In The Crucible, how does Abigail change her town?

Abigail changes Salem for the worse by confirming the villagers' worst fears: that there are witches among them who have been working toward the town's downfall.  Before Abigail admits to any connection with the Devil, rumors are already circulating that Betty Parris has been witched and can fly, and Mrs. Putnam has already sent her daughter to conjure the dead Putnam babies' spirits with Reverend Parris's Barbadian slave because Mrs. Putnam thinks that witches murdered them. 

The townspeople are so willing to believe in witches, so eager to find a scapegoat for their own problems, that as soon as Abigail accuses Tituba of witchcraft, they have no trouble completely swallowing her story.  Further, when she confesses that she, herself, has been with the Devil and seen several other women in his company, she confirms all of the townspeople's suspicions, and it allows them to pin the responsibility for any of their problems on those "witches."  Therefore, she changes her town by confirming their fears and thus igniting the hysteria that enabled the Salem Witch Trials. 

What role does the internet play in business? How can managers protect the proprietary technology of their firms?

Although the internet has given businesses many new ways to reach out to customers and communicate with suppliers, it also poses unprecedented security risks for businesses that rely on maintaining proprietary information. 

One major role the internet plays in business is its ability to connect businesses to their customers. A company's website and social media presence can serve as marketing tools and sales portals. Unfortunately, these are vulnerable to various forms of hacking, including phishing schemes which lead customers to fake websites and DDOS attacks. Even worse, hackers who breach business security can download customers' information.

For companies that rely on proprietary data, internet connections designed to let employees work remotely or designed for communication of information to outside customers or suppliers become vulnerable to hacking by hostile entities. The only way to keep proprietary information fully secure is to house it in a system with no external communications; even intranets can be hacked if any of the systems on them have an outside connection. If a company were to isolate all systems containing proprietary information, they would lose the business advantage of efficient internal and external communications. Most companies accept this trade off and invest in a high level of internet security to reduce threats to proprietary data. 

What is tuberculosis (TB)?

Definition

Tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious infectious disease with either active or latent forms. Although TB can affect many organ systems, it mostly affects the lungs.

Causes

Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Persons near someone with active TB of the lungs may inhale the bacteria if the infected person coughs or sneezes. TB is easily spread in crowded conditions. It is also easily spread among people who are ill or who have weakened immune systems.

Risk Factors

The factors that increase the chance of developing TB include a weakened immune system or chronic diseases (highest risk); human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection; malnutrition; intravenous drug use; alcoholism; tobacco use; leukemia, lymphoma, and other cancers; poorly controlled diabetes mellitus; severe kidney disease; corticosteroids; some medications used for treating rheumatoid arthritis and other diseases, including etanercept, infliximab, and adalimumab; and a suppressed immune system caused by medications, such as drugs to prevent rejection of a transplanted organ.

Other risks factors include silicosis (an occupational lung disease) and living in crowded, indoor conditions (such as homeless shelters, dormitories, and military barracks). Persons at higher risk for TB are infants, young children, the elderly, and those who are HIV-positive. Pregnant women may be screened because, if infected, they can transmit TB to the fetus.

Symptoms

Tuberculosis causes no symptoms in most persons. In others it is fatal. The bacteria lie dormant in the lungs and may remain there permanently without causing illness. During this time, the infected person cannot spread TB to others. The infection spreads only when the bacteria are active.

Other symptoms for TB are a severe cough that lasts more than two weeks, coughing up blood and sputum (mucus from deep in the lungs), pain in the chest, weakness or fatigue, unexplained weight loss, chills, fever, night sweats, and loss of appetite.

Screening and Diagnosis

A skin test is used to screen for TB. A small amount of tuberculin test fluid is injected into the skin of the lower part of the arm. The test is positive if, after two to three days, a raised, firm welt appears at the injection site. The welt is 10 mm or greater in diameter (5 mm or 15 mm under some situations). A positive test means a person was exposed to TB, even if he or she never became ill. People at high risk for TB should have a skin test regularly. Also, a blood test is available to screen for TB. The blood test is recommended for those who are unlikely to follow-up on a skin test, who have had the TB vaccine, or who have had a positive skin test in the past. If a person has symptoms or signs of active TB, a doctor may order a chest X ray and also get samples of sputum to test for the presence of the bacterium.

Although screening is typically only performed for those at risk of contracting TB, rather than the population at large, some employers and educational institutions require screening prior to enrollment. Higher-risk occupations include those in health care, education, the military, migrant labor, and corrections.

Treatment and Therapy

Medication can prevent TB from becoming active. It can also help cure active TB. One should take all medication as prescribed, even if the symptoms disappear. If a person does not finish the medication, does not take it as often as required, or has a recurrence of TB, he or she may develop drug-resistant TB, which is difficult to cure.

Persons who have a positive skin test but no signs of active TB may need to take medication to prevent active TB. The drug isoniazid is usually given for six months or longer. For persons with active TB, a doctor may prescribe a combination of isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, ethambutol, or streptomycin. Under special circumstances, other drugs may be prescribed. Multidrug-resistant TB fails to respond to the two primary anti-TB drugs, isoniazid and rifampin, while extensively drug-resistant TB cannot be treated with those or several other second-line medications. Drug-resistant TB remains rare but has been found around the world.

A person with active TB must be isolated from friends, family, and coworkers until a doctor determines the person is no longer contagious. This is usually after the first several weeks of the infected person taking medication. Isolation will help prevent the spread of TB. Infected persons can resume normal activities after getting a doctor’s approval and will need to continue taking the prescribed drugs until the doctor says it is okay to stop. Drugs may need to be taken for six months and, in some cases, up to two years.

In directly observed therapy, a health care professional, community health worker, or even a family member watches as a TB patient takes his or her medication either at home or in a clinic setting, with the goal of helping the patient complete his or her course of treatment, particularly if the patient struggles with self-administering medication.

Prevention and Outcomes

If the infected person has a positive skin test, he or she might be able to prevent active TB from developing by taking medication. A TB vaccine is available, but it is not routinely used in the United States because of the unreliable protection it provides. A person with active TB can prevent its spread by avoiding contact with people and by taking all medication as prescribed for the full course of treatment. HIV-positive individuals are at the highest risk of death from TB and therefore must take additional precautions, such as avoiding visiting locations where the disease is endemic.

Bibliography

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “The Difference Between Latent TB Infection and Active TB Disease.” Available at http://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/basics.

Division of Tuberculosis Elimination. "Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis (XDR TB)." CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 18 Jan. 2013. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

Levitzky, Michael G. Pulmonary Physiology. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2007.

Maartens, G., et al. “Tuberculosis.” The Lancet 370 (2007): 2030.

Rom, William N., and Stuart M. Garay, eds. Tuberculosis. 2d ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004.

"TB Screening Tests." Lab Tests Online. Amer. Assn. for Clinical Chemistry, 29 Aug. 2014. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

West, John B. Pulmonary Pathophysiology: The Essentials. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008.

Is the operating system the master instructor of a computer?

The operating system (os for short) is the main connection between the computer hardware and the user. It also manages the hardware resources and applications in an optimal way. There are a large number of hardware resources in a computer. These include the hard drive, memory, printer, modem, mouse, etc. When we use a computer, we interact with it, typically by using a GUI (graphic user interface, such as in Windows or OS operating systems). Our instructions (given as clicks or by typing) are sent to the relevant program or software and it executes our instructions. However, a number of software packages or drivers maybe running at a given time. It is the job of the operating system to prioritize the hardware time to each of these application. An example could be saving the file first and then printing it.

Thus, the operating system interacts with the user, prioritizes the hardware resource time and helps us run the intended application, thereby acting as the master instructor of the computer.

Hope this helps.  

Why does Alice Walker search for her mother's garden?

In Walker's essay, "gardens" are used both literally and metaphorically to examine the ways in which black women have managed to be creative, even in situations in which creativity seemed impossible. 

Her literal example is her description of her mother's garden. Walker was the daughter of Georgia sharecroppers who, in spite of their oppression and impoverished circumstances, expected more for their daughter. Her mother, like most black women in the early-20th century, worked hard to take care of her husband and children and, for survival in the Jim Crow South, to serve white people's economic interests: 

She made all the clothes we wore... She made all the towels and sheets we used. She spent the summers canning vegetables and fruits. She spent the summer making quilts enough to cover all our beds. During the "working" day, she labored beside -- not behind -- my father in the fields. Her day began before sunup, and did not end until late at night.

In the midst of all this work, Walker wonders how her mother had time "to know or care about feeding the creative spirit." Yet she did just that, adorning their home with flowers:

She planted ambitious gardens -- and still does -- with over fifty different varieties of plants that bloom profusely from early March until late November... Whatever she planted grew as if by magic, and her fame as a grower of flowers spread over three counties.

Not only does Walker's mother find a way to be creative with her flowers, she also finds a way to be "ambitious." The expression of ambition was something that was denied to black women in the Jim Crow South. Moreover, that ambition is perennial, expressing itself "profusely" during the year. Walker's mother succeeded in leaving an expression of herself in the soil, in the small plot of land that was granted to her. In an environment that intended to exploit her, then erase her, this is a political statement -- a testament to the perseverance of black women. Eventually, this creativity is recognized, allowing Walker's mother "fame as a grower." 

Another important example that Walker gives is in the tradition of quilting. In the Smithsonian Institution, there hangs a quilt "unlike any other in the world." It is "fanciful, inspired, and yet simple...it portrays the story of the Crucifixion." 

Patchwork quilts had practical use in black homes and were usually made from old, worn pieces of clothing and other fabrics that had fallen into disuse. Because black women could not afford to purchase linens, as white women often could, they had to make their own out of whatever materials they had around. However, in doing something practical, they could also be inventive. The Smithsonian quilt, "made of bits and pieces of worthless rags," ironically has become priceless. It is a testament to the indomitable human spirit. 

Answer these 3 questions using the seven Kingdom classifications: a) organism that is beneficial to humans b) two organisms that are harmful to...

The 7 kingdom classification of organisms classifies every organism at 7 different levels, including:

1. Kingdom


2. Phylum


3. Class


4. Order


5. Family


6. Genus


7. Species

In such a classification system, each organism is part of a much, much larger domain (at the top of the classification) and is further sub-classified at each level of this classification system, till we end up with a very particular organism.

For example, dogs are beneficial to human beings and can be classified according to this system as:

Kingdom: Animalis

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Canidae

Genus: Canis

Species: lupus

Here, dogs are part of a kingdom- animalia (along with all the other animals). They are then differentiated at each level of this classification system, till we have only dogs as the species.

A microorganism that is harmful to human beings, Escherichia coli O157:H7 can be similarly classified as:

Kingdom: Bacteria

Phylum: Proteobacteria

Class: Gamma Proteobacteria

Order: Enterobacteriales

Family: Enterobacteriaceae

Genus: Escherichia

Species: Escherichia coli O157:H7

One can similarly find and classify useful as well as harmful organisms. 

Hope this helps.

How does family history impact risk assessment for cancer?

Inheritance patterns and incidence of cancer in family members: In any discussion of family risk for cancer, it is important to note that individuals can inherit an increased risk of developing cancer, but they do not inherit the disease itself. In fact, a known risk of developing cancer can actually reduce a family member’s susceptibility to cancer by encouraging that individual to adopt healthy behaviors, such as regular medical checkups, good eating and exercise habits, and, for some, prophylactic treatments. Although some individuals may be aware of a family history of cancer, others must be identified by the prudent physician or other health care professional so that they may be appropriately referred for genetic counseling and testing.

Cancers have different inheritance patterns, and the risk of a family member who has an affected first-order relative may vary with the type of cancer. For example, research indicates that pancreatic cancer is currently considered attributable to a genetic mutation (an event that changes the genetic structure or genotype of an individual or organism). The majority of genetic mutations that lead to cancer occur in genes that control growth through exposure to carcinogens or errors made by cells when they divide or replicate. Research has shown that patients with hereditary pancreatitis (not to be confused with chronic pancreatitis of common etiology) have a 40 percent increased risk of developing pancreatic cancer. Most research indicates that pancreatic cancer risk involves patients with a paternal inheritance pattern of disease (hereditary pancreatitis), while some research reports evidence of a maternal inheritance pattern. In addition, mutations of BRCA1, a gene known to suppress tumors, have been associated with increased risk of developing pancreatic cancer, as well as breast cancer and fallopian tube cancer.

Breast cancer is not inherited; rather, it is caused by somatic (environmental) mutations in breast cells during one’s life. BRCA2, another gene known to suppress tumors, has been linked with an increased risk of breast cancer, as well as with prostate and pancreatic cancers in men. A higher incidence of the skin cancer melanoma is also more common in individuals with BRCA2 mutations than those without.

In addition to
BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, variations of which have been linked to some forms of breast cancer, presence of the following genes in an individual increases the risk of breast cancer by causing syndromes that also increase the risk of developing other types of cancer: CDH1, PTEN, STK11, and TP53. The presence of variations in the following genes has also been associated with breast cancer: AR, ATM, BARD1, BRIP1, CHEK2, DIRAS3, ERBB2, NBN, PALB2, RAD50, and RAD51. Although not all the evidence implicates variations in these genes as risk factors for developing breast cancer, the evidence is strongest for ATM and CHEK2. An accumulation of genetic mutations in genes responsible for cell growth, cell division, or repairing deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) promotes cancer-cell proliferation resulting in tumor growth. Inherited patterns or cancer syndromes that increase risk of breast and ovarian cancer include breast-ovarian cancer syndrome, nonpolyposis colorectal cancer syndrome, Cowden syndrome, Peutz-Jegher syndrome, and Li-Fraumeni syndrome, and inherited mutations that increase the risk for other types of cancers.

Some cancers follow established hereditary patterns such as autosomal dominant inheritance. An autosomal dominant inheritance pattern consists of one mutated copy of the particular gene in each cell transmitted by one affected parent, occurring in every generation of an affected family. The pedigree of a family affected by a hereditary cancer syndrome will indicate whether that cancer has been inherited as an autosomal dominant disorder in which case as many as half of the offspring of each carrier may develop a cancer related to the inherited syndrome. Two cancers that follow this pattern are a hereditary form of breast-ovarian cancer syndrome and Lynch cancer family syndrome, which is characterized by increased incidence of cancer of the right colon and increased incidence of endometrial cancer and multiple primary malignant neoplasms. Another type of autosomal dominant hereditary pattern, hereditary nonpolyposis, is responsible for between 2 and 7 percent of all cases of colorectal cancer. Mutations in the genes (including MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, and PMS2) that are responsible for repairing errors made when cells are copied can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and possibly cancer. This condition also increases an individual’s risk for cancers of the stomach, small intestine, liver, gallbladder ducts, upper urinary tract, skin, brain, and prostate. Women who inherit this disorder are at greater risk for endometrial and ovarian cancers.

Several hereditary cancer syndromes have been identified for which there are effective diagnostic tests and options for managing the disease, including those for cancers of the breast, ovary, colon, and endometrium, to name a few. These hereditary syndromes include hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC; also known as Lynch syndrome); familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), an inherited colorectal cancer syndrome; hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC); and multiple endocrine neoplasia 2 (MEN 2) in conjunction with parathyroid hyperplasia, which has been linked to thyroid cancer. Individuals genetically tested and found to have any of these syndromes can discuss specific options for managing their susceptibility for cancer with a genetic counselor.

Genetic screening and testing: Routine screening for most cancers in the general population is neither recommended nor effective in reducing mortality from cancer. Moreover, because incidence of cancer varies in mutation carriers by type of cancer, screening and genetic testing must be approached by the type of inherited cancer and its risk patterns. For example, only 10 to 15 percent of breast cancer cases are thought to be familial, with about one-third caused by an inherited genetic mutation in a BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene. Over a woman’s lifetime, the incidence of breast cancer in a mutation carrier may be more than 50 percent, and an inherited BRCA1 mutation is also associated with increased risk of ovarian cancer. It is therefore recommended that only affected relatives with a family history of an inherited gene mutation BRCA1 or BRCA2 be screened. It should be noted that estimates of how many women with an altered gene will develop breast cancer range from 36 to 85 percent, and estimates of how many women with one of these altered genes will develop ovarian cancer range from 16 to 60 percent. According to a report published in GeneReviews in 2013, individuals with a mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2 had a 40 to 80 percent lifetime risk for breast cancer and a 11 to 40 percent lifetime risk for ovarian cancer. Most research related to BRCA1 and BRCA2 has been done with large families and many affected individuals. Some of the incidence in these affected individuals may be due to other genetic as well as environmental factors; thus, risk estimates may not accurately reflect the risk in the general population of women, or in any individual woman. It must be emphasized, therefore, that genetic screening and testing is primarily for individuals to ascertain their inherited risk of developing cancer. Genetic testing can be used to determine who can benefit from regular, comprehensive cancer screenings, procedures to reduce the risk of acquiring the cancer, lifestyle and behavioral changes, medication, or prophylactic surgery.

Genetic counseling: For those individuals who do have a significant inherited risk for cancer, the health professional performing genetic counseling will ask the client to gather a family medical history and map a pedigree or family tree to illustrate the family history of the cancer. A variety of health professionals may perform genetic counseling and testing, including genetic counselors, nurses with advanced training and practice, psychologists, social workers, and physicians.

The client begins the family-risk-assessment process by talking to relatives, obtaining medical records of relatives, and noting any medical conditions that have occurred in the family and at what ages. It is recommended that the client chart a separate tree for each side of the family, maternal and paternal, recording the country of birth and ethnicity as well. For example, certain breast cancer genes have been associated with eastern European Ashkenazi descent. The National Society of Genetic Counselors (NSGC) recommends initially talking to first-order relatives (parents and siblings), then contacting second-order relatives going back one generation at a time, collating birth, marriage, and death certificates to form the chart or family tree and document a pedigree. A genetic counselor will often prefer a pedigree with three generations of family history. Some of the facts to include in constructing a pedigree are the name of each relative, age at death and cause of death if deceased, medical conditions and ages when these conditions were acquired, birth defects, fertility problems, learning challenges, and lifestyle patterns (exercise, smoking, drinking, addictions, obesity, and so on). Gathering information on lifestyle behaviors of affected family members is critical; apart from genes, families share lifestyles and environments that may contribute to increased risk of cancer and other disease conditions by altering genes. All this information is useful to the client personally, and it can also help identify inheritance patterns of disorders that may place offspring at risk.

After constructing the pedigree, the client will submit it to the counselor, who will thoroughly review the client’s personal, medical, and family history and evaluate the results. The client will meet with the counselor to hear the evaluation, discuss how the results relate to individual risk, and develop a personal prevention program. For example, the counselor will discuss hereditary cancer syndromes and what to look for to see if any syndromes are also present in family members.

If the results of the pedigree indicate the utility of genetic testing and the client wishes to go forward, the client will be asked to complete an informed consent form. The form will describe the benefits and limitations of testing for genetic susceptibility, as well as the particular policies and financial procedures associated with the site where the testing will be performed. There are myriad tests for various hereditary cancers; DNA sequencing is the most sensitive and reliable method used to test for a hereditary cancer syndrome. Once the lab informs the physician of the test results, the client will meet with the health professional performing the counseling for disclosure of the test results. These results will be discussed within the context of the family’s history so that risks can be communicated effectively. The counselor will also advise the client on any need to notify family members of a hereditary genetic mutation associated with an elevated risk for cancer. This is the time for the client to discuss perceived and real risks of cancer, emotional issues surrounding cancer, support systems, coping skills, and decision making.

Pros and cons of genetic testing: Most cancer is not due to the inheritance of a single genetic mutation. Sporadic cancers—those not due to a known, specific hereditary pattern—comprise 90 percent of all cancers diagnosed. Nevertheless, those with a hereditary inheritance pattern of a cancer are better positioned to adopt risk-reducing behaviors if they know they are at higher risk for certain types of cancer than others in the general population. Moreover, individuals who learn of their risk and begin risk-reduction behaviors at an early age may be able to reduce the risk of passing the mutation to offspring.

There are tremendous psychological effects and social costs for an individual who learns of his or her hereditary risk of developing cancer. A risk of family cancer can alter one’s lifestyle, inform family planning, or encourage family members to be tested. Those who are found not to have a hereditary risk may be relieved but may nonetheless be motivated to make healthy lifestyle changes. Specific interventions and potentially life-saving management options are available to individuals found to be at elevated risk of cancer following a genetic screening test. Some of these options include tamoxifen, a chemotherapy medication for breast cancer; colonoscopy to detect early colon cancer; and removal of ovaries and fallopian tubes. Some studies have found that prophylactic hysterectomy with bilateral salpingo-oophrectomy (removal of the ovaries and fallopian tubes) is an effective strategy for preventing endometrial and ovarian cancer in women with Lynch syndrome. According to the American Society for Clinical Oncology (ASCO) in 2014, premenopausal women with a BRCA genetic mutation who have had their ovaries removed reduce their risk of breast cancer by 50 percent or more. Studies have shown that women at increased risk of breast cancer due to BRCA2 mutations are less likely to develop the cancer if they take tamoxifen, a treatment for advanced breast cancer, for five years; according to the ASCO in 2014, doing so can reduce the risk of breast cancer by 50 percent. For those at greatest risk of developing breast cancer, prophylactic bilateral mastectomy has been shown to greatly reduce (but not eliminate) the risk of developing breast cancer; according to the ASCO in 2014, the surgery can reduce the risk by more than 90 percent.

While genetic tests for cancer risk provide valuable information to the patient and the physician, they are also fraught with controversy. Genetic tests may show increased risk, but they cannot determine degrees of risk or what actual risk an individual will have of developing cancer. A physician must evaluate the benefits and limitations of information on familial risk when deciding who to refer for genetic counseling and testing. The American Cancer Society and other organizations publish guidelines available online; these identify current clinical recommendations, promulgated by the US Department of Health and Human Services, for who should be screened and tested for different types of cancers.

Amer. Soc. for Clinical Oncology. "Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer." Cancer.Net. ASCO, Aug. 2014. Web. 29 Oct. 2014.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "Genetic Testing for Hereditary Colorectal Cancer." CDC.gov. CDC, 10 Mar. 2014. Web. 29 Oct. 2014.

Foulkes, William D., and Shirley V. Hodgson, eds. Inherited Susceptibility to Cancer: Clinical, Predictive, and Ethical Perspectives. 1998. New York: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print.

Frank, Thomas S., and Mark H. Skolnick. “Testing for Hereditary Cancer Risk: Pandora or Prometheus?” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 84.6 (1999): 1882–1885. Print.

Hass, Jennifer S., et al. “Do Physicians Tailor Their Recommendations for Breast Cancer Risk Reduction Based on Patient’s Risk?” Journal of General Internal Medicine 19.4 (2004): 302–309. Print.

Morrison, Patrick J., Shirley V. Hodgson, and Neva E. Haites, eds. Familial Breast and Ovarian Cancer: Genetics, Screening, and Management. 2002. New York: Cambridge UP, 2005. Print.

Petrucelli, Nancie, Mary B. Daly, and Gerald L. Feldman. "BRCA1 and BRCA2 Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer." GeneReviews 26 Sept. 2013. NCBI. Web. 29 Oct. 2014.

Schmeler, Kathleen, et al. “Prophylactic Surgery to Reduce the Risk of Gynecological Cancers in the Lynch Syndrome.” New England Jour. of Medicine 354 (2006): 261–269. Print.

US Natl. Cancer Inst., Natl. Insts. of Health. "Genetic Testing for Hereditary Cancer Syndromes." Cancer.gov. US NCI/NIH, 11 Apr. 2013. Web. 29 Oct. 2014.

US Natl. Lib. of Medicine Genetics Home Reference. "BRCA1." Genetics Home Reference. US NLM, Aug. 2007. Web. 29 Oct. 2014.

US Natl. Lib. of Medicine Genetics Home Reference. "BRCA2." Genetics Home Reference. US NLM, Aug. 2007. Web. 29 Oct. 2014.

US Natl. Lib. of Medicine Genetics Home Reference. "Breast Cancer." Genetics Home Reference. US NLM, Aug. 2007. Web. 29 Oct. 2014.

US Preventive Services Task Force. “Genetic Risk Assessment and BRCA Mutation Testing for Breast and Ovarian Cancer Susceptibility: Recommendation Statement.” Annals of Internal Medicine 143 (2005): 355–361. Print.

Utsunomiya, Joji, John J. Mulvihill, and Walter Weber, eds. Familial Cancer and Prevention: Molecular Epidemiology, a New Strategy Toward Cancer Control. New York: Wiley, 1999. Print.