In "A Blessing" by James Wright, why does the speaker feel fond of one of the ponies ?

Although it's clear that the speaker of the poem admires both ponies, he's especially fond of one of them:

"I would like to hold the slenderer one in my arms,

For she has walked over to me

And nuzzled my left hand."

As you can see, his exceptional admiration of this particular pony is because she has broken free from her shyness and has come right over to the speaker to gently touch his hand.

It's a gesture that touches the speaker deeply, inspiring him to reciprocate the touch ("caress her long ear") and to bring the poem to its poignant conclusion: the realization that the speaker is so ecstatic and so connected to nature at that moment that he could break free from his own body and "blossom" like a flower.

You might even say that the speaker's interaction with this particular pony, in fact, elevated the speaker's experience into something worth writing a poem about! The experience with this female pony in particular adds depth and content to the "story" of the poem. If she and the speaker hadn't come into physical contact with each other, then the speaker may not have reached his epiphany at the end. And the interaction with the female pony also helps us realize the extent to which the speaker is ascribing human-like qualities to the ponies: he compares the delicate skin on the pony's ear to that on a human girl's wrist, a more physical comparison as opposed to his earlier musings when he assigns human emotions to the ponies: loneliness, gladness, welcoming, and happiness.

What is a liver transplantation?

Indications and Procedures

Liver
transplantation is performed on individuals whose livers are severely diseased and unable to carry out normal liver functions. The most common cause of liver failure in adults is
cirrhosis, which results from alcohol and/or drug abuse. In this condition, the liver becomes filled with tough, nonfunctional scar tissue. Symptoms of cirrhosis, as well as other liver diseases, include abnormal levels of liver enzymes in the blood, jaundice, a lack of blood-clotting factors, the inability to dispose of bile, and the failure to detoxify metabolic by-products and other poisons, which can lead to coma and death. Other conditions that can lead to liver disease include hepatic
cancer, long-term hepatitis B infection, and obstruction of the bile passages in the liver.

The donor liver may be obtained from a recently deceased individual, or a section of the liver can be obtained from a living donor. In either case, the donated organ must be a close immunological match to reduce the chance of transplant rejection. A preoperative injection is given to the recipient to dry up internal fluids and promote drowsiness, and general anesthesia is administered. A vertical incision is made from just below the breastbone to the navel. Muscles are moved aside, and a second incision is made through the outer membranous lining of the body cavity, revealing the internal organs. Bypass tubes are inserted into the hepatic veins and connected to veins in the arm to divert the flow of blood from the liver. When this is completed, the hepatic veins are cut, and the liver and gallbladder are removed from the body cavity. The veins of the donor liver are connected to the recipient veins, and the bypass tubes are removed. The new liver is then connected to the intestine, and the incisions are closed.

Uses and Complications

Liver transplantation is performed only when the individual has no other chance for survival. Typically, there is a long waiting list for available organs. Certain factors such as blood type and protein markers on cell surfaces must be matched as closely as possible in order to avoid rejection by the recipient’s immune system. A liver from a recently deceased donor may be kept functioning only for five hours with specific cooling fluid, thus limiting its ability to be transported long distances. Because of the lack of available transplant organs and the necessity of compatibility, many people die before an appropriate organ becomes available. It is possible to transplant a segment of liver from a close relative; the liver can grow considerably and regenerate itself. This is a preferable situation and eliminates the pressure of transporting a donor liver between hospitals while attempting to keep it functioning.

After liver transplantation, the patient is kept in an intensive care unit for several days and in bed for at least a week. Pain from the incisions is alleviated with drugs. Rejection is the major danger, even with closely matched donor organs. Drugs such as cyclosporine are administered to suppress the immune system and, in most cases, must be taken for life. These immunosuppressive drugs inhibit the normal functioning of the immune system, thus making the individual much more susceptible to frequent—and more severe—infections, including bacterial, fungal, and viral infections. Other possible complications of the long-term use of immunosuppressive drugs include cataracts, impaired wound healing, peptic ulcers, and steroid-induced diabetes mellitus. About 20 percent of patients suffer graft rejection, obstruction of the arteries, or infection. In the case of serious complications, another transplantation may be the patient’s only hope for survival. In successful surgeries, patients are able to return to normal, active lives within a few weeks of the surgery.

Perspective and Prospects

The first successful liver transplantation procedure was performed in 1967. Nevertheless, this surgery was considered an experimental procedure until 1983, when a National Institutes of Health (NIH) conference on liver transplantation accepted it as a routine procedure. In 1984, more than 250 liver transplantations were performed in the United States. Within five years, that number increased dramatically, to 2,188 transplantation procedures performed in 1989; by 2002, the number had climbed to more than 5,300 transplants and has risen to an average of about 6,000 per year. Long-term results are steadily improving; about 70 percent of recipients survive for five years or more. Improvements in survival rates are attributable to improved methods of preserving donor livers, the advent of living donor transplantation, better methods to prevent graft rejection, more suitable selection of recipients (for example, hepatic cancer patients typically have a high rate of recurrence of the disease in their transplanted liver), and improved surgical techniques.

Future prospects include further improvements in surgical techniques and advanced drug therapy to prevent graft rejection but not totally compromise the disease-fighting ability of the patient’s immune system. Efforts at public education regarding the need for donor organs may cause more individuals to contact donor organ societies, family, and friends regarding their wishes to donate organs in the event of untimely death. In addition, improved treatments for the diseases that lead to liver failure may help to decrease the need for this surgical procedure.

Bibliography

Ahmed, Moustafa. Surviving Liver Diseases: Life with a Liver Transplant. London: MegaZette, 1999.

Belzer, Folkert O., and Hans W. Sollinger. “Immunology and Transplantation.” In Basic Surgery, edited by Hiram C. Polk, Jr., H. Harlan Stone, and Bernard Gardner. 5th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Quality Medical, 1995.

Griffith, H. Winter. Complete Guide to Symptoms, Illness, and Surgery. 6th ed. New York: Perigee, 2012.

Haerens, Margaret. Organ Donation. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2013.

Mulholland, Michael W., et al., eds. Greenfield’s Surgery: Scientific Principles and Practice. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2011.

National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse. “What I Need to Know About Liver Transplantation.” US Department of Health and Human Services, May 10, 2012.

United Network for Organ Sharing. http://www.unos .org.

Youngson, Robert M. The Surgery Book: An Illustrated Guide to Seventy-three of the Most Common Operations. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997.

Zaman, Atif. Managing the Complications of Cirrhosis: A Practical Approach. Thorofare, N.J.: SLACK, 2012.

Zollinger, Robert M., Jr., and Robert M. Zollinger, Sr. Zollinger’s Atlas of Surgical Operations. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011.

Calcium carbonate decomposes at high temperatures forming calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. How much carbon dioxide is produced if 14.75 g of...

The decomposition reaction of calcium carbonate is given as:

`CaCO_3 (s) + Heat -> CaO (s) + CO_2 (g)`

Here, calcium carbonate decomposes to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.

Using stoichiometry, 1 mole of calcium carbonate produces 1 mole of calcium oxide and 1 mole of carbon dioxide.

First we need to calculate the molar mass of all the compounds. The molar mass of calcium carbonate is 100 g (= 40 + 12 + 3 x 16), of calcium oxide is 56 g (= 40 + 16) and that of carbon dioxide is 44 g (= 12 + 2 x 16).

Thus, 100 g of calcium carbonate decomposes to produce 56 g of calcium oxide and 44 g of carbon dioxide. 

Here, 14.75 g of calcium carbonate is decomposed.

We will first calculate how many moles of calcium carbonate is decomposed:

14.75 g CaCO3 x (1 mole CaCO3 / 100 g CaCO3) = .1475 moles CaCO3 decomposed

We know that the molar ratio of CaCO3 decomposed and CO2 produced is 1:1. Therefore, .1475 moles of CO2 will be produced.

To put this into grams:

.1475 moles CO2 x (44 grams CO2 / 1 mole CO2) = 6.49 grams of CO2 produced

Thus, 6.49 g of carbon dioxide is produced when 14.75 g calcium carbonate decomposes.

Hope this helps. 

Is In The Country of Men a domestic or political story?

The thing that makes this book so important is that it is both a domestic and a political story. All great novels are this way; they tell both small stories and large stories. By way of a short example, Steinbeck's famous The Grapes of Wrath tells a domestic story (a family traveling west together) and a political story (the huge migration west in the wake of the Dust Bowl).

This particular novel tells the story of nine-year-old Suleiman who lives in Libya. But it also tells the story of Libya's internal tensions during Moammar Qaddafi's reign. 

Suleiman's story is mostly a domestic one. His family is well-off, and his society (which gives many advantages to men) has set him up to be very successful. But this domestic story is interrupted and changed by the intrusion of the political. Suleiman's father is an underground rebel who believes in democracy. People like him are exterminated under Qaddafi's rule.

Eventually, Suleiman's father disappears. This, too, has both domestic and political implications. Suleiman and his family must fight with their grief, worry, and the everyday struggles of life in Libya. Suleiman's mother becomes an alcoholic to deal with her pain. These are domestic concerns. But Suleiman also asks big, political questions about the role of government, his father's rebellion, and the cost of tyranny.

What is biofeedback?

Indications and Procedures

Biofeedback has been utilized in both research and clinical applications. The term itself denotes the provision of information (feedback) about a biological process. It has been found that individuals (laboratory animals included), when given feedback that is reinforcing, are able to change physiological processes in a desired direction; homeostatic processes being what they are, these changes are in a positive direction. In the case of humans, the feedback is provided about a physiological function of which the individual would not otherwise be aware were it not for the provision—via a biodisplay—of information about that process.

Human maladies range from the purely structural to the purely functional, with various gradations. An example of a structural disorder is a broken bone, while an example of a functional disorder might be a person who manifests symptoms of blindness for which there is no known or identifiable organic cause. Looking at the spectrum of human maladies, one can consider the continuum as “structural,” “psychophysiological,” “mental-emotional,” “hysterical,” and “feigned.” The category of psychophysiological lies midway between structural and mental-emotional. A psychophysiological disorder has elements of both mind and body interactions; it is a physiological disorder brought about by thoughts, feelings, and emotions. There are those who take the position that all human maladies and disorders have a mental-emotional component to them, that there can be no change in the mental-emotional state without a corresponding change in the physiological state and no change in the physiological state without a corresponding change in the mental-emotional state.

It is currently the preference of many scientifically and technologically oriented practitioners to deal with the more structural disorders (or to treat the disorder as if it were mostly structural). It is also the case that many mental health practitioners prefer to deal with disorders that fall more into the mental-emotional category. A growing number of practitioners, however, have an interest in and training for dealing with psychophysiological disorders. This emerging field is referred to as behavioral medicine, and a large percentage of the practitioners in this field employ biofeedback as a modality.

A classic example of biofeedback being used to correct a physiological problem would be the employing of electromyograph (EMG) biofeedback for the correction of a simple tension (or psychophysiologic) headache. The headache is caused by inappropriately high muscle tension in the neck, head, or shoulders. In surface electromyographic biofeedback, the biofeedback practitioner attaches electronic sensors to the muscles of the forehead, neck, or shoulders of the patient. The electronic sensors pick up signals from electrochemical activity at the surface of the skin in the area of the involved muscle groups. The behavior of the muscles being monitored is such that minute changes in the electrochemical activity in the muscles—tension and relaxation—occur naturally.

The sensitivity of the biofeedback instrument (the magnification of the signal may be as high as one thousand times) and the display of the signal make the individual aware of these changes via sound or visual signals (biodisplays). When the biofeedback signal indicates that the muscle activity is in the direction of relaxation, the individual makes an association between that muscle behavior and the corresponding change in the strength of the signal. The individual can then increase the duration, strength, and frequency of the relaxation process. Having learned to relax the involved muscles, the individual is able to prevent or abort headache activity.

It is axiomatic that any physiological process (behavior) that is capable of being quantified, measured, and displayed is appropriate for biofeedback applications. The following are some of the more commonly used biofeedback instruments.

An electromyograph is an instrument that is capable of monitoring and displaying information about electrochemical activity in a group of muscle fibers. Common applications of surface electromyography (in which sensors are placed on the surface of the skin, as opposed to the insertion of needles into the muscle itself) include stroke rehabilitation. Surface electromyography is also used in the treatment of tension headaches and fibromyalgia.

An galvanic skin or electrodermal response (EDR) biofeedback instrument is capable of monitoring and displaying information about the conductivity of the skin. An increase in the conductivity of the skin is a function of moisture accumulating in the space recently occupied by blood. The rate of blood flow depends on the amount of
autonomic nervous system arousal present within the organism at the time of measurement. The higher the level of autonomic nervous system arousal, the greater the amount of skin conductivity. Common applications of EDR biofeedback are the reduction of anxiety caused by phobic reactions, the control of asthma (especially in young children), and the treatment of sleep disorders. For example, many insomniacs are unable to drop off to sleep because of higher-than-appropriate autonomic nervous system activity.

An instrument that is capable of monitoring and displaying the surface temperature of the skin, as correlated with an increase in vascular (blood flow) activity in the area of the skin in question, can also be used for biofeedback. Such an instrument is helpful in treatment for high blood pressure and migraine headaches.

Electroencephalographic (EEG) biofeedback involves the monitoring and displaying of brain wave activity as a correlate of autonomic nervous system activity. Different brain waves are associated with different levels of autonomic nervous system arousal. Common applications of EEG biofeedback are in the treatment of substance abuse disorders, epilepsy, attention-deficit disorders, and insomnia.

Heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback monitors and displays the changing intervals between heart beats. Studies have indicated that HRV biofeedback may be beneficial in treating cardiovascular, respiratory, and emotional conditions.

Uses and Complications

Biofeedback is gaining in popularity because of a number of factors. One of the principal reasons is a growing interest in alternatives to the lifetime use of medications to manage a disorder.

To understand the rationale for biofeedback in a clinical setting, it is essential to discuss the types of disorders for which it is commonly employed. As pointed out in the National Institute of Mental Health's publication Biofeedback, the more common usages of biofeedback treatment techniques include “migraine headaches, tension headaches, and many other types of pain; disorders of the digestive system; high blood pressure and its opposite, low blood pressure; cardiac arrhythmias (abnormalities, sometimes dangerous, in the rhythm of the heartbeat); Raynaud’s disease (a circulatory disorder that causes uncomfortably cold hands); epilepsy; paralysis and other movement disorders.”

Thus, biofeedback can be safely and effectively employed in the alleviation of numerous disorders. One example worth noting—in terms of the magnitude of the problem—is the treatment of cardiovascular disorders. Myocardial infarctions, commonly known as heart attacks, are one of the major health problems in the industrialized world and an area of special concern to those practitioners with a psychophysiological orientation.

One of the principal causes of heart attacks is hypertension (high blood pressure). Emotions have much to do with the manifestation of high blood pressure (hypertension), which places this condition in the category of a psychophysiological disorder. Researchers have demonstrated that biofeedback is an effective methodology to correct the problem of high blood pressure. The data reveal that many individuals employing biofeedback have been able to decrease (or eliminate entirely) the use of medication to manage their hypertension. Studies also show that these individuals maintain normal blood pressure levels for as long as two years following the completion of biofeedback training.

Because of its noninvasive properties and its broad applicability in the clinical setting, biofeedback is also increasingly becoming one of the more commonly utilized modalities in many fields, such as behavioral medicine. Researchers have provided documented evidence showing that biofeedback is effective in the treatment of so-called stress-related disorders. Research has also shown that biofeedback has beneficial applications in the areas of neuromuscular rehabilitation (working with stroke victims to help them develop greater control and use of afflicted muscle groups) and myoneural rehabilitation (working with victims of fibromyalgia and chronic pain to help them obtain relief from debilitating pain).

Research in the 1960s pointed to the applicability of EEG biofeedback for seizure disorders, such as epilepsy. Advanced technology and later research findings have demonstrated EEG biofeedback to be effective in the treatment of attention-deficit disorder, hyperactivity, and alcoholism as well.

Biofeedback appears to have particular applicability for children. Apparently, there is an innate ability on the part of the young to learn self-regulation skills, such as the lowering of autonomic nervous system activity, much more quickly than older persons. Since this activity is highly correlated with respiratory distress, biofeedback is often used in the treatment of asthma in prepubescent children. Biofeedback is also being successfully used as an alternative to prescription medications (such as Ritalin) for youngsters with attention-deficit disorder.

The use of biofeedback is also found in the field of athletics and human performance. Sports psychologists and athletic coaches have long recognized that there is an inverted U pattern of performance where autonomic nervous system activity and performance are concerned. In the field of sports psychology, this is known as the Yerkes-Dobson law. The tenets of this law state that as the level of autonomic nervous system arousal rises, performance will improve—but only to a point. When autonomic nervous system arousal becomes too high, a corresponding deterioration in performance occurs. At some point prior to an athletic competition, it may be desirable for an athlete to experience an increase (or a decrease) in the level of autonomic nervous system activity (the production of adrenaline, for example). Should adrenaline levels become too high, however, the athlete may “choke” or become tense.

To achieve physiological autoregulation (often referred to in this athletic context as "self-regulation"), athletes have used biofeedback to assist them with establishing better control of a variety of physiologic processes. Biofeedback applications have ranged from hand-warming techniques for cross-country skiers and mountain climbers to the regulation of heartbeat for sharpshooters, such as biathletes and archers, to the lowering of adrenaline levels for ice-skaters, gymnasts, and divers.

Biofeedback, apart from empirical studies or research on both animal and human subjects, is seldom used in isolation. In most treatment protocols, it is employed in combination with such interventions as behavioral management, lifestyle counseling, exercise, posture awareness, and nutritional considerations. In most biofeedback applications, the individual is also taught a number of procedures that he or she is encouraged to use between therapy sessions. The conscientious and effective practice of these recommended procedures has been proven to be a determining factor in the success rate of biofeedback. The end aim of biofeedback is self-regulation, and self-regulation must extend to situations outside the clinical setting.

Biofeedback (when employed as a part of a behavioral medicine program) is usually offered as a component of a treatment team approach. The biofeedback practitioner commonly interfaces with members of other disciplines to design and implement a treatment protocol to correct the presenting problem (for example, fibromyalgia) for which the referral was made.

One commonly found model of biofeedback is for the patient, the biofeedback practitioner, and the primary medical care provider to constitute a team. The team concept applies even to the extent that the biofeedback practitioner (in many ways acting as a coach) will give the patient a number of procedures to follow between treatment sessions and will then evaluate, with the patient and the medical practitioner, the effectiveness of the procedure. Modifications in the modalities and in the interventions follow from these evaluations. Biofeedback interventions are dynamic and measurable so that the effectiveness of the protocol can be adjusted to meet the needs of the patient.

Perspective and Prospects

Biofeedback, as a treatment modality, is relatively new. The history of biofeedback as a research tool, however, dates back to early attempts to quantify physiological processes. From the time of Ivan Pavlov and his research on the salivary processes in canines, both psychologists and physiologists have long been interested in the measurement of human behavior (including physiological processes).

Early in the twentieth century, the work of Walter B. Cannon, with his book The Wisdom of the Body (1932), helped to set the stage for the field of self-regulation. Another landmark was the 1929 publication of Edmund Jacobson’s Progressive Relaxation. More recently, the work of such pioneers as John V. Basmajian, Neal Miller, Elmer Green, Joseph Kamiya, and many others spawned research and development efforts that by 1975 produced more than twenty-five hundred literature references utilizing biofeedback as a part of a study.

The evolution of biofeedback as a treatment modality has its historical roots in early research in the areas of learning theory, psychophysiology, behavior modification, stress reactivity, electronics technology, and biomedical engineering. The emerging awareness—and acceptance by the general public—that individuals do in fact have the potential to promote their own wellness and to facilitate the healing process gave additional impetus to the development of both the theory and the technology of biofeedback treatment. Several other factors have combined to produce the climate within which biofeedback has gained recognition and acceptance. One of these was widespread recognition that many of the disorders that afflict humankind have, as a common basis, some disruption of the natural feedback processes. Part of this recognition is attributable to the seminal work of Hans Selye on stress reactivity.

Developments in the fields of electronics, physiology, psychology, endocrinology, and learning theory produced a body of knowledge that spawned the evolution and growth of biofeedback. Further refinement and an explosion of technology have resulted in procedures and techniques that have set the stage for the use of biofeedback as an effective intervention with wide applications in the treatment of numerous disorders.

A number of devices have been designed for home biofeedback use. Some are computer-based while others are stand-alone, handheld devices. Consumers interested in such equipment should consult with their biofeedback team regarding the safety and reputability of the products under consideration.

A new version of biofeedback has promising hope for people with brain damage due to injury, paralysis, or stroke. Known as "neuroprosthetics," "nanobiotechnology," or occasionally, "brain interface chips," this technology is in the early stages of research but is enabling people to control machinery with their thoughts.

Some research and clinical trial studies have shown that quadriplegic people can learn to operate a computer, manipulate a robotic arm, or play video games through the use of an implanted electrode. Signals from the chip are sent to an analog-to-digital converter, which processes the simultaneous firings of neurons into digital data. For example, if a person thinks about turning off a computer, the analog information translates this into an actual motion, controlling the cursor on the computer screen. Other research has utilized noninvasive methods of assimilating neuronal activity. In some research studies, quadriplegic persons and persons with no neuromuscular impairment could control a cursor by controlling their EEG patterns. Participants are able to do this by learning to identify, over time, feedback from brain-wave activity.

Both electrode implants and EEG methods have their positives and negatives. EEGs are a bit cumbersome, due to the wires and electronic equipment; however, wireless EEG technology in the future may be possible. Implanted electrodes may provide more precise information, but this approach requires surgery and is expensive and potentially risky.

Neither method directly affects actual movement; that is, it does not read minds but instead enables the mind to act directly on an external object. The futuristic prospect of controlling machinery with thoughts has many psychological, medical, and ethical implications that will need to be uncovered as research progresses.

Bibliography

A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia. "Biofeedback." Medline Plus, October 30, 2011.

"Biofeedback: Using Your Mind to Improve Your Health." Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, January 26, 2013.

Blumstein, Boris, et al., eds. Brain and Body in Sport and Exercise: Biofeedback Applications in Performance Enhancement. New York: Wiley, 2002.

Constans, A. “Mind Over Machines.” Scientist 19, no. 3 (2005): 27.

Olton, David S., and Aaron R. Noonberg. Biofeedback: Clinical Applications in Behavioral Medicine. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1980.

Phillips, Nelson, et al., eds. Handbook of Mind-Body Medicine for Primary Care. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2003.

Robbins, Jim. A Symphony in the Brain: The Evolution of the New Brain Wave Biofeedback. Rev. ed. New York: Grove Press, 2008.

Schwartz, Mark S., and Frank Andrasik, eds. Biofeedback: A Practitioner’s Guide. 3d ed. New York: Guilford Press, 2003.

Underhill, Linda H., and Brian Randall. "Understanding Biofeedback." Health Library, December 28, 2011.

According to Jarod Diamond in Guns, Germs, and Steel, how did the Spanish easily defeat the Inca?

The answer to this question can be found in Chapter Three of Guns, Germs, and Steel, entitled "Collision at Cajamarca." Diamond argues that the same factors that caused the rapid and relatively easy defeat of the Inca led to similar outcomes throughout North and South America. Essentially, many of these factors are summed up in the title of the book: Pizarro and his men had guns, steel weapons, armor, and horses. The Inca had none of these things. The Spaniards also had Indian allies who backed their campaign against the Inca. But more important than these military factors was the fact that the Inca people had been devastated by smallpox, a disease brought by Europeans. Native Americans had not been exposed to these diseases, for reasons discussed by Diamond elsewhere in the book, and they thus had no immunity. As Diamond relates, the disease was especially destabilizing to the Inca, who saw their emperor and his heir fall victim to the disease. After their deaths, Atahualpa, the king that faced Pizarro at Catamarca, and a rival for the throne plunged the kingdom into civil war. "If it had not been for the epidemic," Diamond says, "the Spaniards would have faced a united empire" (77). So due to these factors, even though the Inca warriors outmanned the Spaniards 200 to one, Pizarro and his men, like Cortez and other conquistadores, managed a victory astonishing in its daring and its cruelty.

In what ways has the house in "The Veldt" made the Hadleys feel useless and powerless?

After being scared by the lions, Lydia tells George that she has become increasingly nervous. She suppose that her nerves are a result of having so little to do. With the house performing almost all tasks, she has nothing to do. She offers to cook and clean. She simply is looking for purpose in her life. The house is fully automated and does everything for them. It cooks, cleans, and even sings them to sleep. She adds, "I feel like I don't belong here. The house is wife and mother now, and nursemaid." She adds that she can not compete with the nursery in terms of getting her children's attention. Lydia notes that George is also exhibiting mannerisms which indicate his own restlessness: 

You look as if you didn't know what to do with yourself in this house, either. You smoke a little more every morning and drink a little more every afternoon and need a little more sedative every night. You're beginning to feel unnecessary too. 

The Hadleys have allowed the nursery to become their children's primary activity. In effect, the Hadleys have ceased their roles as parents. They recognize that they and the children have become spoiled by the house. With a fully automated house, they literally don't have to do anything. That's why they have begun to feel useless. 

If a solution of Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) has a concentration of 2.1E-4M, calculate the concentration of its hydroxide ion. a. 4.2E-4M ...

Determine the concentration of `~H^+`

Sulfuric acid (`~H_2SO_4` ) is a strong acid and disassociates completely in water to form hydrogen and sulfate ions. The disassociation of sulfuric acid in water is shown below:

   `~H_2SO_4` -> `~2H^+` + `~SO_4^2^-`

Since 1 mole of `~H_2SO_4` disassociates into 2 moles of `~2H^+` , the concentration of hydrogen ions (`~H^+` ) is equal to twice the concentration of `~H_2SO_4` :

   2 x (2.1 x `~10^-^4` ) = 0.00042M `~H^+`

Choose a formula

We can use the following formula to calculate the [`~OH^-` ]:

   [`~H^+` ][`~OH^-` ] = 1.0 x `~10^-^14` M

1.0 x `~10^-^14`is the ionization constant for water (`~K_w` )

Rearrange the formula to isolate [`~OH^-` ] by dividing both sides by [`~H^+` ]:

   [`~OH^-` ] = 1.0 x `~10^-^14` /[`~H^+` ]

Solve for [`~OH^-` ] using [`~H^+` ]

  [`~OH^-` ] = 1.0 x `~10^-^14` /0.00042

               = 2.4 x `~10^-^11` M``

Therefore, the answer is c.

   

Why does "The Monkey's Paw" by W. W. Jacobs begin with the father and son playing chess, and does the father's strategy at the chess game indicate...

In the opening of "The Monkey's Paw," the father plays chess with the belief that the game involves "radical changes," such as those that endanger the king. This action indicates that he takes risks without deliberation or planning ahead for future moves on the part of his opponent.

This same mental attitude is exemplified further in the narrative when the sergeant visits and Mr. White asks his friend,

"What was that you started telling me the other day about a monkey's paw or something, Morris?"
"Nothing," said the soldier, hastily. "Leastways nothing worth hearing."

But, his listener presses the sergeant to tell him. Despite the trepidation of the soldier during his narration, as well as his warnings that this monkey's paw has had a spell cast upon it, and his regret over having made his wishes, Mr. White recklessly asks for the paw. 

"I won't," said his friend doggedly. "I threw it on the fire. If you keep it, don't blame me for what happens."

Nonetheless, Mr. White takes the paw from the fire and asks how to make a wish. Again, the sergeant warns him of the consequences, but Mr. White takes the same "unnecessary peril" that he does as he plays chess. He pulls the talisman from his pocket and he and his wife and son all laugh as the sergeant entreats Mr. White to make a sensible wish if he feels he must make one.

After the soldier departs, the Whites talk among themselves. Herbert discredits all that the sergeant has told them, saying, " we shan't make much out of it." Jokingly, he suggests that his father wish to be an emperor. Mr. White looks at the paw and says that he does not know what to wish for because "It seems to me I've got all I want." Still, when his son suggests he ask for £ 200, the amount needed to "clear the house" (pay their mortgage), the father moves in "a radical change," and makes the wish without considering what could happen that would bring them this £ 200.

In the second half of 3.1, Shylock has a conversation with Tubal, another Jew. What is Tubal's relationship with Shylock like? What can we glean...

Tubal apparently works for Shylock.  Shylock sent him to Genoa to find Jessica, Shylock's daughter, who had run away and taken a lot of her father's money with her.

Tubal provides a strong contrast to Shylock in this scene.  Shylock is already beside himself when the scene begins.  Tubal is calm, blunt and matter-of-fact.   He has bad news to give Shylock, and he appears to know that Shylock will react with a tantrum.  Throughout their conversation, he gives Shylock a succinct answer, lets him rant and rave himself out, and then gives another calm, one-sentence answer.  He does not try to soften the bad news, apparently realizing that this is futile.

For example, after Tubal gives the first sentence of his report ("I often came where I did hear of her, but cannot find her"), Shylock flies into a long rant about how useless it was to spend money trying to find Jessica, how he wishes she were dead, etc.  

Tubal waits this out.  

Then he flatly contradicts Shylock's claim that there are "no tears but o' my shedding":

"Yes, other men have ill luck too. Antonio, as I heard in Genoa -"

Shylock interrupts frantically: "What, what, what? Ill luck?  Ill luck?"

Tubal, unruffled by this interruption, calmly finishes his sentence: "... Hath an argosy cast away coming from Tripolis." 

Then, in between Shylock's exclamations, he continues to give Shylock one-sentence bits of news, both good and bad, seemingly indifferent to the effect it will have on Shylock to hear that, for example, his daughter spent a fortune one night in Genoa, or that "Antonio is certainly undone." 

From this I gather that Tubal knows Shylock fairly well and has probably done errands for him before. He is aware that Shylock turns nasty when things don't go his way.  He does not really care how things turn out for Shylock, and he has become numb to (or hardened himself to) Shylock's tantrums.  Tubal apparently does not think it's his business to calm Shylock down, only to report on what he was asked to find out. 

It's possible that Tubal is not very bright.  We do not see any more of him in the play, so it's hard to tell.  But considering that he was able to get himself to Genoa and find word of both Jessica and Antonio, probably he is not stupid, just apathetic around Shylock because of Shylock's typical behavior.

What are the features of different types of meetings?

The "type" of meeting depends on (a) the purpose of the meeting, and (b) the level of formality of the meeting.  We will define both of these in more detail.

Meeting purpose is roughly defined as the desired outcome or result of the meeting, the "why" of the meeting.  The fact that there is a specific desired purpose on the part of the initiator of the meeting is what makes it a "meeting" in the first place.  This differentiates it from the various other communication which goes on in a business environment.

The attached reference gives a handy short list of typical meeting purposes (informational, decision-making, etc.).  The common thread to these, and any other ways of categorizing meetings, is the degree to which the goal is increasing the participants' knowledge versus motivating or enabling specific action.

The formality of the meeting is defined by the extent to which the features of the meeting are predefined and inflexible.  These features are:

• participant list ("who")


• time allotted ("when")


• venue ("where")


• rules governing interaction ("how")

Let's look at a couple examples to integrate all of this and define the range of meetings.  At one end is the manager who goes over to her employees workstation area impromptu (no time allotment or schedule) to convey something she was just alerted to by her manager (knowledge increase purpose).  The employees stand next to their cubicles (venue), and ask questions as they occur to them during their manager's presentation (no explicit rules on interaction).  One of the employees comes back to their cubicle from the restroom midway through the talk, and employees of another adjacent unit listen in, just in case there is something important being talked about (no defined participant list).

At the other end is the monthly Board of Directors Meeting.  Starting time and allotted time are clearly defined in the invitation memo.  Participants are limited to those receiving the memo, and some members are identified as "required" indicating negative consequences for failure to attend.  The venue is the Executive Conference Room, which provides for restricted access, prevents outside parties from hearing the proceedings, and has facilities for media as well as accommodating the participants' physical needs (refreshments, snacks).  This is a decision-making meeting, and formal Rules of Order govern who may speak, at what point, and for how long.  Decisions are presented in the form of motions which must be proposed, "seconded", and then voted on.

What would have happened if Romeo had been caught by the Capulets during the balcony scene?

It's unclear what might have happened if Romeo had been caught in the Capulet orchard as he attempts to catch another glimpse of Juliet after falling in love with her earlier at the Capulets' party. On one hand, Juliet fears Romeo would be put to death if her family found him below her balcony. As soon as Juliet recognizes Romeo, she warns him of this in the balcony scene, Act II, Scene 2:

The orchard walls are high and hard to climb,
And the place death, considering who thou art,
If any of my kinsmen find thee here.

Her words certainly apply to her cousin Tybalt, who is already angry at Romeo because he overheard Romeo at the party in Act I, Scene 5. Tybalt calls for his sword, but is intercepted by Lord Capulet before he can engage Romeo. Capulet doesn't want his party disrupted by a continuation of the feud; in fact, he actually has words of praise for Romeo:

He bears him like a portly gentleman,
And, to say truth, Verona brags of him
To be a virtuous and well-governed youth.
I would not for the wealth of all this town
Here in my house do him disparagement.

Because of Capulet's seeming admiration for Romeo, it is unclear what he would have done if he had caught Romeo on the grounds of his estate. The question may depend on Lord Capulet's mood at the time. He displays a mercurial frame of mind throughout the play. At times, he is sensible and loving, but at others, he is quick to anger and completely intractable. One thing is for certain: if Tybalt had discovered the son of Montague, things would probably not have gone well for Romeo.

Why is cooking a burger on a BBQ caused by radiation?

When a grill is heated, the heat energy is transferred between the grill and the hamburger patty.  This type of energy is known as thermal energy.

As the grill becomes hot, its molecules vibrate rapidly and bounce off each other. Heat is then produced and is transferred to the meat, thereby cooking it. As heat from the glowing coals strikes the food, infrared radiation--(a type of electromagnetic energy) will travel in any direction and will heat and cook the food.

Infrared radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum and lies next to the color red, which is in the visible light range of the spectrum. Infrared radiation is invisible to the human eye. These waves carry energy that can be used to cook food. When infrared radiation strikes the outer molecules of the food, they become agitated, causing some heat to be generated which then passes to the middle of the food and helps to cook it.

I have included a diagram showing the electromagnetic spectrum and its various wavelengths.

In The Kite Runner, Hasaan used his slingshot against Assef. 26 years later, Sohrab also used the slingshot to injure Assef. What does each action...

The similarities between both of these instances are at least as striking as the differences. In each case, Amir is rescued from Assef. The socially powerless character (Hassan/Sohrab) protects the socially more powerful character in an act that dangerously transgresses social boundaries. 

In each case, Amir is the one who, according to ethnic hierarchies in place, should be the person to take charge of the situation. This means that for Hassan and Sohrab the act of using the slingshot (or threatening to use it) functions as a rebellion against the social structure. Crucially, this rebellion is performed as a moral action. Hassan and Sohrab are able to do the right thing, despite the likely consequences. They may be socially powerless, but they are morally powerful. 

This is one of the meanings behind each act that does not change from episode to episode. What does change is Amir's character. When Hassan saves Amir, Amir finds himself unable to reciprocate when Hassan is in need.

"I had one last chance to make a decision. One final opportunity to decide who I was going to be. I could step into that alley, stand up for Hassan—the way he’d stepped up for me all those times in the past—and accept whatever would happen to me. Or I could run.

In the end, I ran."

However, after years of running away from his shame for failing Hassan (then betraying him as well), Amir comes back and tries to save Hassan's son. 

Amir has grown into some strength, morally speaking, though he is still unable to defeat the monstrous figure of Assef alone. Thus in the first slingshot episode, Hassan acts as the lone moral agent, demonstrating an inner strength that is not supplemented or balanced by a moral power in Amir. The result is a break in the friendship and brotherhood of Hassan and Amir that takes place on dishonest and dishonorable terms.

In the second slingshot episode, Sohrab's courage is supplemented by Amir's courage (or, vice versa, Amir's courage is supplemented by Sohrab's courage). The result is a union of the family on honest terms.

Why is teenage pregnancy an urban health issue?

We could argue that teen pregnancy is not an urban health issue because it is not an issue caused by urbanization. Teen pregnancy exists in urban, suburban, and rural areas. In fact, as we can see in this link, the percentage of teenaged girls in rural areas who become pregnant is higher than the percentage in either suburban or urban areas. In that sense, teen pregnancy is not an urban health issue but is, rather, an issue for teens everywhere.

If, however, we have to argue that teen pregnancy is an urban health issue, we can do so by looking at the definition of “urban health issue” in the link below. There, we are told an urban health issue is an issue that has to do with “the health status of, and health issues faced by, individuals living within the inner city.” If we use this definition, teen pregnancy is an urban health issue because it affects young women in cities as well as their children. Thus, it affects the health status of individuals living within the inner city.

Teen pregnancy obviously affects the health status of teens who become pregnant.  Pregnancy and childbirth have serious effects on a person’s health.  This is particularly true among poor people in the inner city who might not have access to good prenatal and postnatal care.  Teen pregnancy also affects the health of the child. A child born to a teen who does not get good prenatal care might be less healthy from birth. Teens may be less able to care for their children well (particularly if they are poor), and their child’s health may suffer as a consequence.  These are clearly issues that affect the health status of individuals living in urban areas.  Therefore, teen pregnancy is an urban health issue.

While teen pregnancy is not confined to cities (and is actually less prevalent in cities than in rural areas), it is still an urban health issue because it affects the health status of individuals living in urban areas.

How are women affected by infectious disease?

Infectious Disease Types

STDs pose a great risk to women in parts of Asia, Africa, and Eastern Europe, where rape and prostitution and arranged marriages between older men and girls and young women are common. Children spread infections directly to their mothers and other women in traditional roles as teachers, nurses, and caregivers. These factors make women at high risk for STDs and diseases that spread among the general population. Several diseases also can be carried by pregnant women and transmitted to her fetus during pregnancy and to her child at birth.

Pelvic infections in women lead to the following diseases:

Vaginitis. Vaginitis is usually diagnosed initially by the presence of inflammation,
itching, or discharge in the area of the vagina or cervix. There are several types
of vaginitis caused by infections, including yeast infections, cervicitis,
lichen simplex chronicus, bacterial vaginosis, trichomoniasis, chlamydia, gonorrhea,
and genital
herpes. Organisms can be transmitted from person to person,
leading to gynecological and other diseases because of the proximity of the vagina
to the gastrointestinal tract. Once any type of viral, bacterial, or fungal
pathogen enters the female gastrointestinal tract, pelvic infection is possible,
including pelvic blastomycosis, schistosomiasis, actinomycosis, shigellosis,
amebiasis, and listeriosis.

Listeriosis. Almost two-thirds of the cases of listeriosis occur when a woman is pregnant and, therefore, has decreased
immunity to the Listeria monocytogenes bacterium. Men can carry
this bacterium without symptoms and can transmit it to women during sexual
intercourse. The bacteria can lead to infection, especially when the female’s
immune system is compromised during, for example, pregnancy. Symptoms include
fever, abdominal pain, and other flulike symptoms. Listeriosis transmitted to a
fetus through the placenta can develop into granulomatosis infantiseptica, which
results in death for the infant. Treatment of listeriosis includes a minimum of
two weeks of penicillin, ampicillin, tetracycline, erythromycin, or other
antibiotic.

Schistosomiasis. Schistosomiasis is a type of infection caused by the presence in the blood of
flatworms of the class Trematoda. This type of infection
continues to increase worldwide, with more than 200 million persons infected at
any given time. The most common initial symptom is a skin rash, often called
swimmer’s itch, which is visible within twenty-four hours of entering the human
body. About one month after infection, symptoms will include fever, sweating,
chills, headache, and cough. Treatment with the drugs niridazole or stibocaptate
is recommended. If not treated, cervical ulcers, cervical
cancer, infertility, and death may result. A fetus may become
infected by the pregnant woman. Typical diagnosis includes analysis of the urine
or a rectal biopsy.

Amebiasis and shigellosis. Amebiasis and shigellosis can be caused by members of the Enterobacteriaceae family, which are
gram-negative organisms in contaminated water. These organisms can cause
dysentery, diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, and chills. Limiting exposure to
unhealthy water is the best way to prevent the development of these infections.
The most effective treatments are the tetracycline or ampicillin antibiotics. If,
however, the bacteria strain proves to be resistant to these antibiotics, then
trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole can be effective.

Intrauterine-device-related infections. The gram-positive bacterium Actinomyces israelii
is often associated with the usage of intrauterine devices (IUDs), which are used as contraception. A. israelii can establish a colony within the pelvis of a female, leading to gynecological infections such as actinomycosis. Initial symptoms include fever and severe abdominal pain. Diagnosis is accomplished by either examination of the IUD after it has been removed from the female, or by a Pap test. If treated with antibiotics such aspenicillin, erythromycin, tetracycline, or chloramphenicol within one week of infection, the prognosis is good. Otherwise, the required treatments can involve blood transfusion. Death may result if the infection is severe.

Blastomycosis and coccidioidomycosis. Blastomycosis
and coccidioidomycosis are fungal infections that gain entry to the female body either
through inhalation or through a skin abrasion. These infections are especially
dangerous to pregnant women because they can quickly spread to many organs
throughout the body. Symptoms of the two infections are similar and include
coughing, chest pain, and wartlike skin lesions that continue to spread.
Blastomycosis is caused by the Blastomyces
(Ajellomyces) dermatitidis fungus, which can
be found in the Ohio, Mississippi, and St. Lawrence River systems. If not treated,
blastomycosis will be fatal.

Coccidioidomycosis, however, is not fatal, is usually self-limiting, and is without a progressive nature. The fungus Coccidiodes immitis causes this infection. This fungus is found in the soil of the southwestern United States and in some areas of South America and Central America.

Both infections can be diagnosed by testing body fluids or antigen-based skin tests and can be treated with the medication amphotericin B. Because blastomycosis can be fatal if not treated, the drug 1-hydroxystilbamidine can also be used if necessary.

Pelvic inflammatory disease. Pelvic inflammatory disease
(PID) is caused by the Chlamydia trachomatis
bacterium and transmitted through sexual intercourse. Colonies of
these bacteria can gain strength and grow in size when a pregnant woman has a
cesarean
section, leading to severe PID. Antibiotics that include tetracycline,
doxycycline, and erythromycin are effective treatments after definitive diagnosis.
Diagnosis has become much more efficient since the development of the tissue
culture technique in 1965. The C. trachomatis bacterium also can
cause several other diseases, including urethritis, salpingitis, neonatal
pneumonia, and endemic trachoma. Also, pregnant women are susceptible to
stillbirth and abortion because of these bacteria.

Cytomagalic inclusion disease. Cytomagalic inclusion disease (CID) occurs in the fetus of a pregnant woman who is infected by a
cytomegalovirus. The results can be pneumonia, hepatitis, seizure disorders,
deafness, retardation, and anemia. The woman may have very few symptoms other than
fever or malaise. Therefore, diagnosis of a pregnant woman is made after seeing
the results of blood tests, urinalysis, or immunofluorescent tests
on the blood of an infant’s umbilical cord.

Chancroid. Hemophilus ducreyi is a bacterium
that causes the sexually transmitted disease chancroid. The first symptoms include fever and malaise, followed by pain in
the lymph nodes. Tissue cultures and Gram staining are definitive methods of
diagnosis. Although this type of bacteria is resistant to penicillin, other
antibiotics, such as tetracycline, erythromycin, and streptomycin, are effective.
Washing with soaps and disinfectants does not help to prevent infection, but
condom usage does.

Group B Streptococcus infection. Group B
Streptococcus (GBS) infections are those infections caused by
the Streptococcus agalactiae bacterium. Infection by this
bacterium can lead to a variety of diseases, including skin infections,
peritonitis, arthritis, meningitis, urinary tract infection, gangrene, and
pneumonia. Colonies of these bacteria can cause death in pregnant women following
a cesarean section. Infected women pass the bacterium during childbirth in
approximately 33 percent of cases, and more than 50 percent of infected newborns
die within the first five days of birth. To detect the presence of GBS, a doctor
will order urine, blood, or cerebral-spinal fluid tests, followed by a bacterial
culture. Ampicillin and penicillin G are effective antibiotics, but the
tetracycline
antibiotics are not effective.

Maternal infections. Maternal infections include puerperal and intraamniotic infections, both of which cause more than 13 percent of the deaths in the United States each year, making them the fourth leading cause of death among pregnant women. Several terms are used to describe intra-amniotic infection, including “amnionitis,” “clinical choricamnionitis,” and “amniotic fluid infection.” Regardless of the name used, the primary risk factors for acquiring these types of infections are a complicated pregnancy involving prelabor rupture of membranes, excessive internal fetal monitoring, prolonged labor lasting more than twelve hours, and abortions. These complications make a pregnant woman more susceptible to group B Streptococcus growth and colonization. Additional risk factors include the presence of bacterial vaginosis and the occurrence of preterm births. Bacterial vaginosis, which is present in a minimum of 20 percent of all pregnant women, can be caused by exposure to Mycoplasma hominis and Gardnerella vaginalis during sexual intercourse.

Prolonged labor and sexual intercourse are just two of the risk factors that
contribute to the incidence of infectious diseases in women because the vagina
itself has a huge supply of organisms that have the potential to become virulent.
There are millions of these microbial organisms within the vagina of the average
woman. Thus, the rupture of any number of membranes of the placenta, uterus, or
vagina, and also cesarean delivery and multiple cervical examinations, can lead to
these severe infections. The most prevalent of these infections that become severe
after childbirth is endometritis. As with most of these
infections, the best treatment is the use of antibiotics.

Perinatal infections. Perinatal infections can occur in pregnant women with few symptoms, and they can be
transmitted to the fetus, often resulting in severe illness or in death for the
fetus. The most common of these infectious diseases are toxoplasmosis; “other”
diseases, specifically syphilis, hepatitis, and zoster; rubella; cytomegalovirus;
and herpes simplex. They are usually referred to by the acronym TORCH.

The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, which is transmitted
by rodents and cats, is the cause of toxoplasmosis. Almost 80 percent of
infected humans show only nonspecific, mononucleosis symptoms. Thus, the
relatively high incidence of infection that ranges from one of every five to one
of every two persons is generally overlooked. However, approximately one-half of
infected pregnant women will transmit this disease to their fetuses, with an 85
percent mortality rate; those fetuses who do survive will endure permanent visual
and neurological disabilities after birth. If diagnosed early, treatment with the
drugs sulfadiazine and pyrimethamine is effective. Diagnostic methods include
immunofluorescent antibody tests, enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA)
tests, and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method.

Although the rubella vaccine has been a factor in lowering the incidence rate
of rubella in the general population, pregnant women who
acquire rubella during the first trimester of pregnancy will have a spontaneous abortion in more than one-half of cases. If the fetus does survive
until birth, a minimum of 33 percent of these babies will die. Also, in more than
70 percent of cases, the infant will develop deafness, cataracts, heart disease,
pneumonitis, and additional severe disorders. The most effective diagnostic tool
is hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titer, which is an antibody test.

Of the TORCH infections, cytomegalovirus (CMV) is the most common. The mode of transmission is contact with infected saliva, urine, or blood. Generally, adults have very few symptoms, and the symptoms that do occur are fever, headache, and malaise, which certainly are not diagnostic because they could easily indicate many other conditions. Therefore, although definitive diagnosis is usually made using ELISA, antibody tests, or virus isolation methods, many children are born with this infection. Typical health problems include mental retardation, visual and hearing losses, and seizures; the death rate is 20 to 30 percent. The only drug in usage is ganciclovir, but it is not a completely effective treatment.

Faro, Sebastian, and David Soper, eds. Infectious Diseases in Women. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2001. This book is an excellent source of clinical information on gynecological infections.

Hollier, Lisa D., and George D. Wendel, Jr. Infectious Diseases in Women. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2008. Discusses the latest research into infectious diseases common to women. Also provides useful clinical information.

Martin, Richard J., Avroy A. Fanaroff, and Michele C. Walsh, eds. Fanaroff and Martin’s Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine: Diseases of the Fetus and Infant. 2 vols. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby/Elsevier, 2006. This classic reference work includes discussions of the practice of neonatal-perinatal medicine.

Murthy, Padmini, and Clyde Lanford Smith. Women’s Global Health and Human Rights. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett, 2010. A comprehensive work that examines the state of women’s health around the world. Includes the chapter “Infectious Diseases and Women’s Human Rights.”

Help. I need 1 quote to show the end of the American Dream during the scene of Curley's wife's death in the novel Of Mice and Men. Please, it's due...

Just before Lennie inadvertently kills Curley's wife, they both discuss their own dreams. Curley's wife laments that she might have been a famous and successful actress if her mother would have let her. Lennie, of course, shares his own story about the rabbits and the farm. They both go back and forth with their respective hopes. Curley's wife tries to dominate the conversation because she wants sympathy. She wants someone to hear about her missed opportunities. After she is killed, the narrator describes her lifeless body. With this description, one can see how Steinbeck suggests the loss of the American Dream. In this description, it shows how Curley's wife had missed her opportunity in life and, in the end, how she could no longer seek sympathy or understanding for that loss: 

Curley’s wife lay with a half-covering of yellow hay. And the meanness and the plannings and the discontent and the ache for attention were all gone from her face. 

The "plannings" symbolize her past hopes and the "discontent" and "aches" symbolize her regret. 

What was the threat that caused so much fear in the Cold War?

There are a few ways to look at this question. One aspect of the Cold War that caused people to be afraid was the fear of nuclear war. Both the United States and the Soviet Union developed nuclear weapons. Each side was making hints that they would use their nuclear weapons. Many people were afraid we would have a nuclear war with the Soviet Union. Some Americans built their own bomb shelters to hopefully protect themselves in the case of a nuclear attack.

Another threat that caused fear during the Cold War was the fear that the communists were going to take over our government. This fear reached hysterical levels in the 1950s when Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin claimed he knew and had evidence that communists were in all levels of our government. People began to act irrationally, mainly out of fear, and few people were willing to challenge Senator McCarthy because they were afraid they would be accused of being a communist.

Which industry sparked the Industrial Revolution in England?

As the population of England grew and farming technology created a large surplus of food, the demand for manufactured goods also increased. Clothing is an essential need for all people and it should not come as a surprise that the textile industry drove manufacturing in England.

With the colonies now firmly established in the New World, the English had a steady supply of cotton to fuel this industry. The old method of producing textile products in small shops was no longer viable or profitable. England decided that larger factories could produce a greater quantity of goods, particularly with the introduction of new machines. The spinning jenny and power loom were 18th Century inventions that improved the process for making cloth. These machines increased productivity and made the textile industry profitable.

Where is loyalty shown in Macbeth ?

In the first act, the play opens with a battle with the king of Norway, who is aided by the Scottish Thane of Cawdor. This is the highest form of treason, with Cawdor’s disloyalty to his king, Duncan. He is met on the battlefield by Macbeth, who is shown as intensely loyal to Duncan, even to the point of risking his life for his king. As a result, Macbeth is given the title of the faithless traitor and made the new Thane of Cawdor.

With the pronouncement of the first prophecy by the Three Weird Sisters, Macbeth’s loyalty quickly disappears, and he becomes even worse than the man he fought. The new Thane of Cawdor outdoes the disloyalty of the old Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth murders his king, quickly forgetting his loyalty out of his own ambition. Not only is Duncan his king, but also his relative and a guest in his home. This disloyalty is the path to Macbeth’s destruction.

What archetype is the wolf from "To Build A Fire" by Jack London?

The exact number and types of archetypes are not always the same, but there are generally consistencies among the various lists. I linked to a list of character and situation archetypes from Hillsborough Community College, and I picked an archetype from that list.  

The wolf/ dog from "To Build a Fire" would be the "Friendly Beast" archetype. That's the best choice based on the list, but the dog doesn't fit the mold exactly. The description of this archetype is as follows:

An animal companion showing that nature is on the side of the hero.

It is true that the dog is the man's animal companion in the story, but the rest of the description falls apart for me. I've never liked thinking of the man in this story as a hero. He makes dumb decisions that ultimately kill him. That's not heroic. There are times when a hero character dies, but his/ her death is usually sacrificial in nature. The man's death is not sacrificial. Additionally, the story very clearly shows nature is not on the side of the man. Everything about the environment in this story is life threatening. By the end, not even the dog is on the side of the man. The dog very intentionally keeps its distance from the man, and does not offer any kind of life-saving aid.  

He spoke to the dog, calling it to him. But in his voice was a strange note of fear that frightened the animal. It had never known the man to speak in such a tone before. Something was wrong and it sensed danger. It knew not what danger, but somewhere in its brain arose a fear of the man. It flattened its ears at the sound of the man’s voice; its uneasy movements and the liftings of its feet became more noticeable. But it would not come to the man.

So perhaps the "Friendly Beast" archetype isn't really the best fit for the dog. Let's look at a different list. I've linked the "scribendi" list below. This particular list has only five character archetypes. Based on those five, I believe that the dog is the "everyman" character type. The description mentions the everyman is a stand-in for the audience. That works quite well with the dog because he is observing the actions of the man in the same way readers might observe the man. There is a sort of overall detachment with the dog. Additionally, the dog doesn't have an overall moral obligation to the man and the situation. That's why the dog doesn't help the dying man. 

When the man is clearly dead, the dog moves on in search of something or someone else capable of taking better care of him.

How does Harper Lee present such themes as racism, social inequality, prejudice, innocence, youth, the coming of age, and morality and ethics in To...

In Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, the theme concerning racism is most obviously expressed through the town's reaction to Tom Robinson's arrest and trial.

Author Lee reveals that, due to racism, many Southern white people of Maycomb hold the prejudiced belief that, as Atticus describes in his closing remarks to the jury, "all Negroes lie, that all Negroes are basically immoral beings, that all Negro men are not to be trusted around our women" (Ch. 20). Due to such beliefs, Robinson's jury declared him to be guilty despite all evidence showing how impossible it was for him to have committed the crime. Specifically, evidence in court revealed that Mayella had been bruised in her right eye, and only a left-handed attacker facing her would have been able to cause such an injury; Robinson has been crippled in his left arm and left hand since childhood. He is so crippled that he was unable to even place his left hand on the Bible when saying the oath before taking the witness stand.

Lee's theme concerning social inequality is further seen in Maycomb's relations with its African-African citizens. Maycomb is a racially segregated town, with the African-American population confined to living in what is called the Quarters, meaning what was once the slave quarters during the days of slavery. African Americans are also not entitled to education, leaving them to learn to read and write on their own and to work in only the blue-collar labor force as field hands and domestic servants.

How are brightness and contrast perceived?

Introduction

Brightness is the perception of intensity of light. Roughly, the more intense a light is, the brighter it seems to be. Intensity refers to the physical energy of light, as measured by a photometer. Brightness, however, is a perceptual phenomenon: it cannot be measured by physical instruments. It is a basic perception, difficult if not impossible to describe; it must be experienced. Measurements of brightness are generally observers’ reports of their experience viewing lights of different intensities. Only in living systems—that is, only in the eye of the perceiver—is the term “brightness” relevant.

The brightness of a spot of light, although related to the intensity of light reflected from that spot, is also influenced by other factors. It varies with the intensity of light reflected from the immediately surrounding area at any given time and at immediately preceding times. In general, a spot appears brighter if the surrounding areas are dark or are stimulated with light perceived as complementary in color; it also appears brighter if the eye has become accustomed to the dark (dark-adapted). These factors contribute contrast, the perception of differences in light intensity, which enhances brightness. Brightness and contrast are perceptually linked.

Influences on Perception

A light of a given physical intensity may appear quite bright when viewed with an eye that has been dark-adapted, perhaps by being covered for ten to fifteen minutes. That same light may seem dim in comparison to an eye exposed to bright light for the same time period. This is largely attributable to the fact that a dark-adapted eye has more photopigment available to respond to incoming light; when this pigment has been exposed, it becomes bleached and needs time to regenerate. The enhancement of differences in brightness by an adapting light or other stimulus preceding the test light is called successive contrast and is primarily attributable to the state of adaptation of the retina.

Simultaneous contrast can also affect brightness perception. In this case, a spot of light at one place on the retina can be made to appear brighter or dimmer depending only on changes in the lighting of adjacent retinal locations. A small gray paper square placed on a sheet of black paper appears brighter than an identical square on a sheet of white paper. This is mostly a result of lateral inhibition, or photoreceptors stimulated by the white background inhibiting the receptors stimulated by the square so it appears less dazzling on white than on black. In general, differences are enhanced when the stimuli are side by side.

Sensitivity to contrast also varies with the detail of the object being viewed. Reading a book involves attending to high spatial frequencies, closely spaced lines, and minute detail. Recognizing a friend across the room or finding one’s car in a parking lot involves attention to much broader spatial frequencies; that is, the lines important for recognition are much farther apart. The visual system handles low, moderate, and high spatial frequencies, although not equally well. A contrast sensitivity function may be plotted to show which spatial frequencies are most easily detected—that is, to which frequencies the eye-brain system is most sensitive.

The peak of this function, the highest sensitivity to spatial frequency, is within the midrange of detectable frequencies. At this peak, it takes less physical contrast (a smaller intensity difference) for an observer to report seeing the border between areas of different frequency. At higher and lower spatial frequencies, sensitivity drops off, so greater intensity differences must be made for perception in those ranges.

While perceptual systems exaggerate physical contrast, they fail to notice lack of contrast, change, or movement. Changes in brightness, for example, can be made so gradually that no notice of them is taken at all. In fact, the visual system, which signals changes well, does not respond to seemingly constant stimulation. When an image, a bright pattern of light projected on the retina, is stabilized so it does not move at all, the observer reports first seeing the image and then, in a few seconds, its fading from view. The field does not turn gray or black or become empty; it simply ceases to exist. A border circumscribing a pattern within another pattern, perhaps a red-filled circle within a green-filled one, may be stabilized on the retina. In this case, the inner border disappears completely: The observer continues to see an unstabilized green-filled circle with no pattern in it. The area that formerly appeared red—and which indeed does reflect long-wavelength light—is perceived only as a part of the homogeneous green circle. Thus, while borders and movement creating physical contrast are exaggerated in perception, a stimulus signaling no change at all is simply not perceived.

Color Perception

Brightness and contrast are especially well illustrated in color perception. In the retina, three different cone pigments mediate color perception. Each pigment maximally absorbs light of certain wavelengths: One maximally absorbs the short lengths that are perceived as blue, one the medium wavelengths perceived as green, and one the red or long-wavelength region of the spectrum. The outputs of the cones interact with one another in the visual system in such a way that reds and greens stand in opposite or complementary roles, as do blues and yellows, and black and white. A gray square reflects light of all wavelengths equally. It has no hue, or color. Yet when it is placed on a red background, it appears greenish; if placed on a blue background, that same gray square appears yellowish. In each case, the neutral square moves toward the complement of its background color. The background has induced the perception of hue, tinting the gray with the color of its complement. Brightness of the background can also affect hue. A royal-blue square against a moderately white background can appear deep navy when the background intensity is increased or seem to be a powder blue when it is decreased. The same color in two different settings or under two different brightness conditions is not the same color.

The appearance of color is not a simple property of the color pigment itself but is defined in its relationship to others. Simultaneous color contrast can be quite startling, depending on the color relationships chosen. For example, if two squares of different hues but the same brightness are juxtaposed, colors appear very strong and exaggerated. One’s attention goes immediately to the contrast. If they are complementary colors such as red and green, the contrast is heightened. If they are close to the complements of each other, they are perceived in the direction of complementarity.

Yet not all colors are contrasting. A color configuration that does not move toward contrast moves toward assimilation—toward being united with the major color present. For example, a painting’s central blue feature may bring out subtly blue features elsewhere in the painting. Whenever colors show enough similarity to one another, they approach one another, emphasizing similarity rather than contrast. Both color contrast and assimilation are beautifully illustrated in Josef Albers’s book Interaction of Color (1987).

The Pulfrich Phenomenon

Another visual demonstration of brightness effects is the Pulfrich pendulum effect, or the Pulfrich phenomenon. To observe this, tie a pendulum bob to a two-foot length of string. Swing this in a plane normal to the line of sight, moving it back and forth as a pendulum. Then observe this continuing motion while wearing glasses, one lens of which is darkened or covered with a sunglass cover. Suddenly the pendulum appears to move in an ellipse instead of an arc. This illusion is a brightness effect. The shaded or sunglass-covered eye does not receive as much light as the other eye at any given time. It takes this eye longer to integrate the light information it does receive and so, by the time it sends location information to the brain, the other eye is sending its information of another location. The brain interprets disparity, this difference in the locations, as depth. Therefore the pendulum appears to move closer and farther away from the observer in elliptical depth and not constantly in a single plane. Intriguingly, switching the covered eye changes the elliptical path from clockwise rotation to counterclockwise or vice versa.

The Pulfrich phenomenon is a demonstration of changes in perception with changes in brightness; such changes have very practical effects. Driving at dusk, for example, can be dangerous, because light levels are suddenly lower than expected. Although the eye gathers the available light for form, distance, and depth perception, it takes a longer period of time to do so. Unaware of this, a driver may find reaction time to be longer than in the middle of the day and not allow enough braking distance. Similarly, an umpire may halt an evening soccer game earlier than the spectators think is necessary because of low light levels. The spectators can see well enough, as they gather the light needed to perceive what is happening. The players, on the other hand, notice that their reaction times are extended and that they are having trouble localizing the ball.

For a third application, the fact that contrast sensitivity shows peaks in particular spatial frequencies bears explanatory if not practical value. Robert Sekule, Lucinda Hutman, and Cynthia Owsley showed, in a 1980 study, that as one grows older, sensitivity to low spatial frequencies decreases. This may partly explain why older people may show greater difficulty recognizing faces or locating an automobile than the young, even though the two groups may be equally able to discriminate fine structural details. Making an older person aware of this change in sensitivity may be of assistance in defining the difficulty and in providing assurance that this is not a memory problem or a sign of decreasing cognitive ability.

Sensation and Perception

In the late nineteenth century, much of the early development of psychology as a science came about through work in sensation and perception. As empirical evidence grew, theories of contrast perception took shape. Two of the most notable are those of Hermann von Helmholtz and Ewald Hering.

Helmholtz had a psychological theory—a cognitive theory that explained color and brightness changes with contrast as errors in judgment. Errors were attributed to lack of practice in making brightness judgments, not in any physiological change in the neural input. Something suddenly looked brighter simply because it was misinterpreted, probably because one was focusing on some other aspect.

At the same time, Hering insisted and provided convincing demonstrations that contrast involves no error in judgment but has a physiological base. The neural response of any region of the retina, he argued, is a function not only of that region but also of neighboring regions. These neighboring sensations were postulated as having an effect opposite in brightness, or in the complementary color, of the region being viewed. Hering showed with successive contrast and simultaneous contrast studies that the outputs of different places on the retina could be modified by one another.

In 1890, William James described this controversy and gave, in
The Principles of Psychology
, his support to Hering’s physiological position. With some modifications, it may be supported today. Yet the Helmholtz theory has some supportive evidence as well. For example, John Delk and Samuel Fillenbaum showed in 1956 that an object’s characteristic color influences an observer’s perception of that object’s color. In this way, for example, an apple cut out of red paper is identified as redder than it actually is. This line of evidence would support Helmholtz in his theory of errors in judgment.

Almost any modern consideration of contrast includes a discussion of brightness changes at borders, commonly called Mach bands. This dates to 1865, when Ernst Mach, an Austrian physicist, described borders as places where differences in brightness are shown side by side. One way to observe these is to create a shadow by holding a book or other object with a sharp edge between a light source and the surface it illuminates. The border of the shadow is not crisp; in fact, it seems to be made of several lines. On the inside there is a dark stripe, darker than the central shaded object that separates it from the unshaded region. Adjacent to this, on the bright side of the shadow, is another stripe that appears brighter than the rest of the illuminated surface. These additional bands are an example of brightness contrast at a border where the physical contrast between shadow and light is exaggerated in perception. As true brightness phenomena, Mach bands do not exist in the physics of the situation (that is, in the distribution of light intensity). They are purely a perceptual phenomenon, their brightness depending not only on the intensity of an area but also on the intensity of surrounding areas.

Bibliography

Albers, Josef. Interaction of Color. Rev. ed. New Haven, Conn.: Yale UP, 2007. Print.

Bloomer, Carolyn M. Principles of Visual Perception. 2d. ed. New York: Design, 1990. Print.

Fairchild, Mark D. Color Appearance Models. 3d ed. Chichester: Wiley, 2013. Digital file.

Gregory, R. L. Eye and Brain: The Psychology of Seeing. 5th ed. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1998. Print.

Kuehni, Rolf G. Color: An Introduction to Practice and Principles. 3d ed. Hoboken: Wiley, 2012. Digital file.

Lee, Hsien-Che. Introduction to Color Imaging Science. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print.

Matikas, Petras, and Darius Skusevich. Color Perception: Physiology, Processes and Analysis. York: Nova Science, 2010. Digital file.

Palmer, Stephen. Vision Science: Photons to Phenomenology. Cambridge: MITP, 2002. Print.

Vernon, M. D. Visual Perception. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2013. Print.

Wade, Nicholas J., and Michael Swanston. Visual Perception: An Introduction. New York: Psychology, 2013. Print.

Wolfe, Jeremy M., et al. Sensation and Perception. Sunderland: Sinauer, 2012. Print.

What kind of relationship does Waverly have with her mother?

Waverly (Meimei) has a love/hate type of relationship with her mother, although "love/hate" might be too strong. She loves and admires her mother but is increasingly frustrated with how her mother attempts to control her life and show her off. Waverly's mother imparts her Chinese wisdom and her interpretation of American cultural and social "rules" to her children so that they will be successful. Waverly acknowledges this advice and uses it. "I was six when my mother taught me the art of invisible strength. It was a strategy for winning arguments, respect from others, and eventually, though neither of us knew it at the time, chess games." Their home is warm and clean and they always have food to eat. In general and regarding her chess career, Waverly appreciates her mother's support. But as time goes by and Waverly craves a more independent life, she pulls away from her mother. This is a natural part of the maturing process, but Waverly frames it in another way. She doesn't like how her mother shows her off or how she lives vicariously through Waverly's success in playing chess.

The story ends with Waverly wondering about her next move. Waverly must negotiate her mother's rules and her own "rules." That is, she wants to remain loved and connected to her mother, but she also wants independence. So, it might be more appropriate to say her relationship with her mother is polarizing. She feels both pulled towards and drawn away from her.

Why is "The Canterville Ghost" a mix of comedy and horror?

"The Canterville Ghost" is a horror story because parts of the story are genuinely creepy and scary.  In the story, readers are told that Sir Simon brutally murdered his wife and has been haunting the house for generations.  Additionally we learn about a blood stain that can't be removed.  It reappears despite all best efforts to clean it.  Further scares come from the ghost himself.  When he first appears to Mr. Otis, Sir Simon is dragging chains with him and has burning red eyes.  

The story is a comedy because despite Sir Simon's best efforts, the Otis family flat out refuses to be afraid.  It's not just that they put on a brave face either.  They are literally not scared in the slightest.  For example, Mr. Otis is more annoyed with Sir Simon that first night than scared.  That's why Mr. Otis hands the ghost some oil and asks him to kindly keep the noise down.  The twins end up antagonizing the ghost.  They set up trip wires for him, they throw pillows at him, and they even scare the ghost with fake ghosts.  Sir Simon spends most of the story plotting new ways to scare the Otis family only to be defeated in a funny way.  

In F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby, what characteristic makes Jay Gatsby morally ambiguous?

Jay Gatsby is morally ambiguous because of the kind of work he does.  He's a bootlegger, participating in and profiting from the illegal production and distribution of alcohol during Prohibition.  From 1920 to 1933, such activities were illegal in the United States.  While Gatsby is a sympathetic figure, who seems to desire money so badly because he feels that he needs it in order to win back his former flame, Daisy, the way that he earns his money makes him problematic.  One of the novel's themes is the American Dream: the idea that anyone in this country can start with nothing and, through hard work and perseverance, thrive and become prosperous.  Gatsby seems, on the surface, to have achieved this dream; he came from a relatively modest home and made himself a millionaire.  However, the fact that he has acquired his fortune by illegal means problematizes both the extent to which one might claim that he's achieved the American Dream as well as his character's morality.

What are attraction theories?

Introduction

Relationships are central to human social existence. Personal accounts by people who have been forced to endure long periods of isolation serve as reminders of people’s dependence on others, and research suggests that close relationships are the most vital ingredient in a happy and meaningful life. In short, questions dealing with attraction are among the most fundamental in social psychology.

The major theories addressing interpersonal attraction have a common theme: reinforcement. The principle of reinforcement is one of the most basic notions in all of psychology. Put simply, it states that behaviors that are followed by desirable consequences, often in the form of rewards, tend to be repeated. Applied to interpersonal relations, this principle suggests that when one person finds something rewarding in an interaction with another person (or if that person anticipates some reward in a relationship that has not yet been established), then the person should desire further interaction with that other individual. In behavioral terms, this is what is meant by the term “interpersonal attraction,” which emerges in everyday language in such terms as “liking” or, in the case of deep romantic involvement, “loving.” Appropriately, these theories, based on the notion that individuals are drawn to relationships that are rewarding and avoid those that are not, are known as reinforcement or reward models of interpersonal attraction.

The first and most basic theory of this type was proposed in the early 1970s by Donn Byrne and Gerald Clore. Known as the reinforcement-affect model of attraction (“affect” meaning “feeling” or “emotion”), this theory proposes that people will be attracted not only to other people who reward them but also to those people with whom they associate rewards. In other words, a person can learn to like others through their connections to experiences that are positive for that individual. It is important to recognize that a major implication here is that it is possible to like someone not so much for him- or herself but rather as a consequence of that person’s merely being part of a rewarding situation; positive feelings toward the experience itself get transferred to that other person. It also follows that a person associated with something unpleasant will tend to be disliked. This is called indirect reinforcement.

For example, in one experiment done during the summer, people who evaluated new acquaintances in a cool and comfortable room liked them better than when in a hot and uncomfortable room. In another study, subjects rating photographs of strangers gave more favorable evaluations when in a nicely furnished room than when they were in a dirty room with shabby furniture. These findings provide some insight into why married couples may find that their relationship benefits from a weekend trip away from the children or a romantic dinner at a favorite restaurant; the pleasant event enhances their feelings for each other.

There are other models of interpersonal attraction that involve the notion of reward but consider the degree to which rewards are offset by the costs associated with a relationship. Social exchange theory
suggests that people tend to evaluate social situations. In the context of a relationship, a person will compare the costs and benefits of beginning or continuing that relationship. Imagine, for example, that Karen is considering a date with Dave, who is kind, attractive, and financially stable but fifteen years older. Karen may decide that this relationship is not worth pursuing because of the disapproval of her mother and father, who believe strongly that their daughter should be dating a man her own age. Karen’s decision will be influenced by how much she values the approval of her parents and by whether she has other dating options available.

A third model of attraction, equity theory, extends social exchange theory. This approach suggests that it is essential to take into account how both parties involved in a relationship assess the costs and benefits. When each person believes that his or her own ratio of costs to benefits is fair (equitable), then attraction between the two tends to be promoted. On the other hand, a relationship may be placed in jeopardy if one person thinks that the time, effort, and other resources being invested are justified but the other person does not.

Considering the rewards involved in the process of interpersonal attraction provides a useful model, but one that is rather general. To understand attraction fully, one must look more specifically at what people find rewarding in relationships. Social psychological research has established some definite principles governing attraction that can be applied nicely within the reward framework.

Factors of Attraction

The first determinant of attraction, reciprocity, is probably fairly obvious, since it most directly reflects the reinforcement process. Reciprocity is a powerful force; people tend to like others who like them back. There are few things more rewarding than genuine affection, support, concern, and other indicators that one is liked by another person.

The second principle, proximity, suggests that simple physical closeness tends to promote attraction. Research has confirmed what many people probably already know: people are most likely to become friends (or romantic partners) with others with whom they have worked, grown up, or gone to school. Other studies have shown that people living in dormitories or apartments tend to become friends with the neighbors who live closest to them. Simply being around people gives an individual a chance to interact with them, which in turn provides the opportunity to learn who is capable of providing the rewards sought in a relationship.

There is, however, yet another force at work, a very basic psychological process known as the mere exposure effect. Research has demonstrated consistently that repeated exposure to something new tends to increase one’s liking for it, and examples of the process are quite common in everyday life. It is not uncommon, for example, for a person to buy a new compact disc by a favorite musical artist without actually having heard the new material, only to be disappointed on listening to it. The listener soon discovers, however, that the album “grows” on him or her and finds that he or she likes it quite a bit after hearing it a few times. Such occurrences probably involve the mere exposure phenomenon. In short, familiarity breeds liking, and physical closeness makes it possible for that familiarity to develop.

Beauty and Romance

Generally speaking, the same factors that promote the development of friendships also foster romantic attraction. The third principle of attraction, physical attractiveness, is somewhat of an exception, however, since it is more powerful in the romantic context.

In a classic study published by Elaine Walster and her associates in 1966, first-year men and women at the University of Minnesota were randomly paired for dates to a dance. Prior to the date, these students had provided considerable information about themselves, some of it through personality tests. During the evening, each person individually completed a questionnaire that focused primarily on how much the person liked his or her date, and the participants were contacted for follow-up six months later. Despite the opportunity to discover complex facts about attraction, such as what kinds of personality traits link up within a couple to promote it, the only important factor in this study was physical appearance. For both sexes, the better-looking the partner, the more the person liked his or her date, the stronger was the desire to date the person again, and the more likely the individual was to do so during the next six months.

The potent effect of physical attractiveness in this study sparked much interest in this variable on the part of researchers over the next decade or so. The earliest studies determined rather quickly that both men and women, given the opportunity to select a date from a group of several members of the opposite sex representing a range of attractiveness levels, almost invariably would select the most attractive one. Dating in real life, however, is seldom without the chance that the person asking another out might be turned down. When later experiments began building the possibility of rejection into their procedures, an interesting effect emerged, one that has been termed the matching phenomenon: people tend to select romantic partners whose degree of attractiveness is very similar to their own.

Other research revealed that physically attractive people are often judged favorably on qualities other than their appearance. Even when nothing is known besides what the person looks like, the physically attractive individual is thought to be happier, more intelligent, and more successful than someone who is less attractive. This finding is referred to as the physical attractiveness stereotype, and it has implications that extend the role of appearance well beyond the matter of dating. Studies have shown, for example, that work (such as a writing sample) will be assessed more favorably when produced by an attractive person than when produced by someone less attractive, and that a cute child who misbehaves will be treated more leniently than a homely one. What is beautiful is also good, so to speak. Finally, physical attractiveness fits well with the reward model: it is pleasant and reinforcing both to look at an attractive person and to be seen with him or her, particularly if that person is one’s date.

The last principle of attraction, similarity, is the most important one in long-term relationships, regardless of whether they are friendships or romances. An extremely large body of research has demonstrated consistently that the more similar two people are, especially attitudinally, the more they will like each other. It turns out that the adage “opposites attract” is simply false. (Note that the matching phenomenon also reflects similarity.) A friend or spouse who holds attitudes similar to one’s own will provide rewards by confirming that one’s own feelings and beliefs are correct; it is indeed reinforcing when someone else agrees.

Evolutionary Theories of Attraction

Evolutionary psychologists have provided an important new way to look at why individuals are attracted to others. Borrowing from the basic theorizing of the English biologist Charles Darwin, psychologists are paying increasing attention to the information provided by both physical and social features of living creatures. Everyone is influenced by what people look like, in that they form impressions of others before they even hear them speak. People often use the appearance and behavior of others to make a variety of judgments about them; these judgments are made quickly and unconsciously and are fairly resistant to change. What sort of impressions are formed? What aspects of a person are focused on? Evolutionary psychology has some answers to these questions.

Specifically, evolutionary psychologists suggest that the attractiveness of a person’s body serves as a valuable and subtle indicator of social behavior, social relationship potential, fitness, quality, reproductive value, and health. Evolutionary psychologists place heavy emphasis on clearly observable features of human bodies and do not focus as much on internal, unobservable aspects of personality, such as kindness or trustworthiness. There is a growing body of research that supports these ideas. For example, significant relationships were found between attractiveness and measures of mental health, social anxiety, and popularity, so the idea behind evolutionary theory does seem to be relevant.

Much of the work studying how body characteristics relate to attractiveness has focused on a single factor, such as the face, although many features of the body can influence attractiveness. Faces are often the first part of a person that is observed, and the face is almost always clearly visible (except in certain cultures). Social psychologists have shown that people often make quick judgments about others based on their faces, and more than 80 percent of studies on judging attractiveness have focused on the face alone. The sex, age, culture, and past experiences of the perceiver; specific facial features, such as large lips for women and strong jaws for men; body and facial symmetry; and specific body ratios, such as the waist-to-hip ratio (the number attained by dividing the waist measurement by the circumference of the hips), all influence judgments of attractiveness. Consistent with this idea are findings that some standards of attractiveness are consistent across time and cultures. For example, people who have symmetrical faces—those with eyes and ears of equal size and equal distances from the center line of the face—are preferred over people who do not.

Female Shapeliness

Another example of a body characteristic that is tied to attractiveness from an evolutionary perspective is women’s waist-to-hip ratio. Around the world, men prefer women with lower waist-to-hip ratios (between 0.7 and 0.8). Evolutionary psychology research emphasizes the importance of waist-to-hip ratios as a major force in social perception and attraction because shape is a visible sign of the location of fat stores, which consequently signals reproductive potential and health. Low waist-to-hip ratios do indeed directly map onto higher fertility, lower stress levels, and resistance to major diseases. For example, women with waist-to-hip ratios of 0.8 are almost 10 percent more likely to get pregnant than women with waist-to-hip ratios around 0.9.

Although not as much research has focused on female breasts as a signaler of reproductive fitness, a variety of studies suggest that it is also an important factor, although the evidence is mixed. Some studies support the commonly held stereotype that men prefer larger breasts, although others seem to show no such preference, and some have shown that small and medium breasts are preferred. Much of this work has focused either on the bust or on waist-to-hip ratios, not both together. The appeal of breast size should depend on overall body fat, waist, and hips, and both bust size and waist-to-hip ratio should interact to influence ratings of attractiveness. In support of this idea, research now suggests women with lower waist-to-hip ratios and larger breasts are the ones considered most attractive. Unfortunately, methodological restrictions and poor stimulus materials limit the generalizability of most previous work using waist-to-hip ratios and other bodily features. For example, many studies used line drawings or verbal descriptions of figures instead of pictures of real people. Research continues on ways to provide clearer tests of evolutionary psychology theories of attraction.

The most consistently documented finding on the evolutionary basis of attraction relates to gender differences in human mate choice. Consistent with Darwin’s ideas that humans are naturally programmed to behave in ways to ensure that their genes will be passed on to future generations, thus ensuring survival, evidence indicates that men tend to prefer young, healthy-looking mates, as these characteristics are associated with the delivery of healthy babies. An examination of the content of more than eight hundred personal advertisements found that men stressed attractiveness and youth in mates more than did women, a finding supported by marriage statistics. Women have been shown to place more emphasis on a prospective mate’s social and financial status, because these traits are often related to being able to take good care of children. The fact that women in Western societies are achieving higher economic positions, however, would suggest that this pattern of preferences may change in time.

Historical Development

Although it would seem to be of obvious importance, physical appearance as a determinant of romantic attraction was simply neglected by researchers until the mid-1960s. Perhaps researchers mistakenly assumed the widespread existence of an old ideal that one should judge someone on the basis of the person’s intrinsic worth, not on the basis of a superficial characteristic. Nevertheless, when the Minnesota study discussed earlier showed the effect of physical attractiveness to be so strong as to eliminate or at least obscure any other factors related to attraction in the context of dating, social psychologists took notice. In any science, surprising or otherwise remarkable findings tend to stimulate additional research, and such a pattern definitely describes the course of events in this area of inquiry.

By around 1980, social psychology had achieved a rather solid understanding of the determinants of attraction to strangers, and the field began turning more of its attention to the nature of continuing relationships. Social psychologist Zick Rubin had first proposed a theory of love in 1970, and research in that area flourished in the 1980s as investigators examined such topics as the components of love, different types of love, the nature of love in different kinds of relationships, and the characteristics of interaction in successful long-term relationships. Still other lines of research explored how people end relationships or attempt to repair those that are in trouble.

People view relationships with family, friends, and lovers as central to their happiness, a research finding that is totally consistent with common experience. A quick look at the content of motion pictures, television programs, songs, novels, and poetry, where relationships, particularly romantic ones, are so commonly a theme, provides evidence for that point. Yet nearly half of all marriages end in divorce, and the lack of love in the relationship is usually a precipitating factor. Whatever social psychology can teach people about what determines and maintains attraction can help improve the human condition.

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