In Act IV, how will the Friar relay the news of his plan for Juliet to Romeo? When she returns to her father, where does Juliet say she's been,...

In the beginning of Act IV Juliet is desperate to avoid going through with the arranged marriage to Count Paris. Her father and even the Nurse have given her no options, so she turns to Friar Laurence, showing up at his cell in Act IV, Scene 1. The Friar comes up with a plan for Juliet to fake her death. Once she is presumably dead, she will be placed in Capulet's tomb where Romeo will rescue her once she awakens and take her away to Mantua.

The Friar plans to send a message to Romeo informing him of all of this. Later, in Act V, the audience learns that Friar Laurence sent Friar John to deliver the message but Romeo never received it because John was delayed by a plague threat in Verona. 

Juliet agrees to the Friar's plan. When she returns to her father in Act IV, Scene 2, she apologizes to Lord Capulet, tells him she has been advised by the Friar to beg forgiveness, and that she will go through with the marriage. She says,

Where I have learned me to repent the sin
Of disobedient opposition
To you and your behests, and am enjoined
By holy Lawrence to fall prostrate here [Kneeling.]
To beg your pardon. Pardon, I beseech you.
Henceforward I am ever ruled by you.

Capulet is overjoyed by his daughter's change of heart and he is so excited at the prospect of having her married to Count Paris he moves the wedding from Thursday to Wednesday, which is the next day. When Lady Capulet questions whether there is enough time for preparations, Capulet says he will stay up and make sure everything is ready. He says,

I’ll not to bed tonight. Let me alone.
I’ll play the housewife for this once.—What ho!—
They are all forth. Well, I will walk myself
To County Paris, to prepare up him
Against tomorrow. My heart is wondrous light
Since this same wayward girl is so reclaimed.

Of course, one of the reasons that the day is moved up is a plot vehicle for Shakespeare to further complicate the Friar's plan. It turns out there is simply not enough time for the Friar to reach Romeo with a message about his plan, especially after the first message was delayed.

What process makes the molecules that store the most energy?

The molecule that stores energy in living organisms is called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). When a water molecule is inserted between the last two phosphates in ATP, one of the phosphate groups is released forming adenosine diphosphate (ADP). When the bond between the phosphate groups is broken, energy is released. ADP can be recycled back to ATP with the addition of another phosphate group.

ATP is produced by the following processes:

• Glycolysis: Glucose is broken down into pyruvate, producing ATP.

• Cellular Respiration: Pyruvate reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. This process produces several molecules of ATP.

• Photosynthesis: Light energy is converted into ATP in the chloroplasts of plants.

• Fermentation: Pyruvate is converted into carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol. This process also generates ATP molecules.

What are some decisions that Friar Laurence makes in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet?

Friar Laurence makes two of the most important decisions in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. First, he fatefully decides that it might prove beneficial to everyone involved if he married Romeo and Juliet. In Act II, Scene 3 Romeo, who has just left Juliet after professing his love for the girl, goes to the Friar requesting that the Friar marry them. The Friar is initially taken aback as just the day before, Romeo was in love with another woman. After chiding Romeo about his promiscuity, he comes to the conclusion that this is just what is needed to end the bitter feud between the Montagues and Capulets. He tells Romeo,

But come, young waverer, come, go with me.
In one respect I’ll thy assistant be,
For this alliance may so happy prove
To turn your households’ rancor to pure love.

The second important decision comes when he devises the plot for Juliet to fake her death. Juliet is desperately searching for a way out of the arranged marriage to Count Paris and, after seeking advice from the Nurse who lets her down, comes to Friar Laurence's cell. She suggests that she would rather die than go through with the marriage and is carrying a dagger, presumably to kill herself with. After hearing of Juliet's resolve to avoid marrying Paris, the Friar comes up with what he feels is the perfect solution. The audience knows from earlier in the play that he is somewhat of a chemist, so it comes as no surprise that he would be able to concoct a potion which would render Juliet in a deathlike state. He says,

Take thou this vial, being then in bed,
And this distilling liquor drink thou off;
When presently through all thy veins shall run
A cold and drowsy humor; for no pulse
Shall keep his native progress, but surcease.
No warmth, no breath shall testify thou livest.

He also plans to send a message to Romeo in Mantua informing him of this plan and urging him to come to Capulet's tomb to retrieve Juliet so they may once again be together. Unfortunately, miscommunications and simple bad luck thwart the Friar's plan as Romeo never receives the message and ultimately poisons himself in the tomb next to the sleeping Juliet. When she awakens, she too claims her life as she stabs herself with Romeo's dagger.

How does matter change states (i.e from solid to gas)? What happens to the particles? How do you calculate the relative atomic mass of an element?...

The Basic Structure of Matter

Matter is composed of particles which are held together by intermolecular forces. Particles are composed of one or more atoms. Atoms are composed of subatomic particles called, protons, neutrons, and electrons.

States of Matter

• 
  Solids: Solid particles are held tightly together by strong intermolecular forces. There is very little movement of the particles. This means that the particles have low kinetic energy.

• 
  Liquids: Liquid particles are held together more loosely than solid particles. They able to slide past one another and they possess more kinetic energy.

• 
  Gases: The intermolecular forces between gas particles are negligible. The particles move around rapidly and have high kinetic energy.

When heat energy is absorbed by a solid, the intermolecular forces between the particles are reduced. The particles are then able separate and move around (i.e. the substance becomes a liquid).

When heat energy is absorbed by a liquid, it eventually overcomes the intermolecular forces holding the liquid particles together. The particles are then free to move around (i.e. the substance becomes a gas).

Chemical and Physical Change

• 
  Physical Change: In a physical change, the particles of a substance are rearranged, but do not change into different particles. Examples of physical changes include: state changes such as melting and evaporation, shredding paper, mixing sand and water.

• 
  Chemical Change: In a chemical change, the particles of a substance do change into different particles. Examples of chemical changes include: burning, digesting, reacting.

Relative Atomic Mass

The relative atomic mass of an element is a "weighted average" of the masses of all of the isotopes of the element. Isotopes are different forms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

A weighted average is one that takes into account the percentages of each substance. The relative mass of an element is calculated by multiplying the percentage of each isotope times its mass, and adding the resulting answers together. 

Example: The relative mass of chlorine can be calculated by determining the weighted average mass of chlorine's isotopes using the information shown below.

    Isotope            Percentage          Mass (amu)

    Chlorine-35          75%                    35

    Chlorine-37          25%                    37

Relative mass = (.75)(35) + (.25)(37) = 35.5 amu. 

The relative mass is the number that is used as the atomic mass in the periodic table.

Why was Berlin the center of crisis in 1948-49 and again between 1958 and 1961?

Berlin was the center of crisis during these two time periods because of its history, its geographical location, and the geopolitical situation at the time.

To understand why crises arose over Berlin, we have to understand the geopolitics of the time mentioned in this question.  Both of these times were part of the Cold War era.  During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union faced one another in a competition to dominate the world.  Each side wanted its ideology (democracy/capitalism for the US and communism for the USSR) to be the ideology that most countries on earth adhered to.  Each side distrusted the other and wanted to prevent the other from expanding.  The two main superpowers each had a variety of countries that were on their side in the conflict.  This conflict was the main fact about geopolitics during this era.

So what did Berlin have to do with this?  First, it was a historically important city.  It had been the capital of Germany and that country’s most important city.  Therefore, it was a major symbol of Germany and whoever controlled it would look like they dominated what had been Germany.  This brings us to a second historical fact.  After WWII, the victorious Allies divided Germany up into zones of occupation.  The Soviets controlled the eastern part of Germany while the French, British, and US each controlled part of the west.  The three western allies soon combined their zones and so there were two main zones of occupied Germany.

This is where geographical location came into play.  Berlin is located in eastern Germany.  Therefore, the city was within the Soviet zone of occupation.  However, because of its historical importance, the Allies split it up as well when they split Germany up. Thus, there was a part of the city, called West Berlin, that was democratic and capitalist in the middle of communist-controlled East Germany.  The Soviets wanted the US and its allies out of Berlin.  The US felt that it was important for them to have control of part of Berlin so they could be in control of at least part of Germany’s most important city.  Because the Soviets wanted the US out and the US was determined to stay, Berlin was the center of crisis both in 1948-9 (the Berlin Airlift) and 1958-61 (the Berlin Crisis that ended with the building of the Berlin Wall). 

If you were to write a story based on the perspective of Boo Radley, how do you think Boo would describe Jem, Scout, and Dill?

Boo Radley's perspective of Jem, Scout, and Dill would more than likely include his views on their rendition of his family's life during their play "One Man's Family," as well as the children's various attempts to make contact with him. Boo would view Jem as the leader of their "gang" because Jem is the tallest and oldest of the bunch. Boo would probably describe Jem as the most courageous because Jem was the first to touch Boo's house, grab the tire out of the Radley yard, and come back to retrieve his pants after their raid. Arthur Radley would recognize Dill from his short stature and charismatic attitude. Boo would describe Dill as the most curious child in the bunch because Dill is constantly standing by the telephone pole staring at Boo's residence, dreaming of a plan to get him out of the house. Scout would be easily distinguished from the group because of her overalls, and Boo would describe her as his most entertaining neighbor. Boo laughs at Scout after she crashes into his porch, and he probably finds it humorous to watch Scout sprint past his house every day. Arthur also watches Scout's face light up when she retrieves his small gifts from the knothole, and he can sense her positive spirit. Each of the children entertains Boo, and he feels a connection to them because he understands their curiosity.

What was meant by the phrase "The old story" in Oliver Twist? (Here is the quote: "The old story- he said sadly, shaking his head.- No wedding...

"The old story...no wedding ring" means that a young woman has fallen in love with a married man or a man who either refuses to or cannot marry her because of their different social standings or some other impediment to their union. Therefore, she may have been abandoned by this man after becoming pregnant, and may also have been abandoned by her family because of having disgraced them.

Within the setting of Victorian England in this novel, in the upper class, as it appears the dying mother is, an out-of-wedlock pregnancy would be scandalous. So, it appears this young woman may have been expelled from her home as a result, since she has been found on the streets and brought to the workhouse.

It is not until the last chapters that the identity of Oliver's mother is revealed. She was a woman from a good family who fell in love with a close friend of Mr. Brownlow (who becomes Oliver's benefactor), named Edward Leeford. Leeford was forced by his family into a marriage with a wealthy older woman. When he fell in love with Agnes Fleming, he wanted to leave the country and live with Agnes, but he died in Rome. After her father learned of Agnes's condition, he abandoned the family and changed his name. So, rather than bring her family more disgrace, Agnes left her family. This is the "old story" to which the doctor refers: A "proper" Victorian family disgraced by the daughter's improper conduct and visible adultery.