final destination at Buchenwald one understands the randomness of how death selected its victims.  Consider the journey on the open-air train to Buchenwald. One hundred passengers embarked and only twelve survived. What gave those twelve the ability and strength to disembark from that train?  Consider the factors they had to contend with:  famine, exhaustion, disease, and the trauma of the whole event.  When Wiesel says it was mere chance for him to survive, it seems to make a lot of sense.

After completing the memoir, the reader is compelled to believe that the fact that Eliezer was accompanied by his father during every step of this horrific journey played a significant role in his survival.  Throughout the book, Wiesel states how important it was that he was not separated from his father.  This poignant passage describing a harsh march in the winter cold is significant to understanding this connection:

My father's presence was the only thing that stopped me (from giving up). He was running next to me, out of breath, out of strength, desperate.  I had no right to let myself die.  What would he do without me?  I was his sole support.     --Night, Page 86-87  

Compare and contrast the office of the President in the United States and Russia.

In both Russian and American politics, the office of the President is the highest office in the land. (This is not the case in all systems. In the U.K., the Prime Minister holds the highest office in the land.) In the U.S. the President is both the head of state and the head of government. (Again, not always the case. In the U.K., the Prime Minister is the head of government while the monarch is the head of state.) The President in Russia is the head of state, though he or she is not technically the head of the executive branch.  The American President has veto power, so does the Russian President. 

There are some differences between the roles. In American politics, the second highest office is that of the Vice President. In Russia it is the Prime Minister. The American President faces strong checks and balances, he or she is held very accountable for both foreign and domestic policy. A legislature controlled by the opposition can seriously limit a President's ability to act.

That is not the case in Russia, where political accountability is low. Thus, the Russian presidency is at a higher risk for authoritarianism. Members of the opposition party in Russia often face repressive measures when they push back against President Putin. 

Historically, the American Presidency is older than the Russian Presidency, which was only introduced in 1991. The Russian term limit for the presidency is 6 years. In America it is 4 years. 

What are some provocative questions one might ask about Chapter 4 and 5 of The Cay by Theodore Taylor?

To come up with provocative questions, check out what's happening in the story and what big ideas are being talked about or hinted at. Then, try asking some questions starting with "Why," "How," and "What if." Or, zero in on certain events and statements in the story that seem important, and ask things like, "What does _____ reveal about _____?" or "If you were in that situation, how would you react? Why?" or "What is the author really trying to express when _____?"

Let's check out some examples. I'll go ahead and include some from Chapter 3, also, since that one is rich in ideas, while Chapter 5 is rather short:

From Chapter 3:

Look at how Phillip's mother reacts calmly to the ship being torpedoed, "not at all like she was at home." What does her reaction reveal about her character? How do you think her reaction made Phillip feel? Why? If you were Phillip's mom, would you react the same way? Why or why not?

Phillip regains consciousness and realizes that he and the stranger are alone together on the raft, his mother gone. Look at how he first perceives Timothy: "His face couldn't have been blacker." What do Phillip's thoughts reveal about his knowledge, experience, and/or misconceptions about West Indian people or black people? If this is how Phillip thinks in the beginning of the story, and if most main characters experience major changes in their thinking by the end of the story, then how might Phillip change?

Consider how Stew Cat came to be on the raft: Timothy didn't have the heart to throw him off, and has been taking care of him ever since. What does this reveal about Timothy's character? Notice, too, that Phillip also likes to pet Stew Cat. Why do you think the author includes these details?

Notice how Timothy thinks it's good luck that he and Phillip do have a few rations on their raft. Phillip disagrees that their luck is good. Who do you think is more correct? Why? What does the difference in their opinions reveal about these two characters?

If it was a white man who wanted to ration the water supply carefully instead of a black man, do you think Phillip, thirsty and frustrated, would have reacted in the same childish way as he did in this chapter? Why or why not? 

At the end of the chapter, Phillip is looking for someone to blame for his frustrating situation. Why do you think he blames his mother? Who (or what) might be a better target for his blame? Why?

From Chapter 4:

Consider Phillip's description of his experiences in "colored town." Why do you think the author is including these details? What do they reveal about Phillip's thinking? If Phillip's friend Henrik is "easier" around black people, why do you think that's so, and why isn't Phillip more relaxed around them?

To stay warm, Phillip and Timothy sleep with their backs up against one another. Why didn't they do this before? Could this action be symbolic in some way? What does it mean, or why is it important, aside from the fact that they were both warmer than before?

Phillip goes blind. What could this event symbolize? 

Do you think Timothy is lying when he tells Phillip the anecdote about his friend who had gone blind and then regained his sight after a few days? Why or why not? Either way, what does the anecdote reveal about Timothy?

From Chapter 5:

Consider this quote: "We were alone again on the ocean." Why do you think the author wrote such a short sentence in a paragraph all by itself?

Look at how the sharks are always present around the raft, yet they're invisible to Phillip. Yes, these are literal sharks, but what idea could the sharks also represent?

How important is Slim in Of Mice and Men?

Since the narration is meant to be objective, the qualities attributed to Slim must be considered factual. His importance and judgment are beyond reproach. Even Curley, the boss's son, defers to Slim, most notably after the bunkhouse fight with Lennie when he agrees to say he got his hand caught in a machine.

In chapter three, Slim is the patient listener as George tells of his background with Lennie. Slim is surprised that the two men travel together. He is also complimentary of George for the way he treats Lennie. Slim is the perfect confidant for George as he reveals the details of the incident with the girl in the red dress in Weed. He is nonjudgemental and understanding of what George has gone through in his relationship with Lennie.

Slim ultimately makes two important decisions during the course of the book. In chapter three he agrees with Carlson that Candy's dog should be put down. The reader may be suspicious of Carlson's motives, but when Slim offers his opinion, Steinbeck says his decision "was law." Later, he offers his opinion to George about Lennie's fate. Slim tells George that it would not be good for Lennie to fall into the hands of Curley or the law. In chapter five, he says,

"But Curley’s gonna want to shoot ‘im. Curley’s still mad about his hand. An’ s’pose they lock him up an’ strap him down and put him in a cage. That ain’t no good, George.”

Slim's words most certainly help George decide to do what he had already been contemplating, the shooting of Lennie. Rather than have him suffer, George heeds Slim's words and kills Lennie. 

Finally, Slim is again understanding and nonjudgemental in the book's final lines. He totally understands George's actions and even offers to get him a drink. Despite the tragic ending, Steinbeck gives a nod to a positive future as he has George and Slim leave the clearing by the river together, possibly suggesting that the two may become good friends.

Describe a specific example of how the integumentary system helps maintain homeostasis.

In a word? Sweat.

"Integumentary system" and "homeostasis" are big scary words, but what we're really talking about here is how skin and the organ system it is a part of help the human body regulate itself, particularly with regard to temperature and moisture.

Specialized nerves in the skin are sensitive to changes in temperature; specifically, certain nerves are sensitive to high temperatures while others are sensitive to low temperatures.

If high-temperature nerves are triggered, they send a signal to the brain (chiefly the brain stem and the hypothalamus) that activates the perspiration response, telling sweat glands in the skin to open up and release more perspiration that will conduct heat away from the skin and evaporate away. The sweat response can also be activated simply to reduce excess moisture, but usually that's handled by the urinary system.

If low-temperature nerves are triggered, they send a signal to the brain that instead activates the shivering response, telling muscles across the body to vibrate rapidly in a way that will generate heat.

The skin also provides passive protection against loss of heat and moisture, by layers of fat and keratin that block heat transfer and evaporation.

Finally, human skin also does a process comparable to photosynthesis for the creation of vitamin D; the reason people have different skin colors is that humans who evolved in regions of high sunlight had a natural selection pressure for dark skin to protect against radiation damage (especially to folate) while humans who evolved in regions of low sunlight had a natural selection pressure for light skin to maximize the production of vitamin D. Since folate and vitamin D are both important in pregnancy, the selection pressure was quite strong and this evolutionary process was quite fast, occurring over only a few tens of thousands of years.

Which image of Jesus has made the most positive contribution to Western civilization? Which has had the most negative effect?

Images of Jesus Christ are interpretations of His life and work, as seen through the fallible eyes of human beings. The Bible is the source for our information on Jesus and interpretations of the Bible have shifted drastically over the 2000 year history of Christianity. Keeping in mind that these images are skewed, we can find examples of where images of Jesus have made positive and negative contributions to Western Civilization. 

Negative Images

The end of the book of Matthew (chapter 28, verses 18-20) states:

And Jesus came and spake unto them, saying, All power is given unto me in heaven and in earth.
Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost:
Teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you: and, lo, I am with you always, even unto the end of the world. Amen.

Throughout His ministry, Jesus railed against people who were legalistic (the Pharisees) and He consistently showed mercy to people. Yet some Christian interpreters took the Great Commission of the end of Matthew to mean they were to force people to convert to Christianity. Many of the negative images of Jesus derive from Christian interpretations of scripture that focus on the Great Commission and exclude the ways He dealt with people. Even today, non-Christians may not want to listen to the Christian message because it has been presented by people whose actions are not like Jesus's. This problem covers a lot of territory, including the Crusades, the forced conversion of enslaved people in the Americas, and the forced conversions of Native Americans during the colonization process.

Positive Images

A major force during the 20th century was that of non-violent resistance to oppression. This process helped free India from British rule under the leadership of Gandhi and was central to Martin Luther King, Jr.'s contributions to the Civil Rights movement in the United States. Gandhi was not a Christian; nevertheless, he was strongly influenced by what Jesus had to say about turning the other cheek in chapter five, verses 38-39 of Matthew: 

Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth:
But I say unto you, That ye resist not evil: but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also.

King was, in turn, influenced by Gandhi. 

Non-violent protest works because it puts the protesters on the higher moral ground than the oppressors. The image of the small Ruby Bridges walking to school, accompanied by federal agents, while protesters made threats on her life, embodies the concept of non-violent resistance. Bridges and other children who integrated schools for the first time in the United States as the Little Rock Nine were polite and didn't return threats or escalate violence. 

Another facet of Jesus's positive image is His essential compassion for people. The first four books of the New Testament recount many events, such as when Jesus healed people, spent time with the reviled people in His society (prostitutes, tax collectors, Samaritans), and prevented punitive people from blindly carrying out the law.

And the scribes and Pharisees brought unto him a woman taken in adultery; and when they had set her in the midst,
They say unto him, Master, this woman was taken in adultery, in the very act.
Now Moses in the law commanded us, that such should be stoned: but what sayest thou?
This they said, tempting him, that they might have to accuse him. But Jesus stooped down, and with his finger wrote on the ground, as though he heard them not.
So when they continued asking him, he lifted up himself, and said unto them, He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her.
And again he stooped down, and wrote on the ground.
And they which heard it, being convicted by their own conscience, went out one by one, beginning at the eldest, even unto the last: and Jesus was left alone, and the woman standing in the midst.
When Jesus had lifted up himself, and saw none but the woman, he said unto her, Woman, where are those thine accusers? hath no man condemned thee?
She said, No man, Lord. And Jesus said unto her, Neither do I condemn thee: go, and sin no more. John 8: 2-11

Jesus lived a life of love and demonstrated a love that was without fear. He cared for people despite criticism, wept at their sorrows, and was sad for their spiritual limitations, which were the limitations that put Him on the cross. Even while dying a horrendously painful death, Jesus asked God to forgive the people who crucified Him. 

Humans have fear in our lives, but through Jesus's example, some people, such as Mother Teresa, manage to overcome those fears in order to make other people's lives better. 

Taken on its own terms, the Bible is a book written for human beings describing actions well beyond a human's ability to grasp. It's unsurprising there would be many struggles to comprehend who Jesus is, and the misunderstandings have been worse than tragic. At the same time, those who focus on Jesus's love have been a part of liberation and freedom.

How does Shakespeare compare his friend's beauty with the summer's day in "Sonnet 18"?

"Sonnet 18" is a Shakespearean sonnet, a genre typically used for love poetry. It is usually structured to set up a major theme in the first three quatrain and then to have a surprising or paradoxical twist in the couplet.

Shakespeare begins by arguing that his lover is in every way superior to a summer day. One should note that the poem is set in England, which tends to have cool, rainy summers. The narrator points out that summer days are inconsistent; they can be windy or hot and humid or cloudy. The beloved's characteristics are more constant, though. Also,  the summer will eventually fade into autumn.

In the third quatrain, the narrator suggests the beauty of the beloved is eternal, suggesting: "But thy eternal summer shall not fade." At first, this statement appears paradoxical, as all humans are mortal, but the couplet resolves the paradox by saying that as long as people continue to read this sonnet, the lover will be remembered.

Examine and explain an important (tangible) symbol in The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger.

One of the most poignant symbols in The Catcher in the Rye is the ducks in Central Park. In Chapter 1, Holden wonders where the ducks go in the winter when the lagoon in Central Park freezes over. He says,

I was wondering where the ducks went when the lagoon got all icy and frozen over. I wondered if some guy came in a truck and took them away to a zoo or something. Or if they just flew away.

Holden feels connected to the ducks in some way, and they might even represent his concerns about himself. He, like the ducks, feels misplaced because he has just been kicked out of prep school and feels reluctant to go home. He is also caught between wanting to be grown up and wanting to retain the innocence his younger sister, Phoebe, still has. Later, in Chapter 20, Holden goes to find the ducks in Central Park, but he grows upset when he can't find any waddling around. He worries the ducks have no place to go; in that sense, the ducks represent his own displacement.

Explain how the following sentences could be interpreted in more than one way. 1. Flying planes can be dangerous. (sign at a model-airplane...

The following sentences can be interpreted in a number of different ways. 

1. "Flying planes can be dangerous."  If this sign is posted at a model-airplane event in a park, there are at least two logical interpretations.

    A. The model airplanes that are being flown by individuals at the park are dangerous.  For example, a model airplane could hit a bystander in the head if the person flying it is not paying attention or loses control.  Planes that are flying, then, are dangerous and caution should be exercised to ensure planes in flight do not cause injuries.

    B. The act of flying a model airplane can be dangerous.  For example, someone with a control who is flying a model airplane could be distracted as he or she is attempting to guide the model plane.  If caution is not exercised, the "pilot" could walk into a tree or bump into another person as he or she is distracted. The act of flying the plane, then, is dangerous.

2. "Please remove your clothes when the cycle is complete." At a coin-operated laundry facility.

    A. This statement could, and mostly likely does, mean that when the washer or dryer has finished washing or drying a customer's clothes, the customer should take the clothing out of the machine, presumably to clear the machine for use by another customer.

    B. This statement logically could be interpreted to mean that when the washer or dryer has finished washing or drying the customer's laundry, the customer should take off the clothing he or she is wearing.

3.  "Slow children ahead."  On a sign near a school.

     A. This statement likely cautions vehicle drivers to reduce their speed because children gather in the area.  Grammatically, the sign means: "[Go] slow, children ahead."

     B.  The statement could also be interpreted as declaring that children, who are slow, are in the area.  The sign, if read literally, means exactly that.

4.  "The door is alarmed."

     A. This statement could mean that a door has been secured; either someone has locked it or activated a security system that would cause an alarm to go off if opened.

     B.  Read literally, the statement means that the door itself is alarmed by something.  This literal interpretation does not make much logical sense, but if it is used in literature, the author might be using the literary technique of personification to attribute human characteristics and emotions to an inanimate object, namely, the door.

Two incidents were encountered by each character of the novel "Three Men in a Boat." What were they? Please help me with this question, please!

Each of the characters has at least two stories associated with them. Each story reveals or confirms key personality traits of the character.

J., the narrator -- In Chapter I, it’s his tale of going to the British Museum, looking up all of diseases in the medical book, and realizing that he has symptoms for all but one of them. This story shows his sensitive nature and possible hypochondria, in addition to his huge sense of humor. In Chapter IV, we hear about the time he helped a friend out by personally transporting some smelly cheese from one place to another. This one shows his politeness and commitment to friendship, and again, his sense of humor.

George – In Chapter XI, George retells a time when his watch once stopped, and he found himself on the street on his way to work at 3 a.m. when he thought it was 9 a.m. George is dedicated, but he doesn’t always pay attention to what’s going on around him. He’s not always good at problem solving, either. In Chapter XIV, we hear about his failing attempts to learn how to play the banjo. Again, he’s dedicated, but is not always successful.

Harris – In Chapter VI, Harris tells the story of the time he got lost in the Hampton Court maze. As usual, he thought he was prepared, and he thought he knew what he was doing – enough to even offer confident help to others in the same situation. But he turned out not to know after all, and he had to be “saved” by someone else. In Chapter XI, Harris attempts to cook scrambled eggs for the group for breakfast. This endeavor does not end well. Again, he thinks he knows what he’s doing, and he obviously doesn’t.

Montmorency – In Chapter II, J. explains Montmorency’s origins, and the fact that he looks like an innocent dog, but that he has a nasty history of fighting behind him. (Since J. is the one telling this story, we’re not sure if we should believe him, since he often exaggerates for effect.) In Chapter XIII, however, Montmorency runs after but is stared down by a street-savvy cat. The dog isn’t as tough as he – or J. -- thinks he is.

What evidence can you find of the effect of racism in the 50s on Rock and Roll? Look at the audience, the music business, parents, governments,...

Rock and roll was not just a style of music---it was also very much a social movement. The ethos of rock and roll was about liberation, individuality, and personal freedom in all things---famously with regard to sexuality, but also in many other respects as well, including liberation from racial discrimination.

The music style originated from Rhythm and Blues (R&B), which in turn had arisen as a synthesis of African and European musical styles created primarily by Black people in the US. R&B was heavily influenced by folk songs and chants that Black slaves sang when working on plantations, and some of these rhythmic sounds carried over into rock and roll.

Early rock and roll artists were almost all themselves Black, Rock and Roll didn't become really commercially successful until White artists began taking up the sound. This was, to be honest, probably very much the result of racism; but once it happened, rock actually began to break down a lot of racist barriers that had stood in the US for a long time. Rock was one of the first types of media that had wide audiences who were both White and Black, and thanks to rock and roll a number of Black artists gained mainstream recognition as well, such as Little Richard and Chuck Barry. It is probably not a coincidence that rock and roll became popular around the same time as the Civil Rights movement began to make major successes desegregating schools and businesses and reducing racial discrimination under the law.

The government also took notice of the effect of rock and roll on teenagers' attitudes toward race and sexuality, and often attempted to crack down on the music, calling it "tribalistic" and "jungle stuff". Many parents were scandalized by its message of liberation and the implications for racial integration.

In the late 1950s, major music studios realized they would be better off profiting from rock and roll rather than resisting it, and instead hired White artists to play "cover versions" of songs originally written and performed by Black artists. This allowed them to sell it to radio and TV stations as "White music" instead of "Black music". Here again we can see the pervasive influence of racism. But many of these White artists turned the tables later by talking openly about the Black artists who influenced them, drawing a number of those artists out of obscurity and into the mainstream. They were able to do this because of the creation of rock stars, by now a general term for someone famous, but at that time quite new: a few rock and roll artists became so popular and so profitable that they began to hold the reins of their producers instead of the other way around.

In all, I do think rock and roll made a major positive contribution toward improving race relations and supporting the Civil Rights movement in the US. Of course many other factors were involved as well, not least the heroic sacrifices of thousands of protesters; but rock and roll had a unifying effect on America (and particularly American youth) that broke down a lot of racial barriers that had previously been quite intractable.

DNA and RNA are composed of nucleotide sub-units. How do the nitrogenous bases nucleotides differ in DNA and RNA?

A nucleotide contains a phosphate group and a five- carbon sugar and one of four nitrogenous bases. In DNA, the components of a nucleotide include the sugar deoxyribose and the base can be one of the following four-adenine, guanine, cytosine or thymine.

A nucleotide in RNA contains a different sugar called ribose and one of the following four nitrogenous bases-either adenine, guanine, cytosine or uracil.

DNA and RNA are known as polynucleotides because they are built from nucleotides that are linked together to form a macromolecule.

DNA is a double -stranded molecule arranged as a double helix with its nitrogenous bases linked together in the center in complementary base pairs- adenine to thymine and cytosine to guanine. The sides of the molecule are the sugar and phosphate groups.

RNA is a single stranded molecule. 

I have included a link comparing DNA and RNA.

In The Lord of the Flies by William Golding, what appears during the heat of the afternoon?

In Chapter 4, Golding writes that strange things happened in the midday heat. The heat during the day is unbearable, and the boys relax underneath the shade of the forest trees. The glittering sea, coral reef, and palm trees seem to rise into the sky during the afternoon. Sometimes, the boys see imaginary land where there is none. Piggy is the only boy intelligent enough to realize that they are looking at mirages. The illusions appear to merge into the sky as the sun beats down heavily onto the island. At the end of the afternoon, the mirage subsides, and the horizon becomes level again. When the sun goes down and night falls onto the island, the children worry about the beast. Interestingly, both during the day and night, the boys' imaginations deceives them and their perception is altered.

How would you define Mr. Gradgrind as a tragic figure in Hard Times by Charles Dickens?

In Hard Times, Charles Dickens presents the sad, exaggerated Utilitarian philosophy of Thomas Gradgrind as a sort of tragedy. More specifically, Dickens examines how Gradgrind’s staunch pedagogical approach negatively affects his children, especially Louisa. Gradgrind is initially shown as a strict, Utilitarian caricature who emphasizes facts and rote memorization over imagination and critical thinking. Dickens opens chapter two by detailing Gradgrind’s unfortunate personality:

“A man of realities. A man of facts and calculations. A man who proceeds upon the principle that two and two are four, and nothing over, and who is not to be talked into allowing for anything over.... With a rule and a pair of scales, and the multiplication table always in his pocket, sir, ready to weigh and measure any parcel of human nature, and tell you exactly what it comes to” (6).

His strict nature affects his children and they have a hard time overcoming their father’s prescriptive values. Indeed, when Louisa seeks his advice on marrying the loathsome Bounderby, Gradgrind boils the situation down to statistics and facts rather than taking an empathetic stance on the subject. Louisa follows her father’s advice into a ruinous relationship. It is only at this point that Gradgrind realizes the error in his ways, and in turn grows as a human being.

“Aged and bent he looked, and quite bowed down; and yet he looked a wiser man, and a better man, than in the days when in this life he wanted nothing but Facts” (205).

While Gradgrind does transform, it is only after his daughter is forever affected by his teachings. This is why Gradgrind is a tragic character: he realizes the narrow scope of his Utilitarian values only after his daughter is ensnared in a poisonous relationship.

I pulled my textual support from the Norton Critical Edition, 3rd ed.

How has Pavel changed in the novel The Boy in the Striped Pajamas?

Pavel is one of the Jewish prisoners at Auschwitz who works inside Bruno's home peeling vegetables and waiting on the family during dinner. Pavel befriends Bruno in Chapter 7 after witnessing Bruno fall from his makeshift tire swing. While Pavel is bandaging Bruno's knee, Bruno mentions that Pavel is a rather thin old man with angular features. Bruno also notices that Pavel typically has a solemn look on his face which indicates his unhappiness. As the novel progresses, Pavel gradually becomes thinner, and Bruno mentions that he looks smaller each week. Bruno notices that the color in Pavel's cheeks is gone, and his eyes appear heavy with tears. While Pavel is serving dinner in Chapter 13, his hands begin to shake, and he is forced to put them against the wall to maintain his balance. Pavel is also less responsive and has to be called several times to refill glasses during dinner. Pavel is clearly suffering from malnutrition and showing its effects. His rapid weight loss and unhealthy appearance indicate that he hasn't eaten a substantial meal in a while. Unfortunately, Pavel spills wine on Lieutenant Kotler and is beaten badly. After the beating, Pavel is not mentioned for the remainder of the novel. One can infer that Pavel either died from the injuries inflicted during the beating, was taken to the gas chamber, or passed away due to malnutrition.

`int sqrt(1 + x^2) / x dx` Evaluate the integral

`intsqrt(1+x^2)/xdx`

Let's evaluate using the trigonometric substitution,

Let `x=tan(theta)`

`dx=sec^2(theta)d theta`

`=intsqrt(1+tan^2(theta))/(tan(theta))*sec^2(theta) d theta`

Now use the identity: `1+tan^2(x)=sec^2(x)`

`=intsqrt(sec^2(theta))/tan(theta)*sec^2(theta)d theta`

`=intsec(theta)/tan(theta)*sec^2(theta)d theta`

`=int(sec(theta)(1+tan^2(theta)))/tan(theta) d theta`

`=int((sec(theta))/tan(theta)+(sec(theta)tan^2(theta))/tan(theta))d theta`

`=intsec(theta)/tan(theta)d theta+intsec(theta)tan(theta)d theta` 

`=int(1/cos(theta))*(1/(sin(theta)/cos(theta)))d theta+intsec(theta)tan(theta)d theta`

`=int1/sin(theta) d theta+intsec(theta)tan(theta)d theta`

`=intcsc(theta)d theta+intsec(theta)tan(theta)d theta`

Now using the standard integrals,

`intcsc(x)dx=ln|csc(x)-cot(x)`

`intsec(x)tan(x)dx=sec(x)`

`=ln|csc(theta)-cot(theta)|+sec(theta)`

Now substitute back `x=tan(theta)`

`=>cot(theta)=1/tan(theta)=1/x`

`1+tan^2(theta)=sec^2(theta)`

`=>1+x^2=sec^2(theta)`

`=>sec(theta)=sqrt(1+x^2)`

`1+cot^2(theta)=csc^2(theta)`

`=>1+(1/x)^2=csc^2(theta)`

`csc(theta)=sqrt(1+x^2)/x` 

`:.intsqrt(1+x^2)/xdx=ln|sqrt(1+x^2)/x-1/x|+sqrt(1+x^2)+C` ,C is a constant

How would "Winter Dreams" be different if Dexter had married Irene Scheerer after all? Would he have been able to achieve his life's ambitions with...

The questions that relate to Dexter's choices between Irene and Judy capture the possible tension between happiness and ambition.

Fitzgerald makes a clear case that Dexter could have found happiness with Irene.  Marrying her would have allowed him to experience contentment: "He knew that Irene would be no more than a curtain spread behind him, a hand moving among gleaming tea-cups, a voice calling to children."  Had Dexter married Irene, he would have had to settle down and raise a family.  As a result, she offered a stability needed for sustainable happiness. This development changes the story's arc.  Dexter's "winter dreams" would have been a passing phase in his life.  They would have had less of an effect on him because the daily realities of raising a family and domestic responsibilities would have crowded out his painful yearning for Judy.

Nothing in the text indicates that Irene would have threatened Dexter's professional ambitions.  She wanted nothing more than to complement Dexter, wanting only what was best for him. However, it is clear that Irene would not have been able to cure Dexter of his ambitious desire for Judy Jones.  While Irene would have wanted to be everything for Dexter, her limitations were unavoidable: "The thing was deep in him. He was too strong and alive for it to die lightly." Dexter's desire for Judy was so firmly embedded that no matter how hard Irene tried, she could not satiate it.

Fitzgerald is saying that there might have to be a choice between ambitions and a happy family life.  There are times when both of these run counter to one another and are incompatible.  Sacrificing one for the other is the only way to resolve this tension. Dexter chooses his ambition for Judy over the stability Irene offers.  As a result, Fitzgerald illustrates the danger in selecting personal desire over domestic responsibility.

How do you study history successfully?

Studying history is very important. There is so much a person can learn by studying history. One approach to studying history successfully is a philosophical approach. History teaches us about the past so we can make good decisions in the present and in the future. If you view history as a guide to your life to help you make good decisions now and in the future, it will help you view history in a positive way. You will see history as relevant in your life even if the events occurred a long time ago.

A second approach is to view the study of history as much more than memorizing names, dates, facts, and places. You should try to see how past events are related to events today, especially those events that impact you. If you view the study of history as a way to take what you have learned about the past to solve current problems, the study of history will have much more meaning to you. Try to view the study of history as if somebody is speaking to you personally about life lessons that you can learn and apply. This will help make the study of history come alive for you, and it will help you see how important the study of history is in your life. Memorization of facts is boring. Applying lessons to your life is relevant, exciting, and impactful.

If you follow these approaches, you will have a much better chance at studying history successfully. You may have heard the phrase that history repeats itself. If we learn from the past, we should be able to avoid making the same mistakes in the future. This is why the study of history is so important.

Why did nature play such an important role in Helen Keller's education?

While Anne Sullivan is teaching Helen Keller, Sullivan tries to spend a great deal of time out in nature with Helen because she knows Helen enjoys the outdoors. Keller writes, "I cannot explain the peculiar sympathy Miss Sullivan had with my pleasures and desires." Keller ascribes her teacher's inclination to teach her using what Keller enjoys to Sullivan's long experience teaching the blind. Sullivan clearly understands how to motivate Keller to learn. In addition, being in nature allows Keller to learn about things that are tangible and beautiful to her. Keller says, "The loveliness of things taught me all their use." By looking at nature, what Keller describes as, "everything that could hum, or buzz, or sing, or bloom," Keller learns to love learning. In addition, learning out in nature makes her lessons real to her and acquaints her with the world beyond her house--the world she will have to find her way around. Her lessons in nature are so enjoyable that Keller says her experiences are very different than those of children in a traditional school, who generally come to hate the humdrum and inapplicable nature of what they are learning. 

Which question is answered through flashback in "Death by Landscape"?

"Death by Landscape," by Margaret Atwood, is a story that takes place in the past and in the present. Lois, the main character, is sitting in her apartment in the present day looking at her extensive framed photograph and art collection, reminiscing about an incident at a summer camp she attended as an adolescent where her friend, Lucy, disappeared. There are several questions posed at the time of the incident; at the conclusion of the story, readers have some answers but not all. The question answered through flashback is, ultimately, "What happened to Lucy?"

One of the activities the girls do at camp is go on a wilderness trek where they spend the night. Lucy and Lois break off from the group and go hiking, ultimately ending up at the cliff's edge. Lucy says she has to go to the bathroom, so Lois walks down the path to give her privacy. A few minutes later, Lois hears Lucy cry out.

"This is when she heard the shout. She has gone over and over it in her mind since, so many times that the first, real shout has been obliterated, like a footprint trampled by other footprints. But she is sure (she is almost positive, she is nearly certain) that it was not a shout of fear. Not a scream. More like a cry of surprise, cut off too soon. Short, like a dog's bark." 

Lois looks everywhere for Lucy, and, when she lets the counselors and other campers know, they all look in the water at the base of the cliff, but Lucy is gone. When the group returns to the camp without Lucy, Lois is immediately suspected by Cappie, the head of the camp, of pushing Lucy. 

"Sometimes we're angry when we don't know we're angry," says Cappie, as if to herself. "Sometimes we get really mad and we don't even know it. Sometimes we might do a thing without meaning to, or without knowing what will happen. We lose our tempers." 

As an adult in the present day, Lois understands that Cappie likely didn't actually suspect Lois of killing Lucy; Lois was simply a better scapegoat than admitting a camper committed suicide or fell, both of which would indicate neglect on the part of the camp and would likely get it shut down. 

Throughout the story, it becomes obvious to readers that Lucy is suicidal, though the young characters in the story are unable to see it. She makes a reference to being unhappy at home and to not wanting to go back. 

After a moment she said, "It would be nice not to go back."
"To camp?" said Lois.
"To Chicago," said Lucy. "I hate it there."
"What about your boyfriend?" said Lois.
Lucy didn't answer. She was either asleep or pretending to be.

When Lois and Lucy are at the cliff's edge, Lucy comments directly about jumping:

"It would be quite a dive off here," says Lucy.
"You'd have to be nuts," says Lois.
"Why?" says Lucy. "It's really deep. It goes straight down." She stands up and takes a step nearer the edge.
Lois gets a stab in her midriff, the kind she gets when a car goes too fast over a bump. "Don't," she says.
"Don't what?" says Lucy, glancing around at her mischievously. She knows how Lois feels about heights. But she turns back. "I really have to pee," she says. 

Lucy knew that saying she had to use the bathroom was a way that she would be able to get Lois to walk away from her without suspicion. It was then that she jumped off the cliff. 

The question that is answered through the story, "What happened to Lucy?" is that Lucy committed suicide by jumping off of the cliff. Lois was innocent, though she has clearly suffered lifelong trauma from the incident...not because of being blamed or because the camp was shut down, but because Lucy's body was never found, and because suicide leaves behind more questions than answers. Lois believes that Lucy lives in the artwork of the landscapes she collects, and this is how she keeps Lucy alive. 

The “Corrupt Bargain” during the Election of 1824 indicates that the following was most central to the presidency at that time: A.) The...

The Corrupt Bargain during the Election of 1824 indicated the importance of the Secretary of State as a precursor to the presidency (Answer D). Let's consider why this is:

The Election of 1824 involved five candidates running as Democratic-Republicans after the Republican-Federalist model failed. No one received a majority of the votes in the Electoral College, and so the House of Representatives chose between two candidates. The House was led by the speaker of the House, Henry Clay, who chose John Quincy Adams for the presidency. Clay was then given the position of Secretary of State by Adams as thanks for this maneuver.

Ultimately, this election was labeled as corrupt due to the fact that Andrew Jackson, who had received ninety-nine votes in the Electoral College, was widely considered the stronger choice for the presidency; Clay, thus, did not receive a warm welcome to the office. 

How do the whirligigs positively affect the people who see them?

The chapters of Whirligig alternate between the events and actions in Brent Bishop’s life and those of the people who encounter the four whirligigs he has installed. In “Weeksboro, Maine,” we meet two eighth-grade girls, Steph and Alexandra. They see the whirligig in the snow at Christmas time. They use it as a kind of wishing post, hoping for Steph to get a boyfriend. In “Miami, Florida,” an anonymous Puerto Rican street sweeper who lives in Miami relieves some personal stress by going for a long drive across the state to Tampa. There he sees the whirligig with marching band characters on it. It reminds him that people are naturally attracted to being in groups, and that the togetherness of family life is important. In “Bellevue, Washington,” we follow Tony, a fifth-grader with Korean ancestry who doesn’t like being forced to take Suzuki violin lessons. He sees the whirligig when he goes camping with his family. His mother loves the whirligig; Tony hates it and throws a rock at it. His mother takes pictures of it and frames one for inspiration back home. It depicts a woman playing the harp, then resting, as the wind moves the parts. Tony’s violin teacher explains that the same technique could help Tony, and that he could take a rest from playing the instrument. And in “San Diego, California,” 15-year old Jenny is taking care of her aging, possibly dying, grandmother. When they go for a drive around town, they stop at the whirligig. They watch it for a long time, and her grandmother says that it is a laugh lesson. Four different people or sets of people see four different whirligigs and interpret them in four different ways, and all positive. And these are just the instances that the author allows us to see.

What are brain disorders?

Causes and Symptoms

The cerebral cortex acts as a processor for sensory information and as an integrator of memory, interpretation, creativity, intellect, and passion. Disorders of the brain or brain defects can disrupt these processing or integrating functions. Disorders of the brain include such commonly heard terms as stroke, ischemia, dementia, seizure, and coma. Brain disorders may also occur as a result of infection, various tumors, traumas leading to blood clots (hematomas) or lack of oxygen (hypoxia), and cancer. Brain defects include anencephaly, a congenital defect in which a newborn lacks a brain, and hydrocephaly, commonly called “water on the brain.”

A stroke is any situation in which the blood supply to a region of the brain is lost. This can occur as a result of a cerebral hemorrhage, during which blood escapes from blood vessels to surround and compress brain tissue; cerebral thrombosis, whereby a clot attached to the wall of a blood vessel restricts the amount of blood flowing to a particular region; or an embolus, a foreign substance which may be a clot that migrates in the bloodstream, often to lodge in a smaller vessel in the brain. The embolus will block blood flow to some area. An embolus can originate from substances other than a blood clot, which is why health care staff often squirt fluid out of a needle before administering a shot or other therapy: to ensure that no air embolus, which could induce a stroke or prove fatal if it enters the brain, is injected.

Transient ischemic attacks
(TIAs) are often thought of as small strokes, but, technically, ischemia simply means that oxygen is not reaching the cells within a tissue. Basically, the mechanism is similar to a stroke, in that blood flow to a portion of the brain is compromised. Although blood actually reaches the brain tissue during ischemia, there is not a sufficient flow to ensure that all cells are receiving the oxygen necessary to continue cellular life. This condition is called hypoxia (low oxygen). If hypoxia is sustained over a sufficient period of time, cellular death occurs, causing irreversible brain damage.

The important differences between a stroke and a TIA are the onset and duration of symptoms, as well as the severity of the damage. Persons with atherosclerosis actually have fat deposits along the interior walls of their blood vessels. These people are vulnerable to experiencing multiple TIAs. Many TIAs are small enough to be dismissed and ignored; others are truly inapparent, causing no symptoms. This is unfortunate because TIAs often serve as a warning of an impending full-scale stroke. Action and treatments could be implemented, if medical advice is sought early, to decrease the likelihood of a stroke. Repeated TIAs also contribute to dementia.

Dementia is not the normal path for the elderly, nor is it a sign of aging. Dementia is a sign of neurological chaos and can be caused by diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease or Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Although most elderly are not afflicted with dementia, nearly all have a slowing of reaction and response time. This slowing is believed to be associated with chemical changes within nerve cell membranes as aging occurs; slowing of reaction times is not necessarily indicative of the first steps on a path to dementia. In addition, forgetfulness may not be a sign of dementia, since it occurs at all ages. Forgetfulness is such a sign, however, if it is progressive and includes forgetting to dress or forgetting one’s name or date of birth.

While it is incorrect to say that dementia is caused by aging, it is correct to say that dementia is age-related. It may first appear in a person any time between the late thirties and the mid-nineties, but it usually begins to appear in the late seventies. Patients with Alzheimer’s disease are believed to account for about 20 percent of all cases of dementia. Other diseases cause dementia, including an autosomal-dominant genetic disease called Huntington’s disease.
Huntington’s disease manifests itself with a distinct chorea, or dance, of the body that is neither solicited nor controlled. This genetic disease is particularly cruel in that its symptoms appear in midlife, often after the adult has had offspring and passed on the gene. The disease continues to alter the intellect and personality of the afflicted one and progresses to the point of complete debilitation of the body and mind.

A seizure occurs when a collection of neurons misfires, sending nerve impulses that are neither solicited nor controllable. In the everyday use of the term, seizure describes a condition of epilepsy or convulsion. Medically speaking, a seizure is a sign of an underlying problem within the gray matter of the brain; it is the most common neurological disorder.
Epilepsy is a term used to describe a condition of repeated seizures, while convulsion is a term generally applied to describe an isolated seizure. A seizure may occur as a consequence of extreme fever or a violent blow to the head. Seizures are also associated with metabolic disorders, such as hypoglycemia (low blood sugar); trauma causing a loss of blood or oxygen to a region, such as in a newborn after a traumatic birth; toxins, as seen in drug abuse or withdrawal; or bacterial or viral encephalitis or meningitis. In addition, about one-third of those
persons who survive a gunshot wound to the head will experience seizures afterward. In closed head trauma, which can occur in a sporting or automobile accident, there is a 5 percent chance of post-trauma seizures.

Loss of consciousness can be caused by a violent impact to the head, a lack of oxygen or blood flow to the head, a metabolic imbalance, or the presence of a toxin such as alcohol. Usually, this is a transient event, but it may become a permanent condition. When this happens, a person is said to be in a coma. A comatose person exists in a nonresponsive state and may be assessed for brain death. Brain death is a legally defined term which means that no electrical activity in the brain is seen on an electroencephalogram (EEG). Thus some comatose patients may be determined to be brain-dead, particularly if the condition is deemed irreversible.

Brain defects are not common, but they do occur. One particularly tragic defect is the absence of a brain in a newborn, called anencephaly. Death usually occurs within a few hours of birth. Although anencephaly is rare and generally associated with a genetic factor, there have been cases in population clusters, such as one in the Rio Grande area of south Texas, suggesting that an environmental factor may contribute to these defects.

Another defect that may appear in newborns or in an infant’s first months of life is
hydrocephalus. Although the descriptive term “water on the brain” is often used, the condition does not involve a collection of water in the cranium; rather, it involves an accumulation of
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF is the fluid that insulates the brain and allows it to “float” under the bony cranial encasement. As the ventricles, or spaces, in the brain fill with CSF, bulging occurs and pressure builds to the point of compressing the surrounding brain tissue. This can be very painful and is fatal if untreated. Hydrocephalus can be caused by an overproduction of CSF or a blockage of the CSF drainage from the ventricles of the brain. The symptoms often include a protrusion or abnormal shape of the cranium. In newborns, the skull bones have not yet sutured (fused) to one another, so the soft bones are pushed apart, causing unusual head shapes. This is a warning sign. Another sign is observed if a newborn’s head has a circumference greater than
35.5 centimeters (14 inches); if that is the case, the newborn must be immediately checked for hydrocephalus. Adolescents and adults may also experience hydrocephalus. This can be a response to head trauma, infection, or the overproduction of CSF. The symptoms include lethargy, headache, dullness, blurred vision, nausea, and vomiting.

Treatment and Therapy

TIAs
can progress to strokes. In fact, about 30 percent of those diagnosed with TIA will have a major stroke within the subsequent four years. One of the most prevalent causes of TIAs is hypertension. Hypertension is known as the “silent killer” because many persons with this problem ignore the subtle symptoms of fatigue, headache, and general malaise. Hypertension is also known as a good predictor of major strokes if left untreated. Thus, hypertensive persons need to be diagnosed as such in order to control their blood pressure. This allows them to avoid or delay either a major stroke or multiple TIAs. Management for the hypertensive’s blood pressure may include taking diuretics and hypotensive drugs (to lower the blood pressure). If taken diligently, these drugs offer longevity and quality of life to the sufferer. Aside from hypertension, TIAs may be induced in some metabolic disorders, which should be corrected if possible, or by constricted blood vessels. Sometimes, surgery on such vessels can stop the ischemic attacks and
prevent or delay the onset of a stroke.

Although TIAs lead to strokes, strokes are not necessarily preceded by a TIA. Nearly 90 percent of all major strokes occur without a TIA warning. Sadly, hypertension is the main contributor to this number. Measures can be taken to avoid strokes. This includes maintaining cardiovascular health by exercising, not smoking, and managing hypertension, diabetes mellitus, or other problems that may place stresses on the body’s chemical balance.

Dementia is so poorly understood in terms of causes that a rational probe of drug therapy or a cure is nearly impossible. The drugs most often used in dementia treatment, the ergoloid mesylates, are used to manage the symptoms; namely, the confused mind. These drugs, however, do not stop or prevent the unexplained cellular degeneration associated with dementia. It is interesting to note that a tiny subgroup within those persons suffering from Alzheimer’s disease have greatly improved in mental status with the drug tacrine. It is unfortunate that all patients are not responsive to this drug—a fact which suggests that Alzheimer’s disease is a complex condition.

Seizures are treated pharmacologically according to type. Carbamazepine, phenobarbital, phenytoin, and valproate are some of the drugs available to treat seizure disorders. Barbiturates may also be used in certain cases. Most of these drugs are highly effective when taken as prescribed, and patient noncompliance is the main cause of drug failure. Sometimes, two drugs are combined in therapy. It should be mentioned that pregnant women with epilepsy are urged to continue taking antiepilepsy drugs during pregnancy since a maternal seizure may be more damaging to the fetus than the drug itself.

Some forms of
hydrocephalus can be corrected surgically by performing a CSF shunt from the cranium to the peritoneal (abdominal) region, where the fluid can be eliminated from the body as waste. This is not without risk, and the introduction of infection into the brain is a major concern.

Perspective and Prospects

The therapies in use for brain diseases and disorders have been derived from the practical experience of physicians, the laboratory research of scientists, and the hopes of multitudes of doctors, patients, families, and friends. Medical science has done much to improve the lives of those who suffer with seizures, to reduce the risk of strokes to the hypertensive person and those with TIAs, and is making great progress in treating certain kinds of dementia. Yet much remains to be done.

While one can argue that much is known about the human brain, it would be erroneous to argue that the human brain is fully understood. Despite centuries of research, the brain, as it functions in health, remains largely a mystery. Since the healthy brain is yet to be understood, it is not surprising that the medical community struggles to determine what goes wrong in dementia, seizure, or mental illness or to discover drug therapies that can cross the blood-brain barrier. Thus, the human brain is the uncharted frontier in medicine. As technology improves to support researchers and medical practitioners in their pursuits of cures and treatments for brain diseases and disorders, one can only remain hopeful for the future ability to restore health to the damaged human brain.

In April 2013, US president Barack Obama announced the launch of the Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative, a research initiative tasked with finding new ways to prevent, treat, and cure brain disorders and injuries. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, National Institutes of Health, and National Science Foundation will fund approximately $100 million in research starting in fiscal year 2014.

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Mace, Nancy L., and Peter V. Rabins. The Thirty-six-Hour Day: A Family Guide to Caring for People with Alzheimer Disease, Other Dementias, and Memory Loss in Later Life. 4th ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2006.

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Woolsey, Thomas A., Joseph Hanaway, and Mokhtar Gado. Brain Atlas: A Visual Guide to the Human Central Nervous System. 3d ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2008.

What sort of man was the sniper at the start of the story?

At the start of the story, the sniper is described as a seasoned soldier. Although he is young ("face of a student"), his demeanor makes him look like an older solider, one who has become "used to looking at death." He has the "cold gleam of the fanatic." His stare indicates that he is no longer the naive student his youth might indicate. At this point, he is a focused, intense soldier/machine. 

Even though he is this seasoned soldier, he does make mistakes. When he lights the cigarette, he gives away his position. However, he recovers from this mistake and manages to take out an informer (old woman), the soldier in the turret, and his enemy sniper on the other rooftop. Even when he gets hit (by the enemy sniper), he manages to dress the wound himself, despite the immense pain: 

Then taking out his field dressing, he ripped open the packet with his knife. He broke the neck of the iodine bottle and let the bitter fluid drip into the wound. A paroxysm of pain swept through him. He placed the cotton wadding over the wound and wrapped the dressing over it. He tied the ends with his teeth. Then he lay still against the parapet, and, closing his eyes, he made an effort of will to overcome the pain. 

Toward the end of the story, the sniper does have moments of sensitivity, remorse, and humanism. But in the beginning, and for most of the story, he is a disciplined machine of a soldier. 

What is a concussion?

Causes and Symptoms

Concussions can be caused by a variety of traumatic events: motor vehicle
accidents, penetrating injuries, sports injuries, strikes, and falls. Recent
studies indicate that the number of concussions from motor vehicle accidents and
falls have decreased, while penetrating injuries (gunshot
wounds) and sports-related injuries are on the increase.
Concussion is a common athletic injury that often goes unreported. Recent
information suggests that children heal more slowly than adults following head
trauma. Although concussions are the mildest traumatic brain injuries, they can
result in irreversible damage or death if a person suffers another head trauma
prior to recovering from the initial injury.

People who have experienced head trauma that disrupts brain activity and sometimes
causes brief unconsciousness, ranging from several seconds to minutes immediately
after an impact, are considered to have sustained a concussion. Direct, sudden,
powerful blows to the head or an impact to the body that jars the head cause the
brain to bounce inside the skull and suffer tissue bruising. Nerve fibers tear,
and chemical reactions are altered. The irregular interior surface of the skull
can damage fragile brain tissues. Direct mechanical trauma can injure cortical
tissue, while subdural hematomas can damage subcortical structures,
potentially leading to vasospasm and ischemia.

Concussions are described as mild, moderate, or severe, though there is a lack of
standardized definitions for each type of concussion. A mild concussion may or may
not involve a brief period of unconsciousness; the brain generally recovers
quickly and without long-term damage. However, approximately 15 percent of those
injured will continue to experience symptoms one year after the initial injury.
These symptoms may range from headaches to emotional or behavioral
problems. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National
Center for Injury Prevention and Control have developed recommendations for
standardized terminology, treatment, and prevention of mild traumatic brain
injuries. A severe concussion is considered an emergency and requires an extended
period of time for recovery.

Headache, dizziness, nausea, and disorientation immediately following the injury
are considered risk factors for long-term complications from the head injury. Each
person’s brain and injury are unique. Therefore, a wide variety of symptoms may
occur. Patients may experience blurred vision or suffer hearing problems. People
with concussions also report becoming uncoordinated and sensitive to light and
noises, and they may experience sensory changes in smell and taste. Patients may
become moody, cognitively impaired, unable to concentrate, or fatigued.

Researchers have determined that the major neuropsychological complications of
concussion may affect the brain’s memory, learning, and planning functions. Some
concussion patients taking tests, such as the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of
Intelligence, have revealed decreased concentration, reaction, and processing
skills in performing intellectual tasks. Their strategies to solve problems are
impaired when compared to people who have not suffered concussions.

Medical professionals assess patients with a head injury by physical examination,
radiological tests, and a standardized scale that measures level of consciousness
called the Glasgow Coma Scale. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) scans may also be used. The American Academy of Neurology
emphasizes the duration of loss of consciousness to determine the severity of
concussions. Evaluations also consider orientation and posttraumatic
amnesia. Medical professionals assess patients’ responses to
stimuli and memory of incidents before their injury, defining the concussion
according to the level of confusion, amnesia, and duration of loss of
consciousness. Physicians ask patients questions about who and where they are and
about the time and date. The duration of amnesia after the brain trauma helps
medical professionals to determine the extent of the injury and treatments that
would be most effective to heal the brain. The Colorado Medical Society developed
a popular system, assigning grades 1 (mild), 2 (moderate), and 3 (severe) to
concussions, to guide athletic personnel in examining players who suffer
concussions during games and deciding how long they must refrain from
participation in order to prevent additional damage.

Brain
damage and death can result from serial concussions.
Postconcussion complications may include second impact syndrome: If a patient
suffers another concussion before healing is complete following the first injury,
then the second concussion can be the catalyst for rapid cerebral swelling that
causes increased pressure within the structure of the brain. This pressure can
cause the brain to press on the brain stem and result in respiratory failure and
death. This condition is usually fatal.

More common is postconcussive syndrome (PCS), which consists of such cognitive and
physical symptoms as headache, anxiety, vertigo, nausea, and hallucinations. An
estimated 30 percent of professional American football players suffer from PCS.
Researchers have determined that people who experience several concussions, such
as athletes and soldiers, are more vulnerable to becoming clinically
depressed.

Treatment and Therapy

Patients who play sports should not be returned to play until symptoms of
concussion have resolved completely, both during rest and exercise. A slow return
to previous activities allows the brain to heal, resulting in fewer long-term
complications than for patients who resume activities more quickly. Although most
patients make a full recovery, some experience long-term concussion-related
conditions, such as memory loss and neurological
impairment.

Severe concussions with increased brain pressure require hospitalization, often in
a neurological intensive care unit. The patient’s head is maintained in a neutral
position. Immobilization should be continued until a full risk assessment
indicates it is safe to remove. The patient may have suffered internal bleeding in
the brain because of the injury, and blood clots can form there. Surgery may be
required to remove these clots. Patients with preexisting conditions such as
epilepsy and diabetes may develop complications related to those diseases and
require longer recovery times.

Physicians recommend wearing helmets to absorb shocks sustained during athletic activities involving the risk of head injury in order to prevent or minimize concussions. The American Academy of Neurology has demanded a ban on boxing because the sport involves knocking out opponents by inflicting concussions. Boxers often suffer permanent brain damage and are at a heightened risk for neurological diseases.

Perspective and Prospects

Concussions were first described in medical literature by Muslim physician Rhazes
(850–923). He differentiated between a head injury that caused neurological
symptoms from those injuries that resulted in lesions and structural damage. In
the nineteenth century, medical researchers developed hypotheses, often
controversial, regarding the physical and emotional influences of concussion
symptoms. Second impact syndrome was first defined in 1984.

The development of sports medicine increased the interest
in studying concussions. The understanding of the internal brain damage involved
in concussions did not significantly advance, however, until neuroimaging
technologies such as CT scanning and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were
developed in the late twentieth century. In the twenty-first century, medical
professionals utilize those techniques to view brain tissues and to observe the
physiological reactions to concussion-causing trauma. Positive emission tomography
(PET) has been developed to measure chemical changes in the brain. In the case of
concussion, the PET scan can be used to evaluate changes that signal areas of
injury in the brain. These technologies will likely yield more accurate diagnostic
exams for concussions.

Bibliography

Arbogast, Kristy B., et
al. "Cognitive Rest and School-Based Recommendations following Pediatric
Concussion: The Need for Primary Care Support Tools." Clinical
Pediatrics 52.5 (2013): 397–402. Print.

Brody, David L. Concussion Care
Manual: A Practical Guide. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2014.
Print.

Evans, Randolph W.,
ed. Neurology and Trauma. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford UP,
2006. Print.

Graham, Robert, et al., eds.
Sports-Related Concussions in Youth: Improving the Science,
Changing the Culture. Washington, DC: Natl. Academies, 2014.
Print.

Kennedy, Jan, Robin
Lumpkin, and Joyce Grissom. “A Survey of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
Treatment in the Emergency Room and Primary Care Medical Clinics.”
Military Medicine 171.6 (2006): 516–21.
Print.

Metzl, Jordan.
“Concussion in the Young Athlete.” Pediatrics 117.5 (2006):
1813. Print.

Natl. Center for
Injury Prevention and Control. Report to Congress on Mild Traumatic
Brain Injury in the United States: Steps to Prevent a Serious Public
Health Problem. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2003. Print.

Parker, Rolland S. Concussive
Brain Trauma: Neurobehavioral Impairment and Maladaptation. 2nd
ed. Boca Raton: CRC, 2012. Print.

How many milliliters of water are needed to make a 0.711 M solution that contains 1.00 g of NaCl?

Molarity is equal to the number of moles of solute per liters of solution.

   Molarity (M) = moles (mol)/liter (L) 

Step 1: Rearrange the formula to solve for liters.

First, multiply both sides of the formula by 1/moles. "moles" cancels out on the right side of the formula giving us:

   Molarity (M)/moles (mol) = 1/liters (L)

Next, flip both sides of the formula:

   moles (mol)/Molarity (M) = liters (L)/1

Finally, rewrite the formula so that the unknown variable (liters) is on the left side of the formula:

     liters (L) = moles (mol)/Molarity (M)

Step 2: Change grams to moles.

First, we will need to calculate the molar mass of the substance (NaCl). The molar mass of a substance is calculated by multiplying each atom's subscript by its atomic mass, and adding the resulting products together:

   Molar mass of NaCl = (1)(22.990) + (1)(35.453) = 58.443 g/mol

Next, convert the given grams of NaCl (1.00 g) to moles by dividing by the molar mass of NaCl:

  1.00 g x 1 mol/58.443 g = 0.0171 mol NaCl

Step 3: Use the rearranged molarity formula from Step 1 to solve for liters (L).

   liters (L) = moles (mol)/Molarity (M)

   liters (L) = 0.0171/0.711 M = 0.0241 L

Step 4: Convert liters to milliliters by moving the decimal point three places to the right.

   0.0241 L = 24.1 mL of water

How would one characterize Helen Keller?

Helen Keller was a famous author and activist. She became deaf and blind due a childhood illness shortly before her second birthday. For the next several years of Helen's life, she struggled to communicate with her family and to adjust to a world where she could not see or hear. Her life changed when Miss Sullivan came to be her teacher. Miss Sullivan worked hard to help Helen. Finally, she had a breakthrough and she taught Helen to communicate using the manual alphabet.

Once Helen could communicate, the world opened up to her. She left home with Miss Sullivan to attend school. She learned to read, write, and speak. She traveled to many places and met a variety of friends. Helen then started to write her autobiography, The Story of My Life. She even went on to attend college.

Helen Keller was a person who was filled with determination. She loved learning wherever she went. She felt a special connection with nature. Helen enjoyed the ocean, the forest, and gardens. She liked to sail and go for long walks. Helen especially enjoyed spending time with her friends. She concluded her autobiography with the following words:

Thus it is that my friends have made the story of my life. In a thousand ways they have turned my limitations into beautiful privileges, and enabled me to walk serene and happy in the shadow cast by my deprivation (Chapter XXIII).

In Fahrenheit 451, who says "we're most peculiar"?

It is Clarisse who says "we're most peculiar" in Fahrenheit 451. To put this quote into context, she is referring to the members of her family who are very different from the other characters portrayed in the novel. 

Directly preceding this quote, for instance, Montag is confused as to why all of the lights in her house are on, considering the late time of night. Clarisse responds that her mother, father and uncle are "sitting around, talking," a response which perplexes Montag:

"But what do you talk about?"

Clarisse and her family are free-thinkers and non-conformist. They continue to live an existence based on the past, before books were banned and society was chiefly concerned with providing entertainment. As a result, Clarisse recognises that her family appears "peculiar" to outsiders but, in reality, they represent life before censorship and totalitarian government. 

To whom did Hamilton's economic plan appeal?

Alexander Hamilton’s economic plan appealed to different groups. Those who held old government bonds were very pleased with his plan. Businesses also were very pleased with Alexander Hamilton’s economic plan.

Hamilton’s plan called for combining the state debt and the national debt. The government would issue new bonds to those who held old government bonds. The old government bonds would be redeemed at full face value. Some speculators had bought the old government bonds at a very low price because many people thought they would never be redeemed at full value because of the country’s financial problems . These speculators, many who were northerners, benefitted greatly from this plan. The government would use the new bonds and some tax money to pay our debt.

Alexander Hamilton also wanted to create a national bank. This would help businesses. They would have a place where they could put their money and a place where they could get loans if needed.

Alexander Hamilton proposed having taxes on imports. This would help the government gain money that could be used to pay our debt. It also would protect our new industries by making some foreign-made products more expensive. This would encourage people to buy products from American businesses.

Alexander Hamilton’s economic plan benefited many people.

How does Tom's testimony affect the people in the courthouse in To Kill a Mockingbird?

Tom's testimony causes pandemonium in the courthouse. During Atticus's questioning, Tom testifies that Mayella grabbed him around the waist and reached up to kiss him. According to Tom's testimony, Mayella claimed she had never kissed a grown man before, so reasoned she might as well kiss Tom. Tom's testimony regarding Mayella's words creates havoc in court:

She reached up an‘ kissed me ’side of th‘ face. She says she never kissed a grown man before an’ she might as well kiss a nigger. She says what her papa do to her don’t count. She says, ‘Kiss me back, nigger.’

Additionally, Tom maintains that, when Bob Ewell saw Mayella kissing Tom, he yelled, "you goddamn whore, I’ll kill ya." Tom's words shock the people in court because of what they suggest. Since there is a taboo against interracial relationships in Maycomb, Tom's testimony creates emotional pandemonium in court. As Atticus later says, "She was white, and she tempted a Negro. She did something that in our society is unspeakable: she kissed a black man. Not an old Uncle, but a strong young Negro man. No code mattered to her before she broke it, but it came crashing down on her afterwards." Also, Tom's account of Mayella's words suggest that her father may have been sexually abusing her. This is, in itself, devastating in its implications.

Later, when Mr. Gilmer questions Tom, Dill is reduced to tears. As only an innocent boy can, Dill confesses to Scout that Mr. Gilmer's tendency to sneer at Tom and address him as "boy" makes him sick. Surprisingly, Dill has an ally in Mr. Dolphus Raymond, who offers him a drink of coca-cola from his paper sack. In all, Tom's testimony causes strong emotional reactions from many of the observers in court.

What are intestines?

Structure and Functions

After the initial process of digestion takes place in the stomach, food passes into the intestines, where the chemical action of several gastric juices separates out the nutritive content of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. This nutritive material is then absorbed into the bloodstream through the walls of the intestines, while waste material is collected for excretion.

In adult humans, the
small intestine and large intestine together represent a total length of about nine meters (thirty feet). Both small and large intestines are hoselike muscular organs; the former is much longer, but substantially narrower, than the latter. The two intestines are joined at the cecum, which is located in the right-lower abdominal cavity. The appendix, which is sometimes called a “blind pouch” because it is unessential to the main processes performed in the gastrointestinal tract, projects from the cecum.

The physical disposition and function of the large intestine, or colon, are distinct from those of the small intestine. As the large intestinal tube leaves the cecum, it assumes a specific shape, following horizontal and vertical lines within the abdominal cavity. This is not the case with the small intestine, whose extensive length (about seven meters, or twenty-three feet) takes an intertwined “nesting” shape in the limited abdominal space available. By contrast, the colon, which is about 1.5 meters (5 feet) in length, has three easily identifiable sections: the ascending colon on the right side of the abdominal cavity, the transverse colon, and the descending colon on the left side of the abdomen. A final leftward bend in the colon at the sigmoid provides for its attachment to the rectum.

The two parts of the intestines carry out distinct functions in the overall digestive process. As food material passes from the lower end, or pylorus, of the stomach, only a part of the digestive process has occurred. Once partially digested food enters the small intestine, it is propelled through the intestine by means of a process of muscular contraction in the intestinal wall, which is called peristalsis.

As the food moves forward, different substances, some secreted from the lining of the intestine itself, and others—principally, bile and pancreatic fluid, which enter the upper intestine (duodenum) from the liver and pancreas—contribute to a further breaking down of food material.

Very small projections called villi are found along the interior surface of the small intestine. The villi absorb those portions of the food material that have been altered by the digestive process. From the villi, nutritive material is passed into the blood and lymphatic system for distribution to cells throughout the body. This process continues in the middle and end portions (jejunum and ileum, respectively) of the small intestine until, passing through the cecum, the remaining residue enters the large intestine.

The mixture of material contained in the large intestine, or colon, consists of indigestible food, bacteria, and substantial amounts of water. Most of the water is absorbed into the body through the walls of the colon, while the remaining waste material, or feces, is excreted through the rectum.

To understand how food materials are actually absorbed by the villi inside the small intestine and passed into the bloodstream, one must consider several chemical processes, according to the nature of the material in question.

For example, the triglyceride components of fat, chains of fatty acids attached to glycerol, are chemical compounds that do not dissolve in water (a major part of the main bloodstream). The pancreatic enzymes called lipases split the triglycerides into separate units of fatty acid. Once separated, these fatty acids become coated with bile salts secreted by the liver, a process that allows them to pass into the mucous cells lining the intestine. As this passage occurs, the coated fatty acids (micelles) resume their chainlike form as triglycerides. At this point, however, the triglycerides have assumed an altered chemical state. In this altered form, fats can be absorbed into the blood and carried throughout the body to be used as body “fuel” or, if unused, stored in fatty tissues.

Carbohydrates must be broken down into simple
sugars (glucose, galactose, and fructose) before they can be absorbed by the cell linings of the small intestine. This process occurs when the more complex carbohydrates (both starches and sugars) are split by the chemical effects of the enzyme amylase, which enters the small intestine from the salivary glands and the pancreas.

Finally, proteins, which contain the amino acids essential for the process of tissue formation in the body, must be split in several stages, the first of which occurs in the stomach itself. Here, proteins are partially broken down by the action of the gastric juices, mainly pepsin. Once protein material passes into the upper part of the small intestine, or duodenum, the process is accelerated by the influence of two main pancreatic enzymes: trypsin and chymotrypsin. These secretions cause the proteins to release amino acids in three forms: simple, dual, or triplicate bodies. It is not until these three forms are actually inside the cell walls of the small intestine that other enzymes split the dual and triplicate amino acids into their simplest single form, which can be absorbed into the veins that carry nourishment to the various organs of the body.

In the overall chemical process leading to the absorption of various body nutrients by the small and large intestines, there is a certain “absorptive specialization” in different zones of the gastrointestinal tract. Iron and calcium, for example, are absorbed in the duodenum, while proteins, fats, sugars, and all vitamins except vitamin B12 are absorbed in the jejunum. Finally, in the ileum, salt, vitamin B12, and bile salts are processed.

Disorders and Diseases

Doctors have always known that the digestive processes of the intestines can be affected in either positive or negative ways by the nature of the food that is consumed. In the simplest terms, negative reactions are manifested by the obvious effects of
indigestion and diarrhea. The control of such symptoms of improper or incomplete digestion may appear to the layperson to be a simple matter of using “over-the-counter” tablets such as laxatives or “antigas” pills. Treatment of the symptoms of indigestion, however, may provide only a superficial solution to a problem that is much more serious.

An area of important medical concern that goes beyond the general discomfort caused by imbalanced digestive functioning of the intestines involves peptic ulcers. A peptic ulcer is an open sore on the mucous membrane lining the gastrointestinal tract. The general label “peptic ulcer” was applied to this condition since the discovery, in the mid-1830s, of pepsin, the first clearly identified enzyme known to contribute to the chemical breakdown of ingested foods. Although later stages of research into the digestive process yielded much more extensive knowledge of the component elements of gastric juices, the specific name has remained attached to the general phenomenon of intestinal ulceration. The term “gastric ulcer” refers specifically to ulceration in the stomach lining.

Generally speaking, peptic ulcers occur when there is an imbalance between the task of digestion to be accomplished by the intestines and the amounts and levels of concentration of the gastric juices secreted into the gastrointestinal tract. When the amounts or concentrated strengths of gastric juices in the intestines exceed the level required for digestion (or flow into the intestine when no food has been ingested), these agents actually begin to digest the membranes of the intestine itself.

Various forms of treatment for intestinal ulcers have been developed, including both therapeutic drugs that have the capacity to counteract the corrosive effects of excessive gastric juices and, in the preventive vein, diets that contain natural combatants against intestinal disorders, especially high-fiber, unprocessed, or lightly processed foods.

In recent years, research into the causes of ulcers has extended into the field of gastrointestinal hormonal secretions originating not in the pancreas itself but in the intestine or stomach. These secretions reach the pancreas later through the bloodstream and stimulate its production of digestive juices. Such secretive processes may, if they fail to communicate properly balanced “codes” concerning the task of digestion that needs to take place in the intestines, cause an excessive supply (in volume or strength) of gastric juices, which can cause ulcerations to develop.

The most serious pathological condition that can affect the intestines is cancer of the colon
. Thought to develop from a degenerative process originating in benign polyps (stem-based tumors that may develop in areas of the organism lined with mucous membrane, such as the nose, the colon, and, in females, the uterus), cancer of the colon has registered a survival rate that is statistically higher than those of cancers in other vital organs of the abdominal cavity (the liver and stomach, in particular). This is partly because—if the cancer is discovered in time—substantial areas of the colon that have been attacked by cancer can be removed surgically without endangering the continued essential functioning of the intestines.

Almost all questions relating to the pathology of the intestinal tract are somehow connected with the type of food that is eaten. Thus, medical science has turned increasingly to publicizing preventive dietary practices that can have a bearing on all functions of the intestines, from the simplest level of discomfort to the most serious level of chronic diseases.

As stated above, a relatively recent and valuable contribution to the knowledge of natural ways to aid in the absorptive work of both the small intestine and the colon—and to reduce the dangers of ulceration and/or intestinal cancer—involves the role of the fiber content of foods. Fiber is generally described as consisting of polysaccharides and lignin, two plant substances that, more than any other nutritive material, retain their natural forms as plant cell walls and are not broken down by human digestive enzymes. The plant food that is richest in these materials is wheat bran, which contains about 40 percent fiber. As fiber-rich foodstuffs such as bran pass through the gastrointestinal tract, the fiber material they contain is subject to fermentation by anaerobic
bacteria in the colon. Two chemical results of this complex process seem to be the removal of deoxycholic acid from the bile and the reduction of the cholesterol saturation level of the bile. Both effects are deemed beneficial, since the reduction of deoxycholic acid and cholesterol in intestinal bile tends, at the very least, to reduce the likelihood of developing gallstones. Fiber-rich diets in combination with the reduction of excess weight became standards of preventive health care by the 1990s.

By the mid-twentieth century, typical personal diets in the Western world contained commercially refined foodstuffs that were rich in sugars and syrups, which are mainly fiber depleted. In addition to the specific disease-related factors mentioned above, medical science has noted that high consumption of fiber-depleted foods results in higher levels of energy intake (absorption of calories) during the digestive process that occurs in the intestines. In simple terms, when calorie intake exceeds the level required by the normally exercised body, the result is weight gain that may continue to the point of obesity.

Perspective and Prospects

Medical science began to become aware of the various digestive functions of hormonal secretions only in the first decades of the twentieth century. Although the early nineteenth century American army surgeon
William Beaumont
was the first doctor to discover the presence of gastric juices in the intestines, his analysis of digestive fluids remained quite elementary. Beaumont could easily identify hydrochloric acid in stomach secretions. He also took samples of bile from the intestinal tract and performed laboratory experiments that proved the role of bile in breaking down fatty materials. What remained unsolved were the identity and origins of other components of gastric juice and an explanation for their controlled secretion from surrounding organs in the abdominal cavity into the intestines. Beaumont’s view that mental concentration (including “negative mental concentration,” or anxiety) induced the flow of gastric juices proved eventually to be only partially correct.

It was only in 1902 that the British doctors Ernest Henry Starling and Sir William Maddock Bayliss were able to show that, in addition to nerve “signals,” certain chemical factors induced the flow of gastric juices, specifically from the pancreas into the intestinal tract. These doctors found that, in fact, the small intestine released into the bloodstream a “chemical transmitter” that, as it circulated to the other vital organs, stimulated the production and flow of the pancreatic juices necessary for digestion. They called this “chemical transmitter” secretin. To this initial agent would be added a whole category of secretions that are called “hormones,” a term taken from the Greek word for “urging on.”

A discovery was made in 1928 that helped to clarify the complex relationship of hormones, gastric juice secretion, and the carrying out of the digestive process by the small and large intestines. This was the discovery of pancreozymin, the second main “chemical transmitter” affecting the pancreas, by the American researcher Andrew Ivy. Pancreozymin was found to cause the release by the pancreas of an enzyme-rich fluid made up of three agents: trypsin, lipase, and amylase. Each agent proved to be an activator in the process of breaking down different nutrients (protein, fats, and carbohydrates, respectively).

Although the intestines are the ultimate destination of and seat of activity for the pancreatic juices released by command of this hormone (as well as of the last major digestion-linked hormone, gastrin, which was discovered in 1955), secretin alone has its origin in the intestines themselves. Both pancreozymin and gastrin are secreted from the stomach.

In time, researchers found that most gastrointestinal hormones are secreted by specialized cells that line the interior of the stomach. Such cells react at various levels according to the composition of the food that has been ingested, sending chemical signals, via the hormones they secrete, that determine the relative amounts and strengths of the several gastric juices that enter the intestines from the pancreas. A similar question of varied amounts and strengths of gastric juices was linked to the so-called vagus nerve function, which also activates pancreatic flow to the intestinal tract.

The functional relationship between these two activator agents—the one nervous and the other chemical—has become one of the primary interests of researchers who deal with the most common ailment attacking the intestinal organs: peptic ulceration.

Bibliography

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Janowitz, Henry D. Indigestion: Living Better with Upper Intestinal Problems, from Heartburn to Ulcers and Gallstones. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

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