Why is it important for Scout to be the narrator of To Kill a Mockingbird?

There are several reasons as to why the story of To Kill a Mockingbird is narrated by Jean Louise "Scout" Finch. Harper Lee chose to narrate the story from a child's perspective to comment on the ills of society throughout the novel. Children are brutally honest and have the ability to notice obvious aspects of society without bias. Scout is able to perceive the blatant issues with the education and justice systems, as well as the hypocritical nature of Maycomb's citizens. Her childhood innocence allows the audience to view these broken institutions from an unbiased point of view. Scout's perspective also adds humor to the novel. There are numerous scenes throughout the novel where Scout's lighthearted innocence adds additional entertainment value. Scout's narrow perspective also illuminates the traits of many of the characters throughout the novel. A child's point of view does not recognize the complex qualities and attitudes individuals exhibit. Scout makes generalizations which enhance characters' predominant traits.

In T. Coraghessan Boyle's "Greasy Lake," how does the point of view enhance the story?

Using the first person point of view, the narrator endeavors to convey how "bad" he and his friends were when they were just out of high school. The narrator explains that he and his two friends were dangerous. They wore leather jackets, drank gin, read provocative literature, and stayed out all night. However, the narrator also subtly mocks himself and his friends because, in hindsight, he knows they were not as dangerous as they tried to make themselves appear. He says they "struck elaborate poses to show that [they] didn't give a shit about anything." They are literally "posing" as dangerous guys. They have embraced this idea of rebellion and do their best to act like members of a dangerous gang to live out that fantasy. 

But when real danger occurs, the narrator moves from bragging to humbleness. Once he and his friends get involved with someone much more dangerous than they are, they panic. The narrator nearly kills their assailant and in the heat of the violence, they start to sexually assault the girl. In that panic, they resort to foolish and thoughtless choices.

The narrator is older and looking back on this event, he contemplates how foolish he had been. But, he does show that he learned from the event. The brush with the corpse in the lake made him aware of his own mortality. That, and the violence that ensued that night were wake up calls. When the three boys finally leave, they decline the drugs and company of the two girls. At this point, they have quit their roles as dangerous rebels. Taken from the narrator as an older man, we can see how he looks back upon this as a lesson learned. 

What forms of dance were the predecessors to breakdancing?

Break-dancing is improvisational. Break-dancers are influenced not only by dance moves, but also by gymnastics and the martial arts. 

The bouncing bass lines of funk and disco music allowed for a new fluidity in movement which entered popular dance in 1975. The Hustle, for example, incorporated movements of the arms, hips, and legs that were on beat with the music. Dance moves, such as The Hustle, followed the rhythm of music; whereas popular dances from the 1960s, such as The Twist and The Hitchhike, followed the melody of a song and did not require much variation in movement.

James Brown is an important influence on break-dancing as well. As a funk artist, his style of dance was jaunty, but also incorporated spins and splits. He demonstrated gymnastic abilities on stage that would be featured in break-dancing. 

It is also possible that the lindy hop, a popular form of swing dance in the 1930s and 1940s, also influenced break-dancers. This style of dance, too, incorporated gymnastic moves, including high jumps, swinging one's body around one's partner, and sliding across the floor. 

Capoeira, a Brazilian martial art, incorporates dance. The performer demonstrates speed and flexibility. Back flips, somersaults, and cartwheels are featured. These moves also show up in break-dancing.

Break-dancing was about showing off one's physical abilities. Some New York street gangs had breaking competitions with their rivals. In these competitions, you could show a rival that you were not only a good dancer, but a good fighter. Breakers outperformed their rivals by being more innovative and complex in their movements. 

It is also important to remember that, though break-dancing originated in the South Bronx among black and Latino teenagers, it was and remains very democratic. Different people from different backgrounds began to participate and incorporated what they knew, whether it be a dances from previous generations, new moves picked up in a disco, martial arts, or gymnastics.

What are natural treatments for anxiety and panic attacks?

Introduction

As the British-born American poet W. H. Auden pointed out in the early
twentieth century, modern humans live in an age of anxiety. Most
have a certain level of chronic anxiety because modern life is jagged, fast-paced,
and divorced from the natural rhythms that tend to create a harmonious inner life.
For some, this existential unease goes further and becomes a psychological
disorder.

Typical symptoms of anxiety disorder include feelings of tension, irritability,
worry, frustration, turmoil, and hopelessness, along with insomnia,
restless sleep, grinding of teeth, jaw pain, an inability to sit still, and an
incapacity to cope. Physical sensations frequently arise too and include a
characteristic feeling of being unable to take a full, satisfying breath; dry
mouth; rapid heartbeat; heart palpitations; a lump in the throat;
tightness in the chest; and cramping in the bowels.

Anxiety can also give rise to panic attacks. These may be so severe
that they are mistaken for heart attacks. The heart pounds and
palpitates, the chest feels tight and painful, and the whole body tenses with
unreasonable fear. Such attacks can be triggered by anxiety-provoking situations,
but they may also arise suddenly and seemingly without cause, perhaps even
awakening a person from his or her sleep. A person who tends to have panic attacks
more so than generalized anxiety is said to have panic
disorder.

The medical treatment of anxiety involves antianxiety
drugs in the benzodiazepine family, the unique drug BuSpar
(buspirone), and antidepressants. Panic attacks are generally more difficult
to treat than other forms of anxiety.

Proposed Natural Treatments

There are no natural treatments for anxiety that have been shown to be safe and effective. However, some treatments have shown promise for generalized anxiety disorder and related conditions. No natural treatment is likely to be effective for panic disorder.

Valerian. The herb valerian is best known as a remedy for insomnia. However, because many drugs useful for insomnia also reduce anxiety, valerian has been proposed as an anxiety treatment.

In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, thirty-six people with generalized
anxiety disorder were given either valerian extract, valium, or
placebo for four weeks. The study failed to find statistically significant
differences among the groups, presumably because of its small size. However, a
careful analysis of the results hints that valerian was helpful.

In addition, a preliminary double-blind study found that valerian may produce
calming effects in stressful situations. Again, though, this study was too small
to provide definitive results. Another study evaluated the anxiety-relieving
effects of a combination containing valerian and lemon balm taken in various
doses; some benefits were seen with doses of 600 milligrams (mg) or 1,200 mg three
times daily, but the highest dose (1,800 mg three times daily) actually appeared
to increase anxiety symptoms during stressful situations. Furthermore, people
taking the herbal treatment at any dose showed slightly decreased cognitive
function compared with those given placebo.

Kava. Until 2002, the herb kava was widely used in Europe as a medical treatment for anxiety, based on the evidence of a substantial body of double-blind, placebo-controlled studies. However, because of concerns involving its potential effects on the liver, it was withdrawn from the market in many countries.

Other herbs and supplements. A large (264-participant) three-month, double-blind, placebo-controlled study tested the possible antianxiety benefits of a combination therapy containing the mineral magnesium (150 mg twice daily), the herb hawthorn (150 mg twice daily of a standardized extract), and the seldom-studied herb Eschscholtzia californica (California poppy, 40 mg twice daily). Study participants all had generalized anxiety disorder of mild-to-moderate intensity. The results indicated that the combination treatment was more effective than placebo. No significant side effects were seen. This particular combination therapy is used in France.

A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of eighty healthy male volunteers found that twenty-eight days of treatment with a multivitamin-multimineral supplement (containing calcium, magnesium, and zinc) significantly reduced anxiety and the sensation of stress.

The supplement 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) is best known as a proposed
treatment for depression. An eight-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled
study compared 5-HTP and the drug clomipramine in forty-five persons with anxiety
disorder. The results indicated that 5-HTP was effective but clomipramine was more
effective.

Based on its apparent ability to promote sleep, melatonin has
been tried as a treatment for reducing anxiety. However, while four studies
performed by Saudi researchers reported benefits, other researchers have been
unable to confirm these results.

A four-week double-blind study of thirty-six persons with anxiety (specifically, generalized anxiety disorder) compared the herb passionflower to the standard drug oxazepam. Oxazepam worked more quickly, but by the end of the four-week trial, both treatments proved equally effective. Furthermore, passionflower showed a comparative advantage in terms of side effects: The use of oxazepam was associated with more impairment of job performance. Also, in a placebo-controlled trial involving sixty persons undergoing surgery, passionflower significantly reduced anxiety up to ninety minutes before surgery. The only other supporting evidence for passionflower comes from animal studies.

Several small double-blind studies by a single research group have found preliminary evidence that the oral use of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) may reduce anxiety levels. Like other antianxiety agents, it may also impair mental function to some degree. A combination of lemon balm and valerian has also been tested, with generally positive results.

One study found that one week of oral treatment with lysine (2.64 grams per day) and arginine (2.64 grams per day) could reduce general levels of anxiety. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of forty persons found that gotu kola reduced the “startle” response to sudden loud noises. This suggests, but does not prove, that gotu kola may be helpful for anxiety.

A small, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study found that the use of the herb European skullcap reduced general anxiety levels. The herb Galphimia glauca is traditionally used as a “nerve tonic” by Mexican herbalists. One substantial double-blind study purportedly found that a standardized galphimia extract is as effective as the standard medication lorazepam. However, because this study failed to use a placebo group, these results mean little.

Two preliminary studies that evaluated linden flower for potential sedative or antianxiety effects returned contradictory results. Another study found weak evidence that sage might reduce anxiety.

Other herbs or supplements that are frequently recommended for anxiety attacks include Chinese skullcap, flaxseed oil, chamomile, gamma oryzanol, hops, selenium, and suma, as well as inositol for panic disorder. However, there is no reliable supporting evidence to indicate that they work.

The substance gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a naturally occurring neurotransmitter that is used within the brain to reduce the activity of certain nerve systems, including those related to anxiety. For this reason, GABA supplements are sometimes recommended for treatment of anxiety-related conditions. However, there are no studies supporting the use of GABA supplements for anxiety. In fact, it appears that, when taken orally, GABA cannot pass the blood-brain barrier and, therefore, does not even enter the brain.

Alternative therapies. Various alternative therapies have shown
some promise for the treatment of anxiety. These therapies include
acupuncture (for generalized anxiety and for situational
anxiety), aromatherapy (either alone or with massage),
biofeedback, and music therapy (for terminally ill
persons). However, the supporting evidence to indicate that these treatments work
remains weak.

There is a fair amount of evidence in support of relaxation therapies and massage (either alone or with aromatherapy) to treat the symptoms of anxiety, at least in the short term. In a 2008 review of twenty-seven studies, for example, researchers concluded that relaxation therapies (including Jacobson’s progressive relaxation, autogenic training, applied relaxation, and meditation) were effective against anxiety. (However, not all of the studies were randomized, controlled trials.) In a randomized trial involving sixty-eight persons with generalized anxiety disorder, ten sessions of therapeutic massage, thermotherapy (the application of heat), and relaxation were all found to be beneficial at reducing anxiety, though none was superior to the others. Finally, three studies failed to find that Bach flower remedies are helpful for situational anxiety.

Herbs and Supplements to Use Only with Caution

Various herbs and supplements may interact adversely with drugs used to treat anxiety, so persons should be cautious when considering the use of herbs and supplements.

Homeopathic Remedies

A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of forty-four people with generalized anxiety disorder found that the use of constitutional, or classical, homeopathy did not significantly improve symptoms.

Bibliography

Andreatini, R., et al. “Effect of Valepotriates (Valerian Extract) in Generalized Anxiety Disorder.” Phytotherapy Research 16 (2002): 650–54. Print.

Arkowitz, Hal, and Scott O. Lilienfeld. "Can Herbs Ease Anxiety and Depression?" Scientific American Mind. Scientific American, 2013 July 1. Web. 28 Jan 2016.

Bonne, O., et al. “A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study of Classical Homeopathy in Generalized Anxiety Disorder.” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 64 (2003): 282–87. Print.

Capuzzo, M., et al. “Melatonin Does Not Reduce Anxiety More than Placebo in the Elderly Undergoing Surgery.” Anesthesia and Analgesia 103 (2006): 121–23. Print.

Coleta, M., et al. “Comparative Evaluation of Melissa officinalis L., Tilia europaea L., Passiflora edulis Sims., and Hypericum perforatum L. in the Elevated plus Maze Anxiety Test.” Pharmacopsychiatry 34, suppl. 1 (2001): S20–S21. Print.

Cooke, B., and E. Ernst. “Aromatherapy.” British Journal of General Practice 50 (2000): 493–96. Print.

Evans, S., et al. “Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Generalized Anxiety Disorder.” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 22 (2008): 716–21. Print.

Hanus, M., J. Lafon, and M. Mathieu. “Double-Blind, Randomised, Placebo-Controlled Study to Evaluate the Efficacy and Safety of a Fixed Combination Containing Two Plant Extracts (Crataegus oxyacantha and Eschscholtzia californica) and Magnesium in Mild-to-Moderate Anxiety Disorders.” Current Medical Research and Opinion 20 (2004): 63–71. Print.

Horne-Thompson, A., and D. Grocke. “The Effect of Music Therapy on Anxiety in Patients Who Are Terminally Ill.” Journal of Palliative Medicine 11 (2008): 582–90. Print.

Karst, M., et al. “Auricular Acupuncture for Dental Anxiety.” Anesthesia and Analgesia 104 (2007): 295–300. Print.

Lahmann, C., et al. “Brief Relaxation Versus Music Distraction in the Treatment of Dental Anxiety.” Journal of the American Dental Association 139 (2008): 317–24. Print.

Manzoni, G. M., et al. “Relaxation Training for Anxiety.” BMC Psychiatry 8 (2008): 41. Print.

Movafegh, A., et al. “Preoperative Oral Passiflora incarnata Reduces Anxiety in Ambulatory Surgery Patients.” Anesthesia and Analgesia 106 (2008): 1728–32. Print.

Nyklicek, I., and K. F. Kuijpers. “Effects of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Intervention on Psychological Well-Being and Quality of Life: Is Increased Mindfulness Indeed the Mechanism?” Annals of Behavioral Medicine 35 (2008): 331–40. Print.

Samarkandi, A., et al. “Melatonin vs. Midazolam Premedication in Children.” European Journal of Anaesthesiology 22 (2005): 189–96. Print.

Sherman, K. J., et al. “Effectiveness of Therapeutic Massage for Generalized Anxiety Disorder.” Depression and Anxiety 27 (2010): 441–50. Print.

Sury, M. R. J., and K. Fairweather. “The Effect of Melatonin on Sedation of Children Undergoing Magnetic Resonance Imaging.” British Journal of Anaesthesiology 97 (2006): 220–25. Print.

Wachelka, D., and R. C. Katz. “Reducing Test Anxiety and Improving Academic Self-Esteem in High School and College Students with Learning Disabilities.” Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 30 (1999): 191–98. Print.

What are stress-related diseases?

Introduction

The term “stress,” as it is used in the field of psychology, may be defined as the physical or psychological disturbance an individual experiences as a result of what that individual perceives to be an adverse or challenging circumstance. Four observations concerning this definition of stress should be made. First, stress is what the individual experiences, not the circumstance causing the stress (the stressor). Second, individuals differ in what they perceive to be stressful. What may be very stressful for one individual may not be at all stressful for another. Hans Selye, the researcher who did more than anyone else to make the medical community and the general population aware of the concept and consequences of stress, once noted that, for him, spending the day on the beach doing nothing would be extremely stressful. This difference in people’s perceptions is behind the familiar concept that events do not cause stress. Instead, stress comes from a person’s perception or interpretation of events.

Third, stress occurs in response to circumstances that are seen as negative, but stress may also arise from challenging circumstances, even positive ones. The well-known Social Readjustment Rating Scale developed by Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe includes both positive and negative life events. A negative event, such as the death of a spouse, is clearly stressful; however, marriage, generally viewed as a positive life event, can also be stressful. Fourth, stressors can lead to stress-related disturbances that are psychological, physiological, or both. The psychological response is rather unpredictable. A given stressor may result in one individual responding with anger, another with depression, and another with a new determination to succeed.

General Adaptation Syndrome

The physiological response is more predictable. Beginning in the 1930s, Selye began studying the human response to stressors. Eventually he identified what he termed the general adaptation syndrome
to describe the typical pattern of physical responses. Selye divided the general adaptation syndrome into three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

The first stage begins when an individual becomes frightened, anxious, or even merely concerned. The body immediately undergoes numerous physical changes to cope with the stressor. Metabolism speeds up. Heart and respiration rates increase. The hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol are secreted. Sugar is released from the liver. The muscles tense. Blood shifts from the internal organs to the skeletal musculature. These and a host of other changes are aimed at helping the body cope, but the price paid for this heightened state of arousal typically includes symptoms such as headache, upset stomach, sleeplessness, fatigue, diarrhea, and loss of appetite. The body’s increase in alertness and energy is accompanied by a lowered state of resistance to illness.

Obviously, people cannot remain in the alarm stage for long. If the stressor is not removed, the body enters the resistance stage—a stage that may last from minutes to days or longer. During this stage, the body seeks to adapt to the stressor. The physical changes that occurred during the alarm stage subside. Resistance to illness is actually increased to above-normal levels. Because the body is still experiencing stress, however, remaining in this stage for a long period will eventually lead to physical and psychological exhaustion—the exhaustion stage.

Selye has noted that over the course of life, most people go through the first two stages many, many times. Such is necessary to adapt to the demands and challenges of life. The real danger is found in not eliminating the stressor. During the exhaustion stage, the body is very vulnerable to disease and in extreme cases may suffer collapse and death. Although later research has found subtle differences in the stress response, depending on the stressor involved, the basic findings of Selye have continued to be supported. In addition to the direct physiological effects of stress on the body, indirect effects may also lead to illness. For example, stress may cause or exacerbate behavioral risk factors such as smoking, alcohol use, and overeating.

Heart Disease and Immune Effects

Specific illnesses can also be caused or promoted by stress. For many years Americans have been aware of the relationship between stress and heart disease. The biochemical changes associated with stress lead to higher blood pressure, an increased heart rate, and a release of fat into the bloodstream. If the fat is completely consumed by the muscles through physical activity (for example, defending oneself from an attacker), no serious health consequences follow. If, however, a person experiences stress without engaging in physical activity (a more common scenario in Western culture), the fat is simply deposited on the walls of the blood vessels. As these fatty deposits accumulate, life is threatened.

The work of two cardiologists, Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman, is of particular importance to a discussion of heart disease and stress. Friedman and Rosenman demonstrated, based originally on personal observation and subsequently on clinical research, that there is a personality type that is particularly prone to heart disease. The personality type that is at the greatest risk was found to be one which is highly stressed—impatient, hostile, hard-driving, and competitive. They termed this a Type A personality. The low-risk person, the Type B personality, is more patient, easygoing, and relaxed.

Numerous studies have examined health based on the Type A-Type B concept. Virtually all have supported Friedman and Rosenman’s conclusions. One major report, however, did not; subsequent analysis of that report and other research generally has indicated that the aspects of the Type A personality that are threatening to one’s health are primarily the hostility, cynicism, and impatience, not the desire to achieve.

A newer area of research that is even more fundamental to understanding how stress is related to disease involves the immune system. As the physiological changes associated with stress occur, the immune system is suppressed. The immune system has two primary functions: to identify and destroy hazardous foreign materials called antigens (these include bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi) and to identify and destroy the body’s own cells that have undergone changes associated with malignancy. Thus, if the immune system is suppressed, the body is less able to detect and defend against a host of diseases. An example of this effect again involves research with laboratory rats. One such investigation involved placing tumor cells in the bodies of rats. Some of the rats were then exposed to an abundance of stress. Those that were given this treatment were less resistant to the cancer. Their tumors were larger, and they developed sooner than those found in the “low-stress” rats.

The recent growth of the field of psychoneuroimmunology focuses specifically on the chemical bases of communication between mind and body. Research in this area provides evidence that the body’s immune system can be influenced by psychological factors that produce stress. One study, for example, showed that during students’ examination periods, the levels of students’ antibodies that fight infections were lowest. Thus they were most vulnerable to illness at that most stressful time. Health centers confirm that students tend to report more illness during examination times.

As research continues, the number of specific diseases that can be linked to stress grows. A partial listing of stress-related diseases and disorders for which recent research is available would include acne, asthma, cancers (many types), colds, coronary thrombosis, diabetes mellitus, gastric ulcers, herpes simplex (types 1 and 2), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, infertility, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), migraine headache, mononucleosis syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, streptococcal infection, stroke, systemic lupus erythematosus, and tuberculosis.

Research has shown that stress may also play a role in depression, sleep disturbances, ovulation, and brain atrophy associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Stress as a cause of stomach ulcers has been essentially negated, with the discovery that these ulcers are generally caused by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, which can be treated with antibiotics. However, stress may still play a role in decreasing the mucous lining of the stomach, which makes it more vulnerable to ulcer formation. Some experts feel that there is no illness that is not in some way influenced by stress.

Few, if any, of these physical problems are caused solely by stress. Many other factors influence risk, including genetic composition, gender, race, environmental conditions, and nutritional state. Nevertheless, stress is frequently an important factor in determining initial resistance as well as the subsequent course of a given disease.

Stress Reduction and Coping

Some individuals appear to live with many stressors yet generally avoid physical and psychological illness. Understanding why is important, because it can provide insight as to what the average person can and should do to lower stress levels. Dispositional factors (optimistic versus pessimistic, easygoing versus hard-driving, friendly versus hostile) are probably most important in determining a person’s stress level. The Type A-Type B research is an example of research demonstrating the influence of dispositional factors.

Research with twins has found that temperament is largely inborn; however, any individual can choose to be more optimistic, generous, and patient. Norman Cousins
is often cited as an example of a person who decided to change his outlook and mental state to preserve his life. He had read Selye’s The Stress of Life (1956), which describes how negative emotions can cause physical stress and subsequent disease. Cousins, who had a rare and painful illness from which he was told he would most likely never recover, decided that if negative emotions could harm one’s health, then positive emotions could possibly return one’s health.

As Cousins describes his experience in Anatomy of an Illness as Perceived by the Patient (1979), he left his hospital room for a more pleasant environment, began trading massive doses of drugs for massive doses of vitamin C and a steady diet of television comedies and laughter, and decided to stop worrying. To the surprise of his medical team, his recovery began at once. Though this now-classic example is only anecdotal, the research on disposition and stress would support the assumption that Cousins’s decision to change his mental state and stop worrying—not his avoidance of traditional medical care—was a truly important influence.

A related area of research has investigated how psychological hardiness helps people resist stress. Studies by Suzanne Kobasa and her colleagues examined business executives who all had an obvious abundance of stressors in their lives. In comparing those hardy individuals who handled the stressors well with the nonhardy individuals, the researchers found that the two groups differed in three important but basic ways.

The first was commitment. Stress-resistant executives typically possessed a clear sense of values. They had clear goals and a commitment to those goals. Less hardy executives were more likely to feel alienation. The second was challenge. The hardy executives welcomed challenges and viewed change rather than stability as the norm in life. Their less healthy counterparts viewed change with alarm. The third factor was control. The hardy executives felt more in control of their lives. This aspect of Kobasa’s research overlaps with research conducted since the 1960s involving a concept known as the locus of control. People with an internal locus of control are those individuals who believe they are influential rather than powerless in controlling the direction of their lives. This area of research has also found that such a belief lowers stress.

Many studies have been conducted to examine the relationship between physical fitness and mental health. What has emerged from this heavily researched area is a clear conclusion: Exercise can lower stress levels. Though regular, sustained aerobic exercise is generally advocated, research has found that even something as simple as a daily ten-minute walk can have measurable beneficial effects. During exercise, there is a release of chemical substances, including neurotransmitters called endorphins. Endorphins act to decrease pain and produce feelings of well-being, somewhat like an opiate. Exposure to stress has been shown to increase the level of endorphins in the body. For example, studies were conducted with runners, one group using naloxone, a substance that blocks the effects of opiates, and the other group a placebo that had no effect on the body. After strenuous runs, those taking the placebo reported feelings of euphoria, sometimes known as runners’ high. Those taking naloxone reported no such feelings. During exercise, the body releases other chemicals, including dopamine, which is thought to act as an antidepressant. Thus there is abundant evidence of the stress-reducing benefits of exercise.

Another approach to reducing stress involves learning to evoke a physical relaxation response, a term coined by Harvard Medical School cardiologist Herbert Benson. Benson became intrigued by the ability of some people who practice meditation to lower their blood pressure, heart rate, and oxygen consumption voluntarily. He discovered that the process is not at all mystical and can be easily taught. The process involves getting comfortable, closing the eyes, breathing deeply, relaxing muscles, and relaxing the mind by focusing on a simple word or phrase.

Others are helped by using an electronic device that closely monitors subtle physiological changes. By observing these changes (typically on a monitor), a person can, for example, learn to slow down a heart rate. This is known as biofeedback training. Many other techniques and suggestions arising from research as well as common sense can lower stress. A strong social support system has been found to be very important; disciplining oneself not to violate one’s own value system is essential. Even having a pet that needs love and attention has been found to lower stress.

Research and the Future

A general recognition that a relationship exists between mind and body is at least as old as the biblical Old Testament writings. Proverbs 17:22 reads, “A cheerful heart is good medicine,/ but a crushed spirit dries up the bones.” Hippocrates, generally considered the father of medicine, sought to understand how the body could heal itself and what factors could slow or prevent this process. He clearly perceived a relationship between physical health and what is now termed stress, though his understanding was shallow.

Several physiologists of the nineteenth century made contributions; however, it was not until the twentieth century that the classic studies of American physiologist Walter Bradford Cannon proved the link scientifically. Cannon and his student Philip Bard began their analysis of stress and physiological arousal to disprove the idea espoused by others, that emotion follows physiological arousal.

Cannon found a variety of stressors that led to the release of the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline (or, properly now, epinephrine and norepinephrine). Heat, cold, oxygen deprivation, and fright all led to hormonal changes as well as a number of additional physiological adaptations. Cannon was excited about this discovery and impressed with the body’s remarkable ability to react to stressors. All these changes were aimed at preparing the body for what Cannon termed the fight-or-flight response. It was Selye’s task to build on Cannon’s work. His description of the reaction subsequently termed the general adaptation syndrome first appeared in a scientific journal in 1936. As knowledge of the stress concept began to spread, interest by the public as well as the research community increased.

Literally tens of thousands of stress research studies conducted throughout the world were completed during the last half of the twentieth century. Of particular importance was the discovery by three American scientists that the brain produces morphinelike antistress substances. The discovery of these substances, named endorphins, won the 1977 Nobel Prize for the scientists involved and opened a whole new area of research.

Research has shown that the brain itself produces neuropeptides, or brain message transmitters, that may also be produced by macrophages—white blood cells that attack viruses and bacteria. Because some forms of stress-reduction such as relaxation also seem to result in production of neuropeptides, if the brain could be caused to produce more of these substances, the immune system could be strengthened. The hope remains that someday an endorphin-type drug could be used to counter some of the unhealthy effects of stress, ensuring better health and longer lives. Better health and longer lives are available even today, however, for all people who are willing to make lifestyle changes based on current knowledge.

Bibliography

Greenberg, Jerrold S. Comprehensive Stress Management. 11th ed. New York: McGraw, 2009. Print.

Kahn, Ada P., ed. The Encyclopedia of Stress and Stress-Related Diseases. 2d ed. New York: Facts On File, 2005. Print.

Kendall-Tackett, Kathleen, ed. The Psychoneuroimmunology of Chronic Disease: Exploring the Links Between Inflammation, Stress, and Illness. Washington, DC: Amer. Psychological Assn., 2010. Print.

Khazan, Inna Z. The Clinical Handbook of Biofeedback: A Step by Step Guide for Training and Practice with Mindfulness. Chichester: Wiley, 2013. Print.

Marks, David, Michael Murray, Brian Evans, and Emee Vida Estacio. Health Psychology: Theory Research, and Practice. 3rd ed. London: Sage, 2011. Print.

Romas, John A., and Manoj Sharma. Practical Stress Management: A Comprehensive Workbook for Managing Change and Promoting Health. 5th ed. San Francisco: Pearson, 2010. Print.

Seaward, Brian L. Managing Stress: Principles and Strategies for Health and Well-being. 7th ed. Sudbury: Jones, 2012. Print.

Sapolsky, Robert M. Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers: The Acclaimed Guide to Stress, Stress-Related Diseases, and Coping. Rev. ed. New York: Holt, 2004. Print.

Selye, Hans. The Stress of Life. Rev. ed. New York: McGraw, 1978. Print.

Calculate speed when light in a vacuum is 300,000 km/s. If the index of refraction of water is 1.33, what is the speed of light in the water?

Q: 

Assume the speed of light in a vacuum to be 300,000 km/s. Assuming the index of refraction of water to be 1.33, what is the speed of light as it passes through a medium of water? 

A:

This is a case of refraction of light as it enters a medium. In the process of refraction, light is bent or curved as it passes from one medium into another. The index of refraction allows us to quantify this change in light's velocity. Although light technically moves ever so slightly slower in air, we can consider the speed of light through air to be essentially equal to the speed of light within a vacuum. 

The following formula defines the index of refraction:

`n = c/v`

Here, `n` is the index of refraction (a ratio which has no units), `c` is the speed of light in a vacuum, which for our purposes is `300,000 (km)/s`, and `v` is the velocity of light as it passes through the medium in question (in this case, water).  

Therefore, we will solve for `v` in the above equation.

Plugging in the known values from the question, we now have the following:

`1.33 = (300,000 (km)/(s))/v`

After multiplying both sides of this equation by `v`, we obtain the following:

`1.33*v = 300,000 (km)/(s)`

We can now divide the right side by 1.33 to obtain the value of `v`.This gives us `225,563.9098 (km)/(s)` , which if rounded to three significant digits will be`226,000 (km)/s` . This is our final answer. This makes sense as an answer because light will be slowed down as it enters water. 

What are computer models of cognition?

Introduction

Human cognition depends on the operation of the neural anatomy that forms the nervous system. Essentially, the brain is composed of some 100 billion neurons. Roger Penrose has divided the brain into three areas: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Each of these three areas has a sensory and motor component. The primary areas are the visual, olfactory, somatosensory, and motor areas. These areas handle the input and output functions of the brain. The secondary areas lie near the primary regions and process the input received by the primary areas. Plans of action are developed in the secondary areas, and these actions are translated into movements of the muscular system by the primary cortex. The tertiary area makes up the rest of the brain. The most complex, abstract, sophisticated, and subtle activity of the brain occurs here. Information from the different sensory areas is received, collected, integrated, and analyzed. As Penrose says, “memories are laid down, pictures of the outside world are constructed, general plans are conceived and executed, and speech is understood or formulated.” Thus, information or stimulation from the environment is received or input at the primary sensory areas. This information is then processed in increasingly complex and sophisticated ways in the secondary and tertiary sensory areas. The processed sensory information is sent to the tertiary motor area in the form of a grand plan of action, and it is then refined into plans for specific actions at the secondary and primary motor regions.

Models of Information Processing

The question for psychologists to solve is how to represent or model this complex activity that is the basis for human thought and action in the three regions of the brain. The theory of information processing contends that human cognition can be successfully modeled by viewing the operation of the brain as analogous to the operation of a computer. Penrose observed that the brain presents itself as “a superb computing device.” More specifically, Robert J. Baron stated:
The fundamental assumption is that the brain is a computer. It is comprised of some 100 billion computational cells called neurons, which interact in a variety of ways. Neurons are organized into well defined and highly structured computational networks called neural networks. Neural networks are the principal computational systems of the brain.

A field known as neurocomputing, or computational neuroscience, holds great promise for providing such a computer-based model. The particular kind of computer to be used is a neurocomputer, which is modeled on the actual structure or architecture of the brain. The unit of the neurocomputer is the processing element, or neurode, which corresponds to a biological neuron. The neurocomputer is constructed of many neurodes that are interconnected to one another to form a neural network. Each neurode can receive a number of inputs, either externally or from other neurodes, and each input has a weight or strength given to it. These weights are all summed, and a single output results. This output can then act as an input to other neurodes to which it is interconnected. If the output is excitatory, it will encourage firing of the interconnected neurodes; if the output is inhibitory, it will discourage firing of the interconnected neurodes. The neurocomputer processes all the inputs and outputs in a parallel manner (that is, all of the neurodes can potentially operate simultaneously). The software that runs the neurocomputer is called netware. The netware provides the interconnections between neurodes, how the neural network will react to the input it receives (training law), and how the input and output are related to each other (transfer function). Neurocomputers are drastically different from any other kind of computer because their architecture and operation are modeled after the human brain. Thus, neurocomputers can perform human functions, such as being taught to learn new behaviors. Maureen Caudill refers to these computers as being “naturally intelligent,” as opposed to the serial computer used with “artificial intelligence.”

Because neurocomputers are constructed as analogues of the human nervous system, they are particularly adept and useful for solving the kinds of problems that the human brain can solve. Conventional computers would have great difficulty solving these problems because they are constructed to perform certain kinds of tasks very quickly and efficiently (for example, processing large amounts of numbers very rapidly), tasks that the human brain cannot do nearly as well.

Uses of Artificial Intelligence

In Naturally Intelligent Systems (1990), Caudill and Charles Butler discuss two applications of neurocomputers and neural networks, one in medicine and the other in finance.

A machine called the vectorcardiograph was found, in tests, to be able to detect heart problems better than cardiologists could. The usual electrocardiograph records signals received from up to twelve leads placed on different parts of the body. Each recording is made separately and in a particular sequential order. In contrast, the vectorcardiograph records signals from only three locations (front-back, head-foot, right-left), and it records all three sources of data simultaneously. This parallel processing of the information suits the vectorcardiograph very nicely to neural networks.

Essentially, the vectorcardiograph was trained in three stages to differentiate between normal and abnormal electrocardiograms, much as a human is trained to discriminate or distinguish between two stimuli. In the first stage, the system was trained to recognize all the normal cases presented to it and a portion of the abnormal cases presented to it. The input weights were then set at the appropriate values and training continued. In the second stage, the neural network was trained also to recognize all normal cases and a portion of the remaining abnormal cases. Again, the input weights were set at their appropriate values. The third stage of training commenced, and training continued until the system could recognize the remaining abnormal cases. The training set consisted of vectorcardiographs from 107 people, half of whom were judged to be normal and half abnormal. When the vectorcardiograph was presented with sixty-three new cases never before presented, it correctly diagnosed 97 percent of the normal and 90 percent of the abnormal cases. Trained clinicians were able to identify, respectively, 95 percent and 53 percent of the cases. The diagnostic capabilities of the vectorcardiograph demonstrate the capabilities and potentials of neural networks.

A neural network known as the Multiple Neural Network Learning System (MNNLS) can be trained to make decisions to accept or reject a mortgage application. The system uses twenty-five areas of information that are divided into four categories: cultural (credit rating, number of children, employment history); financial (income, debts); mortgage(amount, interest rate, duration); and property (age, appraised value, type).

The MNNLS is a system of nine separate neural networks that are divided into three different layers, with three networks in each area. Each layer is analogous to a panel of three experts. One expert in each of the three layers concerns itself only with financial information, the second only with cultural and mortgage information, and the third with all four categories. When presented with a mortgage application, the first layer attempts to arrive at a decision. If the three “experts” all agree, the mortgage is accepted or rejected; however, if one of the experts disagrees with another, then the application goes to the second layer of experts, and the same process is repeated. The MNNLS is useful because it is very efficient and accurate. It is efficient because it is able to process a wide variety of problems because the neural networks correspond to different experts. The first layer effectively handles simple decisions, whereas the second and third layers can handle increasingly difficult decisions. MNNLS agreed with decisions made by humans about 82 percent of the time. In those cases in which the MNNLS disagreed with the human decision, the MNNLS was in fact nearly always correct. This happens because the MNNLS is a neural network that insists on consensus of a panel of experts (that is, consensus between separate neural networks). It would be economically unfeasible to have a panel of humans evaluate mortgages; however, a single person evaluating applications is more likely to make a mistake than a panel of evaluators.

Metaphors of Modeling

Stephen J. Hanson and David J. Burr astutely observed that “the computer metaphor has had a profound and lasting effect on psychological modeling.” The influence of the computer can be seen especially in its use in artificial intelligence and in computer metaphors of learning and memory, in which information is processed, encoded, stored, and retrieved from three distinct memory stores (sensory, short-term, and long-term memory). The particular computer that has been used as the metaphor of the human mind and cognition has been the digital or serial computer.

It eventually became apparent to cognitive scientists, however, that the digital computer is actually a poor analogy for the human mind, because this computer operates in a decidedly nonhuman way. For example, the digital computer operates much too fast—much faster than the human mind can process information. It also processes much more data than the human mind can process. If the software is sound, the digital computer is perfect and operates error-free. Human problem solving, on the other hand, is characterized by mistakes. The digital computer is not capable of autonomous learning. It does only what it is told to do by the program; it cannot teach itself new things, as can a human. The digital computer is very poor at pattern recognition tasks, such as identifying a human face, something an infant can do very rapidly. The digital computer provides no information about the underlying structure (the nervous system) that makes human cognition and information processing possible.

A number of cognitive scientists have argued that the fields of artificial intelligence and traditional cognitive science have reached dead ends because of their reliance on the digital computer analogy of the mind, which is limited and largely inaccurate. Cognitive science and neurophysiology are now striking out in a promising new direction by using neural networks and neurocomputers as the analogue of the human mind. The human mind is closely related to the human brain; many would argue that the mind is equivalent to the brain. Therefore, to study the mind and cognition, the researcher must build a computer that is modeled on the architecture of the brain. The neurocomputer is modeled on the human brain, and the digital computer is not.

Unlike digital computers, neurocomputers operate in a manner consistent with the operation of the human nervous system and human cognition. Neurocomputers provide a potentially promising way to understand cognition, as well as providing a productive connection and interrelationship with neurophysiology.

Bibliography

Addyman, Caspar, and Robert M. French. "Computational Modeling in Cognitive Science: A Manifesto for Change." Topics in Cognitive Science 4.3 (2014): 332–41. Print.

Allman, William F. Apprentices of Wonder: Inside the Neural Network Revolution. New York: Bantam, 1990. Print.

Caudill, Maureen, and Charles Butler. Naturally Intelligent Systems. 3d ed. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT P, 1993. Print.

Coward, L. Andrew. A System Architecture Approach to the Brain: From Neurons to Consciousness. New York: Nova Biomedical, 2005. Print.

Frankish, Keith, and William M. Ramsey. The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Science. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2012. Print.

Friedenberg, Jay, and Gordon Silverman. Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2006. Print.

Gill, Satinder, ed. Cognition, Communication and Interaction: Transdisciplinary Perspectives on Interactive Technology. New York: Springer, 2007. Print.

Hanson, Stephen J., and David J. Burr. “What Connectionist Models Learn: Learning and Representation in Connectionist Networks.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13.3 (1990): 471–518. Print.

Harnish, Robert. Minds, Brains, Computers: An Historical Introduction to Cognitive Science. New York: Blackwell, 2002. Print.

Marsa, Linda. "Computer Model Mimics Infant Cognition." Discover Jan./Feb. 2012: 53. Print.

Penrose, Roger. The Emperor’s New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics. New York: Penguin, 1991. Print.

Stillings, Neil A., et al. Cognitive Science: An Introduction. Cambridge: MIT P, 1998. Print.

What are the similarities between plant and animal cells, other than similar organelles or that they are both eukaryotic cells?

It's difficult to discuss similarities between the two cell types without mentioning their eukaryotic nature or their shared organelles, because these elements are so fundamental to their identity. However, we can generally talk about and compare their metabolisms, organization and lifestyles without turning it into a list of organelles.

Plants and animals both came from the same common ancestor, although we don't know exactly what that common ancestor was or when it lived. This is evidenced not only by our shared organelles, but by our similar metabolisms, DNA and appearance in the fossil record. We know that the fundamental structures of cells, such as phospholipid membranes and the structure and usage of DNA must have been a very ancient trait, because they're virtually identical in plants and animals, in addition to various reactions such as respiration. Basically, plants and animals were latecomers to the game of life, and took the foundations laid by billions of years of evolution and made themselves exponentially more complex, but the basic elements are clearly inherited from something much older.

Plants and animals are also basically the only things that can be confidently said to practice sexual reproduction, which is part of why they have the diversity and complexity that we have come to associate with them. Likewise, they are generally unable to alter their DNA during their lifetimes, as bacteria are. 

Finally, plants and animals tend to be highly organized, and in multicellular forms, they tend to have specialized sub-categories of cells that perform a particular function within the organism. Unlike bacteria or other single-celled organisms, the DNA contained in any given multicellular plant cell may not represent the entire genetic content expressed in that particular cell.

For what reasons was Communism not viewed as a viable ideology in Russia before the Bolshevik Revolution?

Karl Marx, the famous theorist of Communism, had not believed that Russia was ideal for its emergence. This was because Marx thought the event that would usher in the worldwide socialist revolution would be the rising of the industrial working class. These people, who were becoming increasingly marginalized and alienated by industrial expansion, were known as the proletariat. The more industrialized a society was, the bigger and more politically volatile its proletariat would become. Eventually, Marx thought, the proletariat, which had "nothing to lose but their chains," would rise up and overthrow the bourgeoisie, or the class of factory owners and financiers that profited from their labor. 

Marx, and most orthodox socialist thinkers that followed him, did not think Russia was likely to witness such a revolution because it was not very industrialized. Russia was still a mostly agricultural country, with small peasant landholders and villagers who lived a lifestyle little changed from the manorialism that characterized medieval life in the rest of Europe. Marx generally thought of peasants as a conservative force, unwilling to forge a political alliance with the industrial working class. French peasants, he famously said, were as incapable of the class consciousness that was a precondition to communist revolution as "potatoes" in a "sack of potatoes." 

This was one of the breakthroughs of Vladimir Lenin, who argued that Russia and its people could be mobilized to revolution. Rather than a large-scale, simultaneous uprising of industrial workers, however, Lenin successfully attempted to foment a rebellion led by a cadre of radicals (the "Bolsheviks") who were organized through revolutionary groups known as "soviets." So the Bolshevik Revolution, in short, occurred despite the skepticism of orthodox Marxian thinkers. 

What effect did Eli Whitney's cotton gin have on the Southern economy?

The cotton gin impacted the South’s economy by improving it, but also by making it depend more on cotton and therefore on slavery.

Before Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, cotton was not a very big crop in the United States.  It was simply too hard to get the seeds out of the cotton.  Therefore, it was not widely grown.  Whitney’s cotton gin changed this by making it rather easy to remove seeds from the cotton.  According to the link below, the US produced only 1500 pounds of cotton in 1790.  By 1800, the country was producing 35,000 pounds per year.  By 1815, the number 100,000 pounds and production actually exceeded 1 million pounds in 1848.  According to this link, the US produced almost four times as much cotton in 1860 as it had in 1830.

What this shows is that cotton boomed after Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin.  This improved the Southern economy because it created this huge cash crop that became the basis of the South’s economy.  Less happily, it also caused the South to base its entire economy on slavery.  Cotton in those days could not be grown without slave labor.  If the South needed cotton, that meant that it also needed slaves.  In these ways, the cotton gin impacted the South’s economy by giving it a new cash crop, but it also made the South depend on slavery for its economic prosperity.

Why is it that only that oiler dies and not anyone else in Crane's "The Open Boat"?

In Crane's short story "The Open Boat," four men are lost at sea in a small boat. At first it seems that none of them will survive, but as the story goes on, the men spy land and have hope that they can make it ashore. Because the captain is injured, the other men must take turns rowing the boat. Since they have virtually no supplies, this physical exertion is exhausting. The oiler is the strongest man--physically--on the boat, so much of the rowing falls to him. Therefore, as he continues to row, the other three men are able to take short rests and conserve their strength.

This becomes important when they decide to make a break for it and swim to shore. The oiler, who is completely depleted of energy because he has been rowing for most of the time, does not have the strength to swim to shore and dies. This story ironically reverses the notion of Darwin's survival of the fittest: while the oiler seemed to be the fittest and strongest of the four men, he used up his energy, which made him the weakest and the mostly likely to die.

In Animal Farm by George Orwell, in what ways did Boxer work harder than the other animals?

Boxer, being the biggest and strongest animal on the farm, adopted the maxim, "I will work harder!" soon after the Rebellion. He was keen to do his best for the good of all and was motivated by the freedom the animals experienced at the time. His commitment is clearly illustrated in the following excerpt from chapter three:

Boxer was the admiration of everybody. He had been a hard worker even in Jones's time, but now he seemed more like three horses than one; there were days when the entire work of the farm seemed to rest on his mighty shoulders. From morning to night he was pushing and pulling, always at the spot where the work was hardest. He had made an arrangement with one of the cockerels to call him in the mornings half an hour earlier than anyone else, and would put in some volunteer labour at whatever seemed to be most needed, before the regular day's work began. His answer to every problem, every setback, was "I will work harder!"—which he had adopted as his personal motto.

It was after Snowball's expulsion by Napoleon that Boxer really proved his mettle. Three Sundays after Snowball's removal, Napoleon declared that the plans for the building of a windmill had actually been his idea and that they would start erecting it. The construction, however, presented a number of problems since the animals had to drag huge stones from the bottom of the quarry to the top, where they would then be toppled over the edge to shatter into manageable pieces below. 

This was a slow and very difficult process, but Boxer inspired everyone with his hard work. Whenever Boxer encountered a problem, including when a boulder was ready to slip, he would use every ounce of his strength to stop it from rolling back into the quarry, as revealed in chapter 6:

Nothing could have been achieved without Boxer, whose strength seemed equal to that of all the rest of the animals put together. When the boulder began to slip and the animals cried out in despair at finding themselves dragged down the hill, it was always Boxer who strained himself against the rope and brought the boulder to a stop. To see him toiling up the slope inch by inch, his breath coming fast, the tips of his hoofs clawing at the ground, and his great sides matted with sweat, filled everyone with admiration. Clover warned him sometimes to be careful not to overstrain himself, but Boxer would never listen to her. His two slogans, "I will work harder" and "Napoleon is always right," seemed to him a sufficient answer to all problems.

Later in the novel, Boxer gave specific instructions so he could do even more work:

He had made arrangements with the cockerel to call him three-quarters of an hour earlier in the mornings instead of half an hour. And in his spare moments, of which there were not many nowadays, he would go alone to the quarry, collect a load of broken stone, and drag it down to the site of the windmill unassisted.

He was even prepared to come out at nights during the harvest moon to do extra labor.

Unfortunately, the half-built structure was destroyed during a terrible storm and the animals had to start all over again, but Boxer was up to the task. After the animals' exhausting efforts finished by autumn, the windmill was finally finished, but tragedy struck again when Frederick and his men blew it to pieces. Once again, it had to be rebuilt and, once again, Boxer proved his mettle and dedication. 

Boxer worked so hard that it eventually affected his health. He suffered a split hoof, which took a long time to heal. We read in chapter nine, however, that he refused to give up:

Boxer refused to take even a day off work, and made it a point of honour not to let it be seen that he was in pain. In the evenings he would admit privately to Clover that the hoof troubled him a great deal. Clover treated the hoof with poultices of herbs which she prepared by chewing them, and both she and Benjamin urged Boxer to work less hard. "A horse's lungs do not last for ever," she said to him. But Boxer would not listen. He had, he said, only one real ambition left—to see the windmill well under way before he reached the age for retirement.

Once Boxer's hoof was healed, he worked harder than ever. He had, however, lost much of his vitality and looked weaker than ever before, but continued working, even though Clover and Benjamin expressed concern and asked him to look after his health. He only repeated his motto, "I will work harder!" and continued to work.

Boxer's hard work was never really rewarded. We read in chapter nine that he fell desperately ill and was lying on his side with blood trickling from his mouth. The poor beast believed that he would be able to retire and then live a life of comfort and relaxation. It was not to be. The pigs sold him to the knacker and bought a case of whiskey with the proceeds. Squealer later spun a story about how bravely Boxer had passed away, stating his last words were to encourage the other animals by whispering in his final breath:

"'Forward in the name of the Rebellion. Long live Animal Farm! Long live Comrade Napoleon! Napoleon is always right.' Those were his very last words, comrades."

Does a catalyst speed up one kind of reaction?

Catalysts lower the activation energy of a reaction by providing an alternative reaction path, thereby speeding up the reaction.

For a chemical reaction to take place, the participants of the reaction, the reactants, must have enough energy to overcome an energy barrier. This energy barrier is the activation energy of the reaction. After this, energy landscape simply falls to the energy of the product, which can be higher (endothermic) or lower (exothermic) energy than the reactant. Some chemical reactions are really slow because of a very high activation energy. 

Catalysts help speed up reactions. They do this by providing an alternative path for the reaction to take place. This alternative path has an altered energy landscape and a lower activation energy than the path not involving the catalyst. The catalyst simply provides a "platform" for the reaction to take place, but is not itself a participant in the reaction. Hence, it is not consumed.

Examples of catalysts are enzymes. Enzymes are proteins with an additional function of catalyzing various chemical reactions such as bond formation, or bond cleavage. Enzymes will bind with the reactants and bring them together at the appropriate orientation for the reaction to occur. With the enzyme, one can imagine this will go a lot slower, as the reactants must find the optimal orientation for the reaction by themselves. Hence, enzymes limit the conformational space the proteins sample to make the reaction more efficient. In the industry, catalysts are used to make reactions more efficient and faster. For example, catalytic converters convert carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide by providing a platform unto which both carbon monoxide and oxygen molecules can adsorb to, and hence react to form carbon dioxide.

What qualities or abilities enable Rikki-tikki to fight the cobras to the finish in "Rikki-tikki-tavi" by Rudyard Kipling?

Rikki-tikki-tavi is successful against the cobras because he is curious, brave, and persistent. 

Although all mongooses are supposed to protect people against snakes according to Rikki-tikki, he is particularly adept at the task.  Rikki-tikki has a mongoose’s curiosity, but he is also smart and very brave.  He does not give up until he accomplishes his goal. 

Rikki-tikki washes into the family’s garden and immediately settles into being a house mongoose.  This is every well-bred mongoose’s mission in life.  As house mongoose, it is Rikki-tikki’s job to protect the family and garden from snakes. 

It just so happens that a pair of cobras live in Rikki-tikki’s garden.  In order to have peace, he has to kill both of them. He begins by killing the little dusty snakeling, Karait.  Then it is time to deal with the cobras.  They try to trick Rikki-tikki or scare him, but he is too smart for either. 

Nag is the first to go.  Rikki-tikki fights him valiantly as he is threatening to bite the little boy, Teddy.  After Rikki-tikki kills him, the man shoots him, but Rikki-tikki sees that as pointless.  He was doing fine on his own, even though it was a bit of a struggle against the strong snake. 

The female cobra is now even more dangerous because she is in mourning. She also has a nest of hatchlings.  Rikki-tikki uses his ingenuity to trick her.  He kills all of her babies in their eggs and uses the last egg to lure her out.  

Rikki-tikki has to follow Nagaina into her hole in order to defeat her. 

[Very] few mongooses, however wise and old they may be, care to follow a cobra into its hole. It was dark in the hole; and Rikki-tikki never knew when it might open out and give Nagaina room to turn and strike at him. He held on savagely, and struck out his feet to act as brakes on the dark slope of the hot, moist earth. 

The other animals think Rikki-tikki is dead, but he emerges victorious.  With Nagaina gone, Rikki-tikki has successfully dispatched the last snake.  This does not mean he will rest on his laurels though.  Rikki-tikki is vigilant, and will make sure that there are no more snakes in the garden again.

What are seizures?

Causes and Symptoms

Seizures can be divided into two fundamental groups—partial and generalized. In partial seizures, the abnormal discharge of neurons usually arises in a portion of one hemisphere and may spread to other parts of the brain during a seizure. Generalized seizures, however, have no evidence of localized onset; the clinical manifestations and abnormal electrical discharge give no indication of the locus of onset of the abnormality, if such a locus exists.

Partial seizures are divided into three groups: simple partial seizures, complex partial seizures, and partial seizures secondarily generalized. Simple partial seizures are associated with the preservation of consciousness and unilateral hemispheric involvement. The area of seizure may spread until the entire side is involved. This type of seizure, with motor, sensory, or autonomic signs, was originally called Jacksonian epilepsy. Complex partial seizures are associated with alteration or loss of consciousness and bilateral hemispheric involvement. A partial seizure secondarily generalized is a generalized tonic-clonic seizure that proceeds directly from either a simple partial seizure or a complex partial seizure. The distinction between simple partial seizures and complex partial seizures is clarified by the observation that neurologic problems that are confined to one hemisphere, such as a unilateral cerebral stroke, generally spare consciousness, whereas bilateral cerebral (or brain stem) involvement causes alteration of consciousness.

If there is no evidence of localized onset, then the attack is a generalized seizure. Generalized seizures are more heterogeneous than partial seizures. The generalized seizures include generalized tonic-clonic (grand mal), absence (petit mal), atonic, myoclonic, clonic, and tonic seizures.

Tonic-clonic seizure is a common seizure pattern with sudden loss of consciousness, tonic contraction of muscles, loss of postural control, and a cry caused by contraction of respiratory muscles forcing exhalation. This is followed by a generalized contraction of the muscles of the four extremities. After two to five minutes of unconsciousness and the cessation of clonic contractions, the individual gradually regains consciousness. Fecal and urinary incontinence, as well as biting of the tongue, may occur. The individual does not remember the event and may not be completely functional for several days.

The absence seizure usually begins in childhood or early adolescence, and in many cases individuals outgrow the condition. Although unresponsiveness is the rule, motionlessness occurs in less than 10 percent of absence attacks; in fact, phenomena such as mild clonic motion and increased or decreased postural tone may accompany such attacks. Absence seizures are generally brief, usually lasting less than ten seconds and very rarely longer than forty-five seconds. The attacks are not associated with auras, hallucinations, or other symptoms characteristic of partial seizures, generalized tonic-clonic seizures, or infantile spasms. Individuals exhibiting these seizures are normal except for the seizures, but the seizures may occur as frequently as one hundred times a day.

Atonic seizures are characterized by a sudden loss of muscle tone. Myoclonic seizures are sudden and brief contractions of a single group of muscles or of the entire body. The patients fall but do not lose consciousness. Clonic and tonic seizures are characterized by alternation of contraction and relaxation and by contraction, respectively.

Infantile spasms are generalized seizures occurring in the first year of life. These are synchronous contractions of the muscles of the neck, trunk, and arms. About 90 percent of infants experiencing these attacks are intellectually disabled.

Seizures may be further subdivided into epileptic (those involving recurrent seizures) and nonepileptic. The term “nonepileptic seizure,” however, is somewhat problematic. For example, a seizure caused by
hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) may not be considered an epileptic attack by some because it is a transient event easily corrected by metabolic manipulation. Of the organic nonepileptic seizures, the most common are of cardiovascular origin; others are caused by transient cerebral ischemia, movement disorders, toxic or metabolic problems, sleep disorders, and even headaches. Nonepileptic attacks may also be of nonorganic or psychiatric origin, such as with hysteria and schizophrenia, in which case they are called psychogenic seizures or pseudoseizures.

Attempts to find a cause for the sudden abnormal discharge of cerebral neurons has not been possible in all types of seizure activity. In some cases, a brain tumor, scar tissue remaining from trauma to the brain, or a progressive neurological disease may be responsible. In the great majority of cases, however, no pathologic basis for the seizures is evident, either during life or at autopsy. The latter type of seizure has been classified as “idiopathic.” In certain circumstances, for example, fever, infection, or hyperglycemia, the response may include seizure. In many instances, these events are isolated and do not recur, and for this reason they are not categorized as epilepsy.

The cause of a seizure is related to the age of onset of the first attack. When seizures begin in the neonatal and infant period, the most likely causes are perinatal
anoxia (a deficiency of oxygen), congenital brain defects, meningitis, birth injuries, or other metabolic problems, such as hypoglycemia or hypercalcemia (excessive calcium). Less common causes of seizures in young children include toxins such as
lead poisoning, as well as rare degenerative diseases. In older children or adults, although metabolic or degenerative processes must be considered, other causes become more probable.

Head trauma accounts for the origin of many partial epileptic seizures in young adults, whereas brain tumors and vascular diseases are the major cause of such seizures in later life. Brain tumor is not a common cause of epilepsy in children, since 60 to 70 percent of brain tumors in children are located in the posterior fossa. Arteriosclerotic cerebrovascular disease is the most common cause of seizures in patients over the age of fifty. In about 4 percent of patients with brain infarction and 10 percent of those with intracerebral hemorrhage, seizures accompany the stroke; an additional 3 percent of patients who experience a stroke have recurrent seizures in later life, presumably generated by the cerebral
scar.

Most idiopathic seizure activity appears to have its origin in an inherited propensity to cerebral dysrhythmia. Although there is a high incidence of electroencephalographic (EEG) abnormalities in close relatives of persons with recurrent seizures, not all family members have clinical seizures. In general, genetic factors are particularly important when recurrent seizures begin in childhood and decrease in importance with age.

In most studies of early seizures predicting future epilepsy, the conditions that are associated with high risk include a depressed skull fracture, an acute intracerebral hematoma, post-traumatic amnesia lasting more than twenty-four hours, and the presence of tears in the dura mater of the brain or focal neurologic signs.

Generalized tonic-clonic seizures sometimes develop during the course of chronic
intoxication with
alcohol or barbiturates, almost always in association with withdrawal or reduction of the drugs. How long a period of chronic drug intoxication or abuse must last to produce seizures upon withdrawal is uncertain, but such patients often give a history of many years (sometimes decades) of drug dependence. Usually, the patients experience one or more seizures or short bursts of two to six seizures over a period of hours. An episode of alcohol withdrawal rarely precipitates more than a single burst of convulsions, while convulsions may recur for several days after barbiturate withdrawal. Studies have shown that among those who have had withdrawal seizures without other evidence of neurological damage, seizures almost always occurred during the seven-hour to forty-eight-hour period following the cessation of drinking. With alcohol withdrawal seizures, tremor, anorexia, and insomnia follow the seizure in perhaps 20 to 30 percent of cases. Delirium tremens is a less frequent event.

Treatment and Therapy

Prior to treatment, it is necessary for the physician to conduct a thorough investigation of the patient to identify any remediable cause of the seizures. This investigation would include metabolic diseases, endocrine system disturbances, cerebral tumors, abscess of the brain, or meningitis.

Persons who have recurrent convulsions controlled by medications can participate in sports and lead a relatively normal life; most countries will permit a person to drive an automobile if he or she has experienced no seizures for six months to one year. If seizures are uncontrolled, however, then automobile driving, swimming, the operation of unguarded machinery, and ladder climbing are not advised.

Drug therapy varies with the type of seizure presented. In the case of recurrent seizures, it generally consists of at least two to four years of daily medication. Careful neurologic examinations every four to six months, monitoring of seizure frequency correlated with drug blood level, and serial EEGs about once a year are also required. If there is a change in seizure frequency despite adequate drug blood levels, if there are focal neurologic signs or signs of increased intracranial pressure, or if evidence of focal changes on EEGs develop, further evaluation, including a computed tomography (CT) scan, is necessary. A small brain tumor may not be apparent even on a CT scan at the time of the initial evaluation, particularly in a patient with adult-onset epilepsy or in an older child or adolescent with partial seizures without a documented specific cause.

Absence seizures present less urgency. The patient rarely seeks medical advice until repeated episodes have occurred. Early treatment and prevention or reduction of repeated seizures can be beneficial. The drugs of choice for absence epilepsy are ethosuximide or valproate sodium. Medication is generally discontinued after two to four seizure-free years, depending on the presence or absence of generalized tonic-clonic seizures and the results of the EEGs. After the medication is discontinued, and after follow-up for fifteen to twenty-three years, there is about a 12 percent incidence of recurrence.

If the seizure process is strong enough to require more than one drug, multiple drug administration needs to be maintained. The aim of the treatment is to achieve the best possible seizure control with the least amount of side effects. This goal may necessitate a compromise in patients with resistant seizures; such patients may prefer having an occasional seizure to being continuously sedated or unsteady. This is particularly true with patients who experience partial seizures that are not excessively disruptive.

The side effects of drugs may cause impairment of liver function in susceptible individuals. Thus, periodic monitoring of the patient’s complete blood count and platelet count is necessary, as are liver function tests. This monitoring is done more frequently at the onset of therapy or after an upward adjustment of dosage.

The selection of specific drugs to be used for the prevention and control of seizures depends on the type of seizure. The most commonly used drugs include phenytoin, carbamazepine, phenobarbital, primidone, ethosuximide, methsuximide, clonazepam, valproate sodium, and trimethadione.

The pharmacokinetics and side effects of these drugs in infants and children differ somewhat from those observed in older children and adults. Absorption, plasma-protein binding, and metabolism are subject to age-specific variations. Younger children usually require a higher dose per kilogram to maintain a therapeutic blood level than do adults. Some of the classic signs of toxicity to the medications that are seen in adults may not be obvious in children.

If the seizures are related to a lesion in the brain, neurosurgical treatment is indicated. Surgery is the obvious form of treatment for demonstrable structural lesions such as cysts lying in accessible areas of the cerebral hemispheres. In a more restricted sense, surgical therapy is considered in patients without a mass lesion when the seizures are unresponsive to drug treatment and the patient has a consistent, electrophysiologically demonstrable focus emanating from, for example, a scar. Specific surgical treatments vary from case to case.

Up to 80 percent of properly selected patients have been found to benefit to some extent from surgical removal of the focal lesion. In some cases of intractable seizures associated with behavior disorders and hemiplegia of childhood, removal of a damaged cerebral hemisphere has been found to control the intractable seizures and to improve the behavior disorder without causing further neurological deficit.

Perspective and Prospects

In the twentieth century, major developments were made in diagnosis and therapy. In 1929, Hans Berger recorded the first human electroencephalogram. Descriptions of EEG patterns and their correlation with clinical absences, partial seizures, and generalized tonic-clonic seizures led to important developments in classification and treatment. Special EEG recordings with activation techniques, depth recordings, and long-term recordings for patients with intractable seizures became available to aid in the diagnosis and medical management of patients and in the selection of candidates for possible neurosurgical treatment.

Prolonged EEG recording by telemetry (the transmission of data electronically to a distant location) and ambulatory monitoring became helpful in making a diagnosis in patients who have brief spells of uncertain type. Electrical activity at the time of the attack can be documented. Videotaping with split-screen EEG recording and patient observation allows excellent correlation between the clinical and EEG manifestations, which aids in the classification and determination of appropriate therapy in difficult clinical problems. In those patients with intractable epilepsy, prolonged recording can document the frequency of seizures and correlation with anticonvulsive drug blood levels.

Radiological advances and CT scans in the 1970s, and later positron emission tomography (PET) scans, improved diagnostic skill in delineating potentially remediable lesions in patients with seizures.

During the twentieth century, many other medications became available for patients with seizures. The use of the operating microscope and technical advances in microsurgical techniques refined surgical treatments and improved the outlook for patients with structural lesions such as brain tumors, vascular malformations, and scars.

Bibliography

Bloom, Floyd E., M. Flint Beal, and David J. Kupfer, eds. The Dana Guide to Brain Health. New York: Dana Press, 2006.

Carson-DeWitt, Rosalyn, and Rimas Lukas. "Seizure Disorder—Adult." Health Library, Sept. 30, 2012.

Delanty, Norman, ed. Seizures: Medical Causes and Management. Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press, 2002.

Freeman, John M., Eileen P. G. Vining, and Diana J. Pillas. Seizures and Epilepsy in Childhood: A Guide. 3d ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.

Kohnle, Diana, and Michael Woods. "Seizure—Child." Health Library, Sept. 12, 2012.

Kohnle, Diana, Rebecca J. Stahl, and Kari Kassir. "Seizure Disorder—Child." Health Library, June 6, 2012.

Levy, René H., et al., eds. Antiepileptic Drugs. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002.

Rowan, A. James, and John R. Gates, eds. Non-epileptic Seizures. 2d ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.

"Seizures." Epilepsy Foundation, 2012.

"Seizures." MedlinePlus, May 20, 2013.

"Seizures and Epilepsy: Hope through Research." National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Apr. 8, 2013.

Solomon, Gail, Henn Kutt, and Fred Plum. Clinical Management of Seizures. 2d ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1983.

Weaver, Donald F. Epilepsy and Seizures: Everything You Need to Know. Toronto, Ont.: Firefly Books, 2001.

Why was Rachel embarrassed by her mother?

James McBride begins his book by sharing the history of his parents with us. His mother was named Ruchel Dwajra Zylska when she was born in Poland on April 1, 1921. When her parents came to America, they renamed their daughter Rachel Deborah Shilsky. Rachel herself changed her name to Ruth after she left Virginia in 1941.

Rachel's mother was named Hudis, and she was a 'gentle and meek' woman. In her reminiscences, Rachel remembers her mother as a 'sweet Mameh.' However, due to polio, Hudis was paralyzed on the left side of her body. Her left hand was bent at the wrist and was useless to her. Almost blind in her left eye, Hudis also had a severe limp; she had to drag her left foot behind her as she walked. Because Rachel's father, Tateh, often made fun of Mameh's condition, Rachel had a poor role model to follow in terms of relating to those with disabilities. So, Rachel often found herself embarrassed by her mother's disability; she maintains that she did not really change her poor attitude until after she converted to Christianity.

How does POV affect Animal Farm's plot?

The story is told by an anonymous, omniscient third-person narrator who does not have any bias or opinions throughout the novella. The story is also told from the point of view of the animals living on Animal Farm and their inner thoughts are shared with the reader. Napoleon is the only character whose inner thoughts are not directly stated which gives his character a secretive, selfish appearance. The point of view allows the audience to experience and judge various character's feelings and motivations throughout the story. The audience is aware of Napoleon and the other pigs' motivation to oppress the lower class animals, while most of the animals are too ignorant or scared to oppose Napoleon's leadership. Orwell's decision to tell the story using a third-person narrator creates an objective view of the events happening on the farm from various perspectives. The reader can predict Napoleon's totalitarian rise to power while the animals continue to obey his increasingly unequal government policies.

For what does Nestor praise Telemachus?

In Book Three, Nestor praises Telemachus for his bravery and for his potential as a hero a few times: first, after hearing what Telemachus's mission is, and second, after realizing that Athena herself had been taking care of Telemachus and guiding him on his journey.

His praise seems quite strong considering the two of them have just now met, and considering that Telemachus is much younger and has much less life experience than Nestor does.

Here's what Nestor says the first time in praise of Telemachus:

"You too, then—for you are a tall smart-looking fellow—show your mettle and make yourself a name in story."

He means that Telemachus seems like a capable, intelligent man, someone who's able to prove himself as having courage, vigor, and a strong sense of character. By telling Telemachus to "make [himself] a name in story," Nestor means that Telemachus should be able to perform the kind of brave, valiant acts that will go down in history.

The second time Nestor praises Telemachus, it's just a short while later, after the meal and just after Athena has revealed herself by changing into an eagle:

“My friend,” said he, “I see that you are going to be a great hero some day, since the gods wait upon you thus while you are still so young."

Nestor is saying here, again, that Telemachus has the potential to perform heroic, meaningful deeds.

How did Karl Marx describe class conflict?

Karl Marx was a 19th century philosopher whose works primarily criticized socioeconomic inequality in Europe and describe the means by which this might persist or be remedied. We know his body of work as Marxism, and any discourse which analyzes or challenges class structures may be considered Marxist.

Marx was highly critical of socioeconomic systems where much of the wealth is concentrated among a small portion of society, as it is in capitalist and (historically) feudal societies. Marx described the conflict between the upper class bourgeoisie who own the resources and labor in a system and the working class proletariat who must labor in order to survive. Capitalism can create the illusion that because an individual is working, they are in control of their actions. In reality, the raw materials, machines, and everything the worker needs to create their product is owned by the upper class. The worker may earn enough to survive, but all surplus produced belongs to and benefits the upper class.

The conflict at work here may be the proletariat's resentment of the bourgeoisie or something far more dramatic like a revolution. Marx's work inspired the Communist Revolutions of the 20th century. Marx believed the only way to remedy the parasitic relationship between the bourgeoisie and proletariat was to instigate a revolution and overthrow the ruling class. Such revolutions were the case in Russia, China, and Cuba in the early 20th Century. Marx also believed an ideal follow-up was to establish a truly communist society where all people work and benefit equally, but this was not always the case after a revolution.

Why are people bad these days?

Some people are bad for the same reasons they've always been bad: greed, jealousy, ignorance, hatred, hopelessness, mental illness, religious/political extremism, desperation, etc.

It isn't the reasons for bad behavior that have changed, it is the social/technological context in which this bad behavior occurs. Some of us (like me) are old enough to remember life without a) cell phone video, b) internet information saturation c) the proliferation of assault weapons, and d) splinter terrorist groups like ISIS and Al-Qaeda. These are four factors that impact either the rise in high-profile violence or our awareness of that violence.

For example, before everybody had a video camera in their pocket, a police shooting was nothing more than he said/cop said, and everybody assumed the cop was the one telling the truth (which was probably usually true, but not always). But when we see video of such things on the news it has a more powerful impact on our perception of violence in society.

Terrorist groups can use a combination of video and internet distribution to recruit in a way that could not happen twenty years ago. 

The things we are seeing happen have always happened, and they're still happening for the same reasons, but we haven't always been aware of it, or had the ability to actually see it. These factors have probably led to the rise in events like shootings at schools, nightclubs, and gathering places. On the more positive side, it is also worth noting that while violence may be more visible than ever, the actual statistics on crime worldwide show that we are experiencing a global decline in crime.