What is ageism?

Introduction

The term ageism was coined by Robert Butler, the first director of the National Institute on Aging. Like racism and sexism, ageism involves prejudice and discrimination directed toward a specific segment of the population. When someone claims that African Americans are inferior to whites or that females are less intelligent than males, the listener usually realizes that racist and sexist attitudes are being presented. Many persons, however, will accept the notion that the aged are senile, asexual, inflexible, poverty-stricken, and incapable of learning, without recognizing the prejudicial nature of such statements. In most instances, the stereotypical elderly person is viewed negatively; the prevailing attitude in the United States is that young is good and old is inferior. According to sociologist Erdman Palmore, ageism differs from racism and sexism in two major ways: All people become targets of ageism if they live long enough, and people are often not aware that ageism exists.

Surveys and other research indicate that ageist attitudes are widely held in American culture. Any attitude must be learned, and there are many sources available in American society. On television and in motion pictures, there are comparatively few older characters. The few older persons portrayed are typically depicted as either bumbling, forgetful souls who beget laughter and ridicule (negative ageism) or saintly paragons of virtue who possess great wisdom (positive ageism). Neither portrayal is realistic. In actuality, these are stereotypes that correspond to the attributes most commonly assumed to apply to old persons. Magazines and television present innumerable images of healthy, attractive young adults laughing, exercising, dancing, playing sports, and generally having a good time. It is not surprising that children begin to associate youth with goodness and old age with decrepitude.

The media also report cases of elderly persons who are found living in isolation, abandoned by relatives, and who are so poor that they resort to eating things such as cat food. Such cases are news precisely because of their rarity. There are destitute older persons, but reports produced by the federal government indicate that the percentage of aged persons (those above sixty-five years of age) below the official poverty line is actually less than the impoverished percentage of the general population. The elderly poor tend to be persons who have been impoverished for most of their lives. According to Palmore, a minority of the elderly are actually lonely and deserted by relatives; surveys indicate that most older persons live within a thirty-minute drive of at least one child and have frequent contact with offspring. Also, fewer than 10 percent of those over the age of sixty-five report that they do not have enough friends. Only about 5 percent of the aged are in nursing homes at any one time.

Age and Ageism

Children and others hear many jokes told about the aged. Analysis indicates that these jokes are usually derogatory and concern topics such as sexual behavior, physical ailments, and cognitive deficits. As is the case with ethnic jokes, whether the jokes are funny depends on the listener. People seldom laughs at jokes that ridicule their own social group, unless they are told by other members of that group; persons who are racist or ageist, however, will find these jokes amusing and perhaps perceive them as being accurate.

Another factor in the ubiquity of ageism is that there may be less contact with the elderly in modern life than there was in the past. Families are more mobile today, and the extended family, in which several generations live in the same dwelling, is much less common. Many youngsters grow up in nuclear families without interacting extensively with aged persons; those with such limited contact are very likely to believe the ageist notions presented by others or by the media. In contrast, persons who have close relationships with several older individuals usually realize that most aged individuals are healthy and productive.

A 2000 study by Melinda Kennedy and Robin Montvilo indicated that children who have close contact with older adults on a regular basis are more likely to view the elderly in a positive manner than are children who have infrequent contact with the elderly. Degree of daily contact in adults did not seem to influence attitudes toward the elderly. Education to improve attitudes toward aging and the elderly therefore appears more useful in the young.

Ageism is not restricted to young persons or the uneducated. Ageist attitudes are often maintained even into old age. Ironically, this means that some older people may be prejudiced against their own age group. Resolution of this dilemma often focuses on these individuals’ refusal to label themselves as “old” or “elderly.” Age identification studies typically find that the majority of persons over the age of sixty-five identify themselves as being “middle-aged.” Even among subjects over eighty years of age, there is a considerable percentage (10 to 30 percent) who deny that they are “old.” This denial allows the aging person to maintain ageist beliefs. Conversely, ageism may contribute to the denial. If one believes that old persons are all senile, and one is obviously not senile oneself, then it follows that one must not be old.

Physicians and Ageism

Research suggests that ageist attitudes have been prevalent even among physicians and other professionals. Until the late twentieth century, geriatrics, the branch of medicine that deals with disorders and diseases of the aged, was not a popular specialty among doctors. Robert Butler’s Why Survive? Being Old in America (1975), demonstrates that the elderly have been given very low priority by physicians. In part, this is because physicians are paid more by private health insurers than they are by Medicare, the government health insurance program for people aged sixty-five and older. Additionally, younger adults are seen as having fewer health problems and taking less time to treat.

Less thorough physical examinations are given to older patients. Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists report very little contact with aged clients and may be prone to believe that older persons cannot really suffer from the same mental disorders that younger clients do or believe that they need to be treated with medication as a quick fix. Senility (an ambiguous term that is not a clinical diagnosis) is not a normal aspect of aging. Alzheimer’s disease and other organic brain syndromes afflict only a small proportion of the aged.

Most cases of confusion and disorientation in the aged are produced by drug intoxication or poor blood circulation to the brain. Nevertheless, such patients may be viewed as suffering from irreversible disorders and given little professional attention other than medication, which often exacerbates the symptoms. In spite of the negative stereotypes associated with aging, by the beginning of the twenty-first century, many physicians were going into geriatrics to meet the increasing demand occasioned by the aging of baby boomers born in the middle of the twentieth century.

Social Policy and Ageism

Varying beliefs and attitudes concerning the aging process have existed throughout the history of Western civilization. Indeed, in the Old Testament, longevity is granted to those who are faithful to God, and the elders are viewed as a source of great wisdom. Contemporary views toward aging, which typically are much more negative, have been influenced significantly by social policies. In an attempt to help end the Great Depression, the federal government initiated the Old Age and Survivors’ Program (Social Security) in 1935 to encourage retirement and reduce unemployment among younger workers. This program was intended to help support people though the last three to four years of their lives. Medicare and Medicaid began in the mid-1960s. These measures served to identify older Americans as a homogeneous group of persons in need of special aid from the rest of society; old age thus became a distinct stage of development.

As mentioned previously, studies have found that the aged, as a group, are as well off financially as the general population (although often living on fixed incomes). Nevertheless, most states and the federal government grant tax relief in various forms to all aged citizens, rich and poor. Many businesses such as pharmacies, restaurants, and hotels give discounts to elderly customers. Some banks offer higher interest rates on savings and free checking to “senior citizens.” Despite the fact that such practices might seem discriminatory against the young, there is little public protest. The general acceptance of these policies may be based on the mistaken belief that most aged persons are living in or near poverty.

Older persons often confront ageist attitudes when trying to obtain or continue employment. Widely held perceptions about the aged include the beliefs that they cannot learn new skills, miss many workdays because of illness, are prone to work-related accidents, and work significantly more slowly than do younger workers. Each of these notions is inaccurate, according to Palmore. Research involving a variety of occupations has determined that older persons are productive employees who actually have fewer accidents at work and miss fewer workdays than do younger workers. Although motor responses are slowed with age, most workers increase their productivity as a result of increased experience. Learning new skills does usually require slightly more time for older workers, but they can, and do, learn.

Despite these research findings, many employers have discriminated against older applicants and have refused to hire them because of their advanced age. In response, the US Congress passed the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (1967; ADEA), which outlaws age discrimination in hiring practices and sets seventy years as the age of mandatory retirement for most occupations. Fortunately, many companies have begun to realize the efficacy of older workers and have encouraged them to become employees. The “McMasters Program,” established by the McDonald’s fast-food restaurant chain, is one example of a business welcoming older applicants.

Gerontophobia

Gerontophobia—a fear of the elderly or of the aging process—is closely related to ageism. Believing that the aged are decrepit, lonely, and likely to be senile makes one fear growing older. Many companies produce products that play on this fear; indeed, these businesses have a financial stake in perpetuating gerontophobia. Commercial advertisements bombard consumers with messages indicating that to be old is to be ugly, and Americans spend enormous sums of money trying to look younger through cosmetic surgery, hair dye, “wrinkle removers,” and so on. People are even encouraged by friends to try to look young. Many gerontologists, however, view these efforts as costly and futile; these procedures can alter one’s appearance, but they do not stop or retard the aging process.

Gerontophobia may also reflect the association often made between old age and death. In the past, many babies and young persons died of infectious and communicable diseases. Infant mortality is much lower today, and life expectancy has increased dramatically. Therefore, death in old age is typical, and this fact may well increase the fear of growing old that many persons experience.

Ironically, holding ageist views may adversely affect one’s own aging. Indeed, many psychologists think that beliefs or expectations may be self-fulfilling. More simply put, an expectation may affect one’s behavior so that, eventually, one acts in accordance with the expectation. A common example involves sexual behavior. An ageist view persists that older persons are no longer sexually viable. Males, especially, seem to accept this notion and to worry about their sexual performance. If, for example, a sixty-year-old man does experience an inability to achieve orgasm during intercourse, he may attribute this “failure” to aging; he may then be extremely anxious during his next sexual episode. This anxiety may cause further sexual problems and preclude orgasm. Believing that he is now too old for sex, the man may even terminate coital activity. In contrast, if he attributes his initial problem to stress or some other transitory variable, then his future sexual behavior may be unimpeded, especially in a society that now has anti-impotence drugs such as Viagra available.

Changes in Ageism since 1960

The late 1960s were years of tremendous political and social unrest, as numerous minority groups clamored for greater power and fairer treatment. The aged had been delineated as a special-interest group with distinct needs. As the aged began to be defined solely by their age, a group consciousness began to emerge. Older persons, as a group, are more interested in politics and more likely to vote than are their younger counterparts. Politicians became aware of and became more sensitive to elderly issues. Out of this milieu, Robert Butler helped make these concerns salient by inventing the term “ageism.”

Ageism has been heightened by medical advances, as the concomitant increased life expectancy enjoyed in technologically advanced societies has altered views about aging. The life expectancy in the United States was more than seventy-eight years in 2011. Social Security and Medicare are thus available to people for more than a dozen years on the average. This places a financial strain on society and makes the elderly seem a burden.

As a higher percentage of people now live into old age, death has become increasingly associated with growing old. Without doubt, the fear of death causes some people to shun the elderly and to view them as being “different from us.” To admit that one is old is tantamount to confronting one’s own mortality squarely. Many gerontologists and sociologists argue that the United States is a death-denying society. Death is a taboo topic in most circles; the majority of deaths in the United States occur in institutions. The denial and fear of death may encourage ageist notions.

Palmore has developed a survey instrument consisting of twenty items to assess the types and prevalence of ageism in the United States today. The most frequent types of ageism found using this tool have been disrespect for older people and assumptions made about ailments and frailty caused by age. In an initial study, 77 percent of the elderly assessed reported having experienced ageism. This tool may be used to help reduce the prevalence of ageism in society by allowing it to be identified and by educating those in need.

Ageism may decline in the near future, simply because the median age of Americans is increasing. The baby boomers, a large and influential segment of society, are aging, and their impact is likely to be substantial. People in this age group have dramatically changed society as they have developed. When they were children, more schools had to be built, and education was emphasized. Their adolescence produced a rebellious period in the late 1960s and a lowering of the voting age. As young adults, they touched off a boom in construction, as many new houses were needed. As the baby boomers become senior citizens, their sheer numbers may cause a shift toward more positive attitudes toward the elderly. Also, more aged persons are maintaining good health and active lifestyles than in the past. This trend will undoubtedly help counteract stereotypical ideas about the infirmities of the elderly.

Bibliography

Achenbaum, W. A. “Societal Perceptions of Aging and the Aged.” Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences. Ed. Robert H. Binstock and Linda George. 7th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic, 2011. Print.

Birren, James E., and K. Warner Schaie, eds. Handbook of the Psychology of Aging. 7th ed. Boston: Elsevier Academic, 2011. Print.

Butler, Robert N. “Ageism.” The Encyclopedia of Aging. Ed. G. Maddox. 2nd ed. New York: Springer, 1995. Print.

Butler, Robert N. Why Survive? Being Old in America. New York: Harper & Row, 1975. Print.

Ferraro, Kenneth F. “The Gerontological Imagination.” Gerontology: Perspectives and Issues. New York: Springer, 1990. Print.

Friedan, Betty. The Fountain of Age. New York: Simon, 2006. Print.

Gullette, Margaret Morganroth. Agewise: Fighting the New Ageism in America. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2011. Print.

Kennedy, Melinda J., and Robin Kamienny Montvilo. “Effects of Age and Contact on Attitudes toward Aging and the Elderly.” Gerontologist 40 (2000): 147. Print.

Nelson, Todd D., ed. Ageism: Stereotyping and Prejudice against Older Persons. Cambridge: MIT P, 2002. Print.

Oberleder, Muriel. Avoid the Aging Trap. Washington, DC: Acropolis, 1982. Print.

Palmore, Erdman. Ageism: Negative and Positive. 2nd ed. New York: Springer, 1999. Print.

What is the variable that is always indicated by the "y" axis when graphed?

Generally, the independent variable is graphed on the x axis and the dependent variable is graphed on the y axis. 

However, bear in mind that this is only a convention (a generally accepted practice) and not a hard and fast rule. Particularly on exams and standardized tests, the test writer may interchange the variables on the axes in an effort to confuse the test taker. You should always take a moment to identify which quantity is graphed on each axis and whether that quantity represents the independent or the dependent variable in the situation.

Remember that the independent variable is the one which the experimenter manipulates or controls, and the dependent variable is the one which changes as a result of the experimenter's changes to the independent variable.

In what ways is Macbeth different to the man we saw at the end of Act One?

At the end of Act One, Macbeth is ruled and easily manipulated by his wife.  When he tells her that they "will proceed no further in this business" of killing Duncan, Lady Macbeth freaks out and begins to question his masculinity, claiming that he can no longer consider himself a man if he backs out.  According to her, she would kill her own baby if she'd promised him to do it before she would ever go back on a promise to him.  She attacks and attacks until he begins to break down, wondering what they will do if they fail.  Once she sees this crack in his resolve, she becomes cajoling and persuasive, insisting that if he will "screw [his] courage to the sticking place / [Then they'll] not fail."  And with that, she's convinced him.

However, by the end of the play, Macbeth no longer takes orders from his wife.  In fact, when he plans and executes (pun intended!) Banquo's murder, he doesn't even consult her -- in fact, he sort of lies to her; further, when she asks if he has anything planned, he tells her not to worry about it for the time being.  When she eventually takes her own life, he seems to have reached a certain level of resignation: in Act 1, he'd felt strongly -- whether it was that he ought to murder Duncan or ought not to -- but now he just seems like a pale shade of his former intensity and passion and fight.  He describes life as a "walking shadow" and "a tale / told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, / Signifying nothing."  He used to believe that fate had a tremendous purpose for him, that he would be great; now he believes that life really has no purpose and that, in the end, it really has no meaning at all.  He is, in many ways, a shell of the man he once was, having done so many terrible things in order to satisfy his pride and ambition, and yet he has never found happiness or contentedness from any of it.

What are four important quotes from The Silver Sword by Ian Serrallier?

There are a lot of important quotes in The Silver Sword. Some of them are about the setting, some are about the characters, and some are about the themes. Let's begin with these four:

In Chapter 4, Joseph (the children's father) returns to Warsaw. He discovers that his house has been bombed and his family is gone. On page 18, Serrallier describes Warsaw very vividly using simple imagery so the reader can understand exactly what a WWII bombing looked like: “But now, on his return, there was hardly a street he recognized and not an undamaged building anywhere.” “Windows were charred and glassless. Public buildings were burnt-out shells.”

Later in Chapter 4, Joseph meets Jan, the young boy who will ultimately be responsible for bringing the family back together. When Joseph meets him, however, he is a little thief trying to survive on what he can scrounge, beg, and steal. Joseph tells Jan he is looking for his children, but Jan replies that all children look alike under the circumstances: "'Warsaw is full of lost children,' he said. 'They’re dirty and starving and they all look alike.'" This quote shows that the bombed-out city is a horrible place filled with children who have been orphaned or separated from their families. It shows that life in the city is far from normal, with families having been ripped apart by the war and livelihoods taken away, so that all the children who survived the bombs have to scrounge and steal food and hide out in the bombed out buildings, which is exactly what Ruth, Edek, and Bronia are doing.

In Chapter 12, the children stop at Posen on their way to Switzerland. They join a queue of people waiting for food. When a bowl of stew is accidentally spilled, the people in the queue are so starved that madness breaks out as the orderly queue becomes a stampede: “Now, in a moment all control vanished. The sight of spilt food was too much for the orderly queue.” This quote shows that the devastating effects of the war are felt by people everywhere, and the children keep seeing the devastation everywhere they go. Along with the quotes from Chapter 4, this keeps the setting of a Europe ravaged by the Second World War consistent through the entire novel. Today's readers have no idea what it must have been like to live through such a horrific, wide-spread destruction as the Second World War, so these descriptions and events are important to keep the reader aware of the setting and the horrors the children experience on their way to find their parents.

Towards the end of the story, the children make it through a terrible storm and find themselves on a boat heading for Switzerland. Jan is forced to choose between Ludwig the dog and Edek, and this decision completes his character arc, because when the children first meet Jan he is self-centered and only cares about himself and animals. But now, finally, he realizes that he cares about other people, too. He has learned how to care for others through having Ruth for a role model, as this quote shows: “In Ruth’s face he saw what he had hardly noticed before, though they had long been there – courage, self-sacrifice, and greatness of heart.” Ruth's courageousness and willingness to sacrifice for others are themes of the novel, and at this point Jan realizes that he wants to continue to be part of Ruth's family. He asks Margrit, the children's mother, to adopt him. 

What does J. mean by "an elephant has suddenly sat down on your chest"?

This phrase is used in Chapter II of Three Men in a Boat. The narrator is discussing the problems involved when camping out, especially when it rains. He paints a detailed scene of the difficulties of putting up a tent in bad weather. When the campers finally have it finished and then retire for the evening, his story takes a bad turn:

There you dream that an elephant has suddenly sat down on your chest, and that the volcano has exploded and thrown you down to the bottom of the sea – the elephant still sleeping peacefully on your bosom. You wake up and grasp the idea that something terrible really has happened.

It turns out that the tent has fallen down around the campers, and the three men are piled in a heap, one on top of the other. The elephant and the volcano are metaphors for something heavy and unexpected landing on you. Because of the possibilities of this happening in real life, J., George, and Harris decide to “sleep out on fine nights” only during this river trip, and to check into the nearest hotel, inn, or pub if it starts to rain. You could call them “fair weather campers.”

Using details from the text, describe the high school that Bryon goes to. How do these characteristics depict that this story takes place in the...

In Chapter 4, Bryon describes his high school and mentions that it is a big school where students come from two drastically different areas. The poorer students were considered greasers, while the kids who lived in the wealthier areas were called the Socs. He comments that the two groups used to fight frequently, but not anymore. Bryon says, "in these days, with all that love, peace, and groove stuff, the fights had slacked off" (Hinton 70). Bryon also mentions that it was getting harder to tell which kids were Socs and which were greasers because they both dressed the same. He says that the Socs were trying to look poor and started to dress like the greasers. Bryon also mentions that the Socs associated with Left-wing politics and considered themselves to be liberals. He says that they would invite him to their parties simply because they wanted to be thought of as cool. Bryon's description of his high school depicts the popular styles and ideologies of the 1960s. Hippie clothing such as distressed Levis and untucked shirts were considered the popular fashion. Also, liberal ideals and the support of ending the Vietnam War were significant political stances that individuals took in the 1960s.

What are hereditary diseases?

Causes and Impact of Hereditary Diseases

Twentieth-century medicine was hugely successful in conquering infectious diseases. Elimination, control, and treatment of diseases such as smallpox, measles, diphtheria, and plague have greatly decreased infant and adult mortality. Improved prenatal and postnatal care have also decreased childhood mortality. Shortly after the rediscovery of Mendelism in the early 1900s, reports of genetic determination of human traits began to appear in medical and biological literature. For the first half of the twentieth century, most of these reports were regarded as interesting scientific reports of isolated clinical diseases that were incidental to the practice of medicine. The field of medical genetics is considered to have begun in 1956 with the first description of the correct number of chromosomes in humans (forty-six). Between 1900 and 1956, findings were accumulating in cytogenetics, Mendelian genetics, biochemical genetics, and other fields that began to draw medicine and genetics together.

The causes of hereditary diseases fall into four major categories:

single-gene defects or Mendelian disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, Huntington’s disease (Huntington’s chorea), color blindness, and phenylketonuria




chromosomal defects involving changes in the number or alterations in the structure of chromosomes, such as Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, and Turner syndrome




multifactorial disorders caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors, such as congenital hip dislocation, cleft palate, and cardiovascular disease




mitochondrial disorders caused by mutations in mitochondrial genes, such as Leber hereditary optic neuropathy

These four categories are relatively clear-cut. It is likely that genetic factors also play a less well-defined role in all human diseases, including susceptibility to many common diseases and degenerative disorders. Genetic factors may affect a person’s health from the time before birth to the time of death.

Congenital defects are birth defects and may be caused by genetic factors, environmental factors (such as trauma, radiation, alcohol, infection, and drugs), or the interaction of genes and environmental agents. Alan Emery and David Rimoin noted that the proportion of childhood deaths attributed to nongenetic causes was estimated to be 83.5 percent in London in 1914 but had declined to 50 percent in Edinburgh by 1976, whereas childhood deaths attributed to genetic causes went from 16.5 percent in 1914 to 50 percent in 1976. These changes reflect society’s increased ability to treat environmental causes of disease, resulting in a larger proportion of the remaining diseases being caused by genetic defects. Rimoin, J. Michael Connor, and Reed Pyeritz estimate that single-gene disorders have a lifetime frequency of 20 in 1,000, chromosomal disorders have a frequency of 3.8 in 1000, and multifactorial disorders have a frequency of 646 in 1,000. It is evident that hereditary diseases are and will be of major concern for some time.

Single-Gene Defects

Single-gene defects result from a change or mutation in a single gene and are referred to as Mendelian disorders or inborn errors of metabolism. In 1865, Gregor Mendel
described the first examples of monohybrid inheritance. In a trait governed by a single locus with two alleles, individuals inherit one allele from each parent. If the alleles are identical, the individual is said to be homozygous. If the alleles are different, the individual is said to be heterozygous.

Single-gene defects are typically recessive. A single copy of a dominant allele will be expressed the same in homozygous and heterozygous individuals, while a recessive allele is expressed only in homozygous individuals (often called homozygotes). In heterozygotes, the dominant allele masks the expression of the recessive allele. This helps explain why recessive single-gene defects predominate. Dominant single-gene defects are always expressed when present and never remain hidden. As a result, natural selection quickly removes these defects from the population.

Genes can be found either on sex chromosomes or nonsex chromosomes (called autosomes). One pair of chromosomes (two chromosomes of the forty-six in humans) have been designated sex chromosomes because the combination of these two chromosomes determines the sex of the individual. Human males have an unlike pair of sex chromosomes, one called the X chromosome and a smaller one called the Y chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes. Genes on the X or Y chromosomes are considered sex-linked. However, since Y chromosomes contain few genes, “sex-linked” usually refers to genes on the X chromosome; when greater precision is required, genes on the X chromosome are referred to as “X-linked.” Inheritance patterns for X-linked traits are different than for autosomal traits. Because males only have one X chromosome, any allele, whether normally recessive or dominant, will be expressed. Therefore, recessive X-linked traits are typically much more common in men than in women, who must have two recessive alleles to express a recessive trait. Additionally, a male inherits X-linked alleles from his mother, because he only gets a Y chromosome from his father.

Chromosomal Disorders

Chromosomal disorders are a major cause of birth defects, some types of cancer, infertility, intellectual disabilities, and other abnormalities. They are also the leading cause of spontaneous abortions.
Structural changes or deviations from the normal number of forty-six chromosomes usually result in abnormalities. Variations in the number of chromosomes may involve just one or a few chromosomes, a condition called aneuploidy, or complete sets of chromosomes, called polyploidy. Polyploidy among live newborns is very rare, and the few polyploid babies who are born usually die within a few days of birth as a result of severe malformations. The vast majority of embryos and fetuses with polyploidy are spontaneously aborted.

Aneuploidy typically involves the loss of one chromosome from a homologous pair, called monosomy, or possession of an extra chromosome, called trisomy. Monosomy involving a pair of autosomes usually leads to death during development. Individuals have survived to birth with forty-five chromosomes, but they suffered from multiple severe defects. Most embryos and fetuses that have autosomal trisomies abort early in pregnancy. Invariably, trisomics that are born have severe physical and mental abnormalities. The most common trisomy involves chromosome 21 (Down syndrome), with much rarer cases involving chromosome 13 (Patau syndrome) or chromosome 18 (Edwards syndrome). Infants with trisomy 13 or 18 have major deformities and invariably die at a very young age. Down syndrome is the most common, occurring in about one in seven hundred births, and is the best known of the chromosomal disorders. Individuals with Down syndrome are short and have slanting eyes, a nose with a low bridge, and stubby hands and feet. About one-third suffer severe intellectual disability. The risk of giving birth to a child with Down syndrome increases dramatically for women over thirty-five years of age.

Variations in the number of sex chromosomes are not as lethal as those involving autosomes. Turner syndrome is the only monosomy that survives in any number, although 98 percent of cases are spontaneously aborted. Patients with Turner syndrome have forty-five chromosomes consisting of twenty-two pairs of autosomes and only one X chromosome. They are short in stature, sterile, and have underdeveloped female characteristics but normal or near-normal intelligence. Other diseases caused by variations in the number of sex chromosomes include Klinefelter syndrome, caused by having forty-seven chromosomes, including two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome (affected individuals are male with small testes and are likely to have some female secondary sex characteristics, such as enlarged breasts and sparse body hair); and triple X syndrome, in which individuals have forty-seven chromosomes, including three X chromosomes (affected individuals are female with variable characteristics; some are sterile, have menstrual irregularities, or both).

Variations in the structure of chromosomes include added pieces (duplications), missing pieces (deletions), and transfer of a segment to a member of a different pair (translocation). Most deletions are likely to have severe effects on developing embryos, causing spontaneous abortion. Only those with small deletions are likely to survive and will have severe abnormalities. The cri du chat (“cry of the cat”) syndrome produces an infant whose cry sounds like a cat’s meow. There is also a form of Down syndrome, called familial Down syndrome, that is caused by a type of reciprocal translocation between two chromosomes.

Multifactorial Traits

Multifactorial traits, sometimes referred to as complex traits, result from an interaction of one or more genes with one or more environmental factors. Sometimes the term “polygenic” is used for traits that are determined by multiple genes with small effects. Multifactorial traits do not follow any simple pattern of inheritance and do not show distinct Mendelian ratios. Such diseases show an increased recurrence risk within families. “Recurrence risk” refers to the likelihood of the trait showing up multiple times in a family; in general, the more closely related someone is to an affected person, the higher the risk. Recurrence risk is often complicated by factors such as the degree of expression of the trait (penetrance), the sex of the affected individual, and the number of affected relatives. For example, pyloric stenosis, a disorder involving an overgrowth of muscle between the stomach and small intestine, is the most common cause of surgery among newborns. It has an incidence of about 0.2 percent in the general population. Males are five times more likely to be affected than females. For an affected male, there is a 5 percent chance his first child will be affected, whereas for a female, there is a 16 percent chance her first child will be affected.

It is necessary to develop separate risks of recurrence for each multifactorial disorder. Multifactorial disorders are thought to account for 50 percent of all congenital defects. In addition, they play a significant role in many adult disorders, including hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, psychosis, dyslexia, epilepsy, and intellectual disability. In total, multifactorial disorders account for more genetic diseases than do single-gene and chromosome disorders combined.

Impact and Applications

In 2003, the Human Genome Project achieved its goal of mapping the entire human genome. The complete specifications of the genetic material on each of the twenty-two autosomes and the X and Y chromosomes will improve the understanding of the biological and molecular bases of hereditary diseases. Once the location of a gene is known, it is possible to make a better prediction of how that gene is transmitted within a family and the probability that an individual will inherit a specific genetic disease.

For many hereditary diseases, the protein produced by the affected gene and its relation to the symptoms of the disease are not known. Locating a gene facilitates this knowledge. It becomes possible to develop new diagnostic tests and therapies. The number of hereditary disorders that can be tested prenatally and in newborns will increase dramatically. In the case of those single genes that do not produce clinical symptoms until later in life, many more of these disorders will be diagnosed before symptoms appear, opening the way for better treatments and even prevention. Possibilities will exist to develop a way to use gene therapy to repair or replace the disease-causing gene. The identification and mapping of single genes and those identified as having major effects on multifactorial disorders will greatly affect hereditary disease treatment and genetic counseling techniques. It is evident that knowledge of genes, both those that cause disease and those that govern normal functions, will begin to raise many questions about legal, ethical, and moral issues.

Key Terms



chromosomal defects

:

defects involving changes in the number or structure of chromosomes





congenital defects


:

birth defects that may be caused by genetic factors, environmental factors, or interactions between genes and environmental agents




hemizygous

:

characterized by being present only in a single copy, as in the case of genes on the single X chromosome in males




Mendelian defects

:

also called single-gene defects; traits controlled by a single gene pair





mitochondrial disorders


:

disorders caused by mutations in mitochondrial genes




mode of inheritance

:

the pattern by which a trait is passed from one generation to the next




multifactorial disorders

:

disorders determined by more than one gene, sometimes in combination with environmental factors





Bibliography

Chen, Harold. Atlas of Genetic Diagnosis and Counseling. 2nd ed. 3 vols. Totowa: Humana, 2012. Print.

Dykens, Elisabeth M., Robert M. Hodapp, and Brenda M. Finucane. Genetics and Mental Retardation Syndromes: A New Look at Behavior and Interventions. Baltimore: Brookes, 2000. Print.

Gilbert, Patricia, ed. Dictionary of Syndromes and Inherited Disorders. 3rd ed. Chicago: Fitzroy, 2000. Print.

Goldstein, Sam, and Cecil R. Reynolds, eds. Handbook of Neurodevelopmental and Genetic Disorders in Children. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford, 2011. Print.

Jorde, Lynn B., John C. Carey, and Michael J. Bamshad. Medical Genetics. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby, 2010. Print.

Judd, Sandra J, ed. Genetic Disorders Sourcebook. 5th ed. Detroit: Omnigraphics, 2013. Print.

McKusick, Victor A.. Mendelian Inheritance in Man: A Catalog of Human Genes and Genetic Disorders. 12th ed. 3 vols. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1998. Print.

Nyhan, William L., Bruce A. Barshop, and Aida I. Al-Aqeel. Atlas of Inherited Metabolic Diseases. 3rd ed. London: Hodder, 2012. Print.

Pasternak, Jack J. An Introduction to Human Molecular Genetics: Mechanisms of Inherited Diseases. 2nd ed. Hoboken: Wiley, 2005. Print.

Scriver, Charles, et al., eds. The Metabolic and Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease. 8th ed. 4 vols. New York: McGraw, 2001. Print.

Tollefsbol, Trygve, ed. Epigenetics in Human Disease. Waltham: Academic, 2012. Print.

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Wynbrandt, James, and Mark D. Ludman. The Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorders and Birth Defects. 3rd ed. New York: Facts on File, 2008. Print.

Is there a chance that people who believe in Buddhism might also believe in Christianity?

There is certainly a possibility that an individual could believe in or see the merits of both Buddhism and Christianity. Many East Asian nations are historically Buddhist, and members of the Christian faith who live in these areas may participate in both religions to some extent. Depending on the particular sect(s) of Christianity or Buddhism, the practice of one or both religions might be difficult, but there is little to suggest that someone could not engage with both.

The basic tenets of both Buddhism and Christianity have a lot in common. The Ten Commandments of Christianity and the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism both discourage or forbid lying, excess, murder, and theft. Where they differ is largely in regard to the idea of God and who or what is supreme in the universe.

In Buddhism, there are no gods. Instead, there are the boddhisatvas (analogous to Catholic saints) and the Buddha. Buddha is a little tricky to understand, but think of it as the pure goodness at the heart of every being. When we talk about the Buddha, we are referring to Siddartha Gautama, who is the founder of Buddhism. He is believed to have discovered the most efficient means of attaining enlightenment by uncovering and acting in accordance with our "Buddha nature." The boddhisatvas are enlightened beings who followed the Noble Eightfold Path but chose to stay in human form to help others on their journey to enlightenment. 

In Christianity, it is considered sinful to worship anyone but the one God and His manifestations as the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Historically, this has been interpreted as only worshiping or venerating approved Christian figures. It is possible that someone who is Christian could have respect for the Buddha and the bodhisattvas without worshiping them as gods. Similarly, a Buddhist might have a lot of respect for Jesus Christ and the example he set during his life. A Buddhist might also interpret "the one God" as the state of non-being experienced during enlightenment.

I think the biggest difficulty one might have in accepting or practicing both Buddhism and Christianity deals with the question of what happens after death. Buddhists believe people are reincarnated according to the spiritual burden we have accumulated during our previous lifetimes. When enlightenment has been achieved, our spirit or Buddha nature is united with all of the other enlightened spirits in an intangible plane of non-being and non-action. Christians take more of a "one-shot" approach, and believe the actions of a person's single lifetime determine whether they will go to heaven or hell. 

From my personal studies of religion and experiences with people of many faiths, I would say that, while Christianity is an organized religion, Buddhism is more of a lifestyle or outlook on the world. The two have a lot in common in their general beliefs and practices -- try to be a good person, and things will turn out well for your spirit. Someone may find that their spiritual life is enriched by the study and practice of co-existing religions. For example, a Christian might choose to abide by the Noble Eightfold Path as a means of helping him or her to refrain from sinning. Whether intentional or not, many Buddhists and Christians lead lives with similar concepts of morality and what creates a spiritual burden on a person.

While it is certainly a more modern phenomenon, some people consider themselves to be Christian Buddhists (or Buddhist Christians) because they have been baptized and believe in the one Christian God, but agree with Buddhist concepts of morality and self-conduct.

So, yes! Conversion from one to the other is not necessary, as both ideologies can co-exist peacefully in one person. It really depends on the particular traditions of someone's faith and the lived practice that may determine whether or not someone identifies as both.

Why does Pip keep his promise with the convict in Great Expectations?

This is a question that would naturally occur to an intelligent reader. Why doesn't Pip promise the convict everything he asks for and then go straight home and report the incident to his family, particularly to his good friend and protector Joe Gargary? The reason can only be that the ten-year-old boy is so thoroughly terrified that he doesn't dare to think of double-crossing the convict. Pip has also sworn an oath.

I said that I would get him the file, and I would get him what broken bits of food I could, and I would come to him at the Battery, early in the morning.

“Say, Lord strike you dead if you don't!” said the man.

I said so, and he took me down.

So Pip is not only afraid of the two escaped convicts, but afraid of the Lord as well. Dickens knew that his whole long novel depended on Pip's keeping his promise and bringing the convict the food and the file the next morning. It was because of this that the convict, Abel Magwitch, would send money to make Pip a gentleman after he became a wealthy man in Australia. So Dickens stresses both that Pip is badly frightened and that he is highly sensitive and impressionable. The author attributes Pip's vulnerability to the harsh and unjust treatment he has received from his sister during his years of being brought up "by hand." In Chapter VIII Pip tells the reader:

My sister's bringing up had made me sensitive....Through all my punishments, disgraces, fasts and vigils, and other penitential performances, I had nursed this assurance; and to my communing so much with it, in a solitary and unprotected way, I in great part refer the fact that I was morally timid and very sensitive.

It is because the little boy is so thoroughly intimidated that in Chapter III he brings Magwitch more than he actually promised. Pip's generosity symbolizes his fear. Along with some other tidbits, he brings him about a half-bottle of brandy and a whole pork pie. To the hungry, shivering, frightened convict this must seem like a feast out of the Arabian Nights. Pip's terror is therefore directly responsible for Magwitch's undying gratitude. Years later when he comes to see Pip in the wonderful Chapter 39, he shows the gratitude which Pip knows he did not deserve.

He came back to where I stood, and again held out both his hands. Not knowing what to do—for, in my astonishment I had lost my self-possession—I reluctantly gave him my hands. He grasped them heartily, raised them to his lips, kissed them, and still held them.

“You acted nobly, my boy,” said he. “Noble Pip! And I have never forgot it!”

When does Atticus teach the rest of Maycomb empathy?

The best answer to this question comes at the end of the trial, at which point Atticus delivers his famous closing speech. The following excerpt is particularly important in the context of this question:

"And so a quiet, respectable, humble Negro who had the unmitigated temerity to 'feel sorry' for a white woman has had to put his word against two white people's... The witnesses for the state... have presented themselves to you gentlemen, to this court, in the cynical confidence that their testimony would not be doubted, confident that you gentlemen would go along with them on the assumption - the evil assumption - that all Negroes lie, that all Negroes are basically immoral beings, that all Negro men are not to be trusted around our women..." (207)

In this section of his closing speech, Atticus points out the racist assumptions that led to the unjust accusation of Tom Robinson. Far from being a villainous criminal, Tom Robinson is a virtuous man who has been accused of rape simply because he is black, and Atticus goes to considerable lengths to pound this notion into the heads of the jurors. By doing so, Atticus attempts to teach the other residents of Maycomb some empathy. He reveals Tom Robinson as a victim powerless in the face of systematic racial oppression, and the realization of this fact is meant to inspire an empathetic reaction. In short, Atticus tries to encourage Maycomb to show Tom Robinson some human empathy, rather than regarding him as an inferior being. The efficacy of this effort is questionable (Tom Robinson is still found guilty of a crime he didn't commit), but the gesture remains an important attempt to force the residents of Maycomb to treat Tom Robinson with empathy. 

In the Giver, what happens in the release ceremony?

During chapter four, Jonas is giving a bath to an elderly woman named Larissa.  At one point during their conversation, she tells Jonas that they celebrated the release of an old person earlier that day.  Jonas asks her what the celebratory ceremony is like.  In a lot of ways it is similar to a funeral, except that the person is still alive . . . and will be killed a little bit later.  

Larissa tells Jonas that every release ceremony has a "telling."  Somebody gets up and narrates important parts of the person's life that is about to be released.  Other people are allowed to get up and speak as well about things they remember about that person.  The person being released is allowed to speak as well.  That's basically a goodbye speech.  

"Well there was the telling of his life … is always first. Then the toast. We all raised our glasses and cheered. We chanted the anthem. He made a lovely good-bye speech. And several of us made little speeches wishing him well."

After all of the speeches are made, the person is taken away to another room in order to be released.  Only members of the release committee are allowed to see and know what happens next.  That's why everybody assumes being released is happy and wonderful instead of murder.  

Does Islamic revivalism challenge a stable world order?

Almost by definition, whenever one country or group of countries tries to gain more power, that country or countries challenges the current, stable world order.  In the early 20th century, Germany tried to gain more power and it disrupted the stable world order.  Today, China is trying to get more power and is, at least to some degree, disrupting world order, particularly as it becomes more aggressive in the South China Sea.  Islamic revivalism is no different which is why it does challenge a stable world order to at least some degree.

We can define Islamic revivalism as an attempt on the part of many Muslims to revive their religion and their society. They are trying to make their societies adhere more closely to the dictates of their religion. They are trying to increase the ties between Muslims in different countries, feeling that all Muslims should stand together against other cultures and societies.  In a sense, this is a movement for what could be called Muslim nationalism.

This would not necessarily challenge the stable world order, but as things have happened, it does.  In this case, one part of Islamic revivalism has been the feeling that Muslims must resist the West and its domination of the world order. When one group of countries feels that another group of countries has too much power, it will try to increase its own power relative to that group.  This means that they are trying to change the balance of power in the world. Whenever anyone tries to change the balance of power in the world, it disrupts the world order.

In addition, one part of the Islamic revival has been an increase in religious fundamentalism that has led to an increase in terrorism. There are those who argue that the terrorism is fundamentally un-Islamic, but the terrorists do not agree. To them, they are part of the revival and they are inspired by the same ideas of purifying their religion and society that motivate the revival.  Thus, we have to also say that the spread of terrorism and of groups like ISIS is due to the Islamic revival, even if most of the Islamic world rejects the terrorists and their methods.  This, too, challenges the stability of the world order.

Just because the Islamic revival challenges a stable world order does not mean that it is necessarily a bad thing. For example, the Civil Rights Movement challenged the stable order in the US, but that order was a bad order.   There is nothing wrong with Muslims wanting to revive their religion and adhere to it more closely. However, some aspects of that revival are bad. Moreover, any time that one group of countries tries to increase its power and influence in the world it will challenge the current world order.

How might tree roots growing into rock cause weathering?

Weathering can occur either mechanically or chemically. Mechanical weathering occurs when larger rocks are broken down into smaller rocks. Their chemical composition is the same, but they are in smaller pieces. Chemical weathering breaks down rock by chemical reactions that occur with the minerals that make up the rock. This can occur with something as simple as water dissolving any salt minerals that are in rocks to acid rain reacting with limestone and marble and wearing them away.

Your question about tree roots is an example of mechanical weathering. As the tree roots begin to grow in the cracks of the rock, the roots will grow in diameter. This growth will slowly make the cracks in the rock larger, and eventually the roots may split the rock into pieces. Other processes may then act on the pieces of the rock, but since the tree roots played a role in breaking the rock apart, it is an example of mechanical weathering.

What does the road symbolize in the poem ''The Road Not Taken''?

The road in Frost's "The Road Not Taken" symbolizes the path of life. At so many different points in our lives, we must make choices. The choices may seem to be small ones, to go down one street as opposed to another or to wear a yellow shirt as opposed to a blue one. But the choices can be large ones, which are more the kinds the poem is intended to make us contemplate. We decide to live in one city or another, we decide to marry one person or another, or we decide to become architects or poets.

All of us would like to perhaps sample these different paths in life, but until we have figured out a way to live alternative lives in alternative universes, we understand that making one choice precludes another nearly all of the time. The narrator says,

Oh, I kept the first for another day!

Yet knowing how way leads on to way,

I doubted if I should ever come back (lines 13-15).

One choice in path leads to another set of choices, and seldom are we able to wend our way back to a previous path-divergence. Even if we do so, we are changed so much by our life experiences that we cannot have a perfect "do-over."

There is some regret and resignation about this, as the narrator says,

I shall be telling this with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence (lines 16-17)

But the fact is, we do have to make these choices on our path through life, and the narrator understands that even though he may have regrets, he must make his choices.

What makes Algernon suspect Ernest’s identity in Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest?

Algernon has two reasons for suspecting Ernest's identity, and they reveal his use of both deductive and inductive logic. First, Algy is in possession of Ernest's cigarette case, which Ernest left on a previous visit to Algy's home. Upon opening the cigarette case, Algy read the inscription "from little Cecily" that was addressed to "her dear Uncle Jack." Deductive reasoning uses valid premises to arrive at guaranteed conclusions. Algy's reasoning goes something like this: "If there is an inscription saying 'To' on a cigarette case, then the owner of that case is the person named in the inscription. The case is inscribed 'To Jack,' therefore the owner is Jack." So Algy knows that either this is not Ernest's cigarette case or "Ernest" is really Jack. Algy tests his theory by asking Ernest if the case is his, and Ernest responds that it certainly is. Therefore, since the first possible conclusion has been ruled out, the second conclusion is guaranteed to be true. 

Algy's second reason to suspect Ernest's identity exhibits inductive reasoning. In inductive reasoning, one reasons from examples to reach a possible conclusion. Algy knows that men sometimes create false stories that allow them to pursue some scheme that serves their own ends. He knows this because he is a man who does this. Algy has concocted a story about a sick friend named Bunbury that he uses as a ready excuse to go into the country when he wants to escape the responsibilities or boredom of city life. He calls this type of deception "Bunburying," and the person who engages in it is a "Bunburyist." Algy explains to Ernest (who he now knows is Jack) that he has "always suspected you of being a confirmed and secret Bunburyist." The reason Algy suspects Jack even apart from the evidence of the cigarette case is because of Algy's own example of the same behavior. Algy reasons that if he does it, other men must be doing it, too. To put the matter more colloquially, he suspects Ernest because "it takes one to know one." 

On a lever what will happen if the fulcrum is moved closer to the effort?

A lever is a simple machine that is used to lift or move heavy loads by use of relatively smaller forces. It uses a fixed support or hinge known as a fulcrum. A bar moves about this fulcrum. Effort is the work done on the lever and resistance is the load that needs to be lifted or moved. The distance between the fulcrum and the effort end is known as length of effort arm. The distance between the fulcrum and load or resistance end is known as the length of the resistance arm. The lever's capability is called mechanical advantage, which is defined as:

Mechanical advantage = length of effort arm / length of load arm

We want the mechanical advantage to be more than 1, so that lesser effort can result in the movement of a higher load.

It also follows from this equation that we prefer a greater length in the effort arm and a smaller length in the load arm. Thus, the fulcrum is ideally placed close to the load end and as far away as possible from the effort end. 

Thus, if we move the fulcrum close to the effort end, the mechanical advantage decreases and we have to use more effort to move the same load.

Hope this helps. 

What are penicillin antibiotics?

Definition

Penicillin is a major subclass of beta-lactam antibiotics discovered in 1928 when a culture plate became contaminated with Penicillium notatum (now called P. chrysogenum). This mold inhibited the Staphylococcus aureus that bacteriologist Alexander Fleming was culturing, and eventually the active ingredient, penicillin, was isolated. However, it took the work of other scientists to establish the practical properties of the drug, and Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain developed it as an antibiotic by performing clinical tests and creating a concentrated form in the late 1930s and early 1940s. Subsequent penicillins were derived from either molds or Streptomyces spp. bacteria. Crystallographer Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin worked out the structure of the penicillin molecule in the late 1940s, allowing the development of synthetic versions of the drug.

Penicillins are highly associated with drug allergy, affecting 6 to 8 percent of the population of the United States. Reactions range from mild rash to cardiovascular collapse, shock, and death. Health care providers should always record a person’s allergy history; people who are allergic to other beta-lactam antibiotics, such as cephalosporins, are likely also allergic to penicillins.

Mechanism of Action

The beta-lactam ring is responsible for the antibacterial actions of the penicillins. Penicillins prevent the formation of peptidoglycan, a substance crucial to the structural stability of bacteria cell walls. The weakened cell walls eventually lyse, or break apart, leading to cell death. Microorganisms that do not have a cell wall, such as
Mycoplasma
, are not susceptible to penicillins.

Drugs in This Class

Several subclasses of penicillins exist. These subclasses are natural penicillins, penicillinase-resistant penicillins, aminopenicillins, and extended spectrum penicillins. Two main factors differentiate the various penicillin products available from each other: resistance to staphylococcal penicillinase and spectrum of activity.

Staphylococcal penicillinase is an enzyme in the beta-lactamase family that inactivates certain beta-lactam antibiotics. The natural penicillins (penicillins G and V) are narrow-spectrum antibiotics used against a number of gram-positive bacteria such as streptococci. They are not resistant to penicillinase and have only limited activity against staphylococci. Penicillin G (benzylpenicillin) is unstable in stomach acid and must be given as an immediate-action injection. When formulated as insoluble benzathine and procaine salts, it may be given as a long-acting intramuscular injection. Penicillin V (phenoxymethyl penicillin) was the first oral penicillin.

The resistant penicillins (methicillin, nafcillin, oxacillin, and dicloxacillin) retain effectiveness against penicillinase-producing S. aureus. They do not, however, have a broad spectrum of activity and are only an improvement on natural penicillins in their activity against staphylococci. Even this advantage is diminishing over time with the development of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), which refers more broadly to S. aureus strains that are resistant to all penicillins; vancomycin is the drug of choice for MRSA. Methicillin itself is no longer clinically relevant.

Aminopenicillins possess a broader spectrum of activity and are effective against some gram-negative bacteria. Ampicillin, the first drug in this category, is effective against a number of gram-negative bacteria, but not against Pseudomonas. Amoxicillin is closely related to ampicillin but has better oral absorption; it can cause gastrointestinal upset and drug-induced diarrhea. A combination of amoxicillin with clavulenic acid (Augmentin) lends some protection against penicillinase. These drugs are all available in oral dosage forms.

Subsequent broad-spectrum penicillins for intravenous use (ticarcillin and pipericillin) are active against Pseudomonas but are less active against some other gram-negative bacteria. These drugs and the aminopenicillins are as active against gram-positive cocci as are natural penicillins. Ticarcillin is often combined with potassium clavulanate and pipericillin with tazobactam to increase the resistance to penicillinase.

Impact

Penicillins remain important antibiotics for a number of conditions.
Most are inexpensive and have a reasonably favorable adverse-effect profile. The
increased prevalence of MRSA, however, particularly in hospitalized persons, has
limited the scope of penicillins in recent years.

Bibliography

“Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Agents.” In Foye’s Principles of Medicinal Chemistry, edited by Thomas L. Lemke et al. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008.

Markel, Howard. "The Real Story behind Penicillin." PBS NewsHour. NewsHour Productions, 27 Sept. 2013. Web. 23 Dec. 2014.

Murray, Patrick R., Ken S. Rosenthal, and Michael A. Pfaller. “Antibacterial Agents.” In Medical Microbiology. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby/Elsevier, 2009.

Sanford, Jay P., et al. The Sanford Guide to Antimicrobial Therapy. 18th ed. Sperryville, Va.: Antimicrobial Therapy, 2010.

Tortora, Gerard J., Berdell R. Funke, and Christine L. Case. “Antimicrobial Drugs.” In Microbiology: An Introduction. 10th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2010.

Van Bambeke, Françoise, et al. “Antibiotics That Act on the Cell Wall.” In Cohen and Powderly Infectious Diseases, edited by Jonathan Cohen, Steven M. Opal, and William G. Powderly. 3d ed. Philadelphia: Mosby/Elsevier, 2010.

Villa, Tomás González, and Patricia Veiga-Crespo. Antimicrobial Compounds: Current Strategies and New Alternatives. Heidelberg: Springer, 2014. Print.

Zuchora-Walske, Christine, and Erika J. Ernst. Antibiotics. Minneapolis: ABDO, 2014. Print.

How did the alliances in Europe help to bring about the First World War?

The alliance systems basically ensured that what began as a local conflict in the Balkans became a continent-wide conflict. When Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was killed by a Serbian assassin in Sarajevo, the Austrians, with German support, held the entire nation of Serbia directly responsible for the act. They issued an ultimatum that the Serbians could not reasonably accept, and declared war on them. When they declared war, Russia, a Serbian ally, mobilized its armed forces against Austria-Hungary. Germany then declared war on Russia. At this point, Russia's allies France declared war on Germany. When Germany violated Belgian neutrality, Great Britain, a Belgian ally, declared war on the Germans. So all of Europe was dragged into what began as a conflict over Serbian grievances against Austria-Hungary. The fact that each of the belligerent nations held imperial possessions in Africa and elsewhere ensured that it spread around the world as well. 

Why is it that if the law of diminishing marginal returns should not have held that the world's food should have been cultivated in a flower pot?

The law of diminishing returns does not say that we should grow all of the world’s food in a flower pot because that law has only to do with short-run situations where there is a fixed input. In the case of agriculture for the entire world, land is not really a fixed input.

The law of diminishing returns only applies when there is a fixed input.  In this case, the input would be land.  If we started growing food in a flower pot, the law of diminishing returns would say that it would be a waste of time and money to, for example, hire a lot of workers, buy a combine, or buy a lot of fertilizer.  When you add those sorts of inputs to your fixed amount of land (the flower pot), you do not get much of a return.  The return that you get declines as you add more inputs.

However, in the real world of agriculture, this does not apply.  If we imagine that agriculture started in a flower pot, we would not have to confine agriculture to that pot.  Instead, we could start to add more land to our inputs.  This would mean that the law of diminishing returns would no longer apply because there would be no fixed input.

What are quotes in To Kill a Mockingbird that support the duality of good vs evil—specifically where Atticus represents good and Bob Ewell evil?

Most of the examples showing the duality between good and evil—Atticus Finch vs Bob Ewell—can be found in chapter 23. There is also one in chapter 3.

When Bob Ewell spits in his face, all Atticus just says,

"I wish Bob Ewell wouldn't chew tobacco" (217).

This shows that, even though Bob Ewell is low enough to spit in someone's face, Atticus is big enough not to let it phase him. When discussing the issue with his son, Jem, Atticus makes sure to teach an important lesson:

I destroyed his last shred of credibility at that trial, if he had any to begin with. The man had to have some kind of comeback, his kind always does. So if spitting in my face and threatening me saved Mayella Ewell one extra beating, that's something I'll gladly take (218).

Knowing Ewell's tendency to beat his daughter, Mayella, Atticus does not mind taking the brunt of Ewell's aggression if it saves her from another beating. There is nothing but goodness in this lesson from Atticus, whereas the only lessons Bob Ewell teaches his children is starvation and survival of the fittest. What Atticus doesn't tell his children about the face-off with Ewell is what Miss Stephanie reveals,

Mr. Ewell was a veteran of an obscure war; that plus Atticus's peaceful reaction probably prompted him to inquired, "Too proud to fight, you ni****-lovin' bast*rd?" Miss Stephanie said Atticus said, "No, too old," put his hands in his pockets and strolled on. Miss Stephanie said you had to hand it to Atticus Finch, he could be right dry sometimes (217).

Miss Stephanie calls Atticus dry, but it takes a strong man to walk away from someone who tries to humiliate him in public. Not only that, but Atticus doesn't show any pride in dismissing Ewell. He is humble and peaceful at all times, no matter what happens.

Another part that shows Atticus discussing the evils of Bob Ewell with his daughter is in chapter three. Scout wonders why Burris Ewell doesn't have to go to school. Atticus explains Mr. Ewell isn't the best father around, so the community allows the family some concessions. One concession is they allow Ewell to hunt out of season, which Scout says is bad. Atticus responds,

"It's against the law, all right... but when a man spends his relief checks on green whiskey his children have a way of crying from hunger pains. I don't know of any landowner around here who begrudges those children any game their father can hit (31).

With this example, Atticus shows how evil Ewell is to make his children go hungry. Later, we learn Bob Ewell doesn't even call a doctor for his children when they are sick and suffering. They are also very unclean and live in an impoverished environment. Scout, who has a very dutiful and loving father, does not suffer or fear a beating each night in her home. The contrast between Atticus and Bob Ewell behave as parents is drastic, just like good vs. evil.

What is binge drinking?

Causes

Ethanol (C2H5OH) is the psychoactive (mind-altering) component of alcoholic beverages, namely beer, wine, and hard liquor. Since antiquity, ethanol has been produced by the fermentation of sugar.

Alcohol is a flammable and colorless liquid and is readily available on the marketplace. Although the sale of alcoholic beverages in the United States and many other developed nations is generally restricted to adults over the age of twenty-one years, minors can often obtain the product through a third party, sometimes even their parents, without difficulty.

Peer pressure is a major factor in binge drinking. Teenagers and young adults who have never consumed alcohol, or who have consumed only an occasional alcoholic beverage, may succumb to peer pressure in a party environment and engage in binge drinking through drinking games. Party attendees are sometimes encouraged to partake in drinking with a beer “bong,” which facilitates binge drinking. (A beer bong is a funnel attached to a hose. The drinker lies on his or her back, and one or more bottles of beer are funneled into his or her mouth.)

Significant evidence exists that genetic factors are involved in the development of alcoholism. The interaction of genes and environment is complex and, for most people with alcohol dependence, many factors are involved. Since 1989, the US government-funded Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA) has been tracking alcoholism in families. COGA researchers have interviewed more than fourteen thousand people and sampled the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) of hundreds of families. Researchers have found evidence for the existence of several alcohol-related genes. COGA researchers are increasingly convinced that certain types of alcoholics are representative of specific genetic variations.

Risk Factors

The following factors increase one’s risk of binge drinking:

Rate of drinking. Rapid consumption of a given amount of alcohol increases the risk of alcohol poisoning. One to two hours are required to metabolize one drink.

Gender. Young men from age eighteen through twenty-five years are the most likely group to engage in binge drinking; thus, they are at the highest risk for alcohol poisoning. However, young women also engage in binge drinking and are more susceptible to alcohol poisoning because women produce less of an enzyme that slows the release of alcohol from the stomach than men.

Age. Teenagers and college-age youth are more likely to engage in binge drinking; however, the majority of deaths from binge drinking occur in persons age thirty-five to fifty-four years. The persons in this age group often do not metabolize alcohol as readily as younger persons and are more likely to have underlying health problems that increase the risk.

Body mass. A heavier person can drink more alcohol than a lighter person and still register the same blood alcohol content (BAC). For example, a 240-pound man who drinks two cocktails will have the same BAC as a 120-pound woman who consumes one cocktail.

Overall health. Persons with kidney, liver, or heart disease, or with other health problems, may metabolize alcohol more slowly. Persons with diabetes who binge drink might experience a dangerous drop in blood sugar level.

Food consumption. A full stomach slows the absorption of alcohol; thus, drinking on an empty stomach increases the risk.

Drug use. Prescription and over-the-counter drugs might increase the risk of alcohol poisoning. Ingestion of illegal substances, such as cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin, and marijuana, also increase the risk.

Symptoms

Symptoms of alcohol poisoning include respiratory depression (slow breathing rate); confusion, stupor, or unconsciousness; slow heart rate; low blood pressure; low body temperature (hypothermia); vomiting; seizures; irregular breathing (a gap of more than ten seconds between breaths); and blue-tinged skin or pale skin.

Screening and Diagnosis

The BAC test is a definitive measure of alcohol in the blood and, hence, of blood poisoning. Persons with alcohol poisoning often have a BAC of 0.35 to 0.5 percent. By comparison, the BAC level that marks driving under the influence is 0.08 percent in all US states. Other screening tests include complete blood count and other tests that check levels of glucose, urea, arterial pH, and electrolytes in the blood.

Treatment and Therapy

Acute treatment consists of supportive measures until the body metabolizes the alcohol; acute treatment includes insertion of an airway (endotracheal tube) to prevent vomiting and aspiration of stomach contents into the lungs; close monitoring of vital signs (temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure); oxygen administration; medication to increase blood pressure and heart rate, if needed; respiratory support, if needed; and maintenance of body temperature (blankets or warming devices). Acute treatment also includes the administration of intravenous fluids to prevent dehydration (glucose should be added if the person is hypoglycemic, and thiamine is often added to reduce the risk of a seizure). Further treatment includes hemodialysis (blood cleansing), which might be needed for dangerously high BAC levels (more than 0.4 percent). Hemodialysis also is necessary if methanol or isopropyl alcohol has been ingested.

Follow-up treatment for binge drinking requires the aid of a health care professional skilled in alcohol abuse treatment. A treatment plan includes behavior-modification techniques, counseling, goal setting, and use of self-help manuals or online resources. Counseling on an individual or group basis is an essential treatment component. Group therapy, which is particularly valuable because it allows interaction with others who abuse alcohol, helps a person become aware that his or her problems are not unique. Family support is a significant component of the recovery process, so therapy may include a spouse or other family member.

Binge drinking may be a component of other mental health disorders. Counseling or psychotherapy may be recommended. Treatment for depression or anxiety also may be a part of follow-up care. Beyond counseling and medication, other modalities may be helpful. For example, in September 2010, researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles released the results of a clinical trial on a unique therapy that applies electrical stimulation to a major nerve that emanates from the brain. The technique, trigeminal nerve stimulation, reduced participants’ depression an average of 70 percent in an eight-week period.

Care also may include long-term pharmaceutical treatment, including the oral medications disulfiram, acamprosate, and naltrexone. Disulfiram (Antabuse), which is taken orally, produces unpleasant physical reactions to alcohol ingestion; these reactions include flushing, headaches, nausea, and vomiting. Disulfiram, however, does not reduce the craving for alcohol. One drug that can reduce craving is acamprosate (Campral). Another drug, naltrexone
(ReVia), may reduce the urge to drink, and it blocks the pleasant sensations associated with alcohol consumption. Oral medications are not foolproof, however; if a person wants to return to drinking, he or she can simply stop taking the medication.

To avoid (or manage) relapses and to help deal with the necessary lifestyle changes to maintain sobriety, aftercare programs and support groups are essential for the recovering alcoholic. Regular attendance at a support group, such as Alcoholics Anonymous, is often a component of follow-up care.

Although death can occur from binge drinking, most alcohol-related fatalities occur in automobile accidents caused by driving under the influence. Also, women who binge drink are vulnerable to sexual assault while in an alcohol-induced stupor. Repeated episodes of binge drinking can result in permanent physical injury and in reduced quality of health. Brain and liver damage is common in repetitive binge drinkers. A young adult who binge drinks often progresses to alcoholism in adulthood.

Prevention

The best way to prevent binge drinking is to educate persons who partake in at-risk behaviors. The highest risk for binge drinking occurs among young men, who often have a sense of invincibility and who often disregard advice from any source. Peer pressure is probably the best deterrent; it also is a factor that can encourage binge drinking. Finally, children with a good parental relationship are less likely to drink to excess.

Bibliography

"Alcohol Overdose: The Dangers of Drinking Too Much." National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Natl. Inst. of Health, Apr. 2015. Web. 26 Oct. 2015.

Fisher, Gary L., and Thomas C. Harrison. Substance Abuse: Information for School Counselors, Social Workers, Therapists, and Counselors. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River: Merrill, 2012. Print.

Ketcham, Katherine, and William F. Asbury. Beyond the Influence: Understanding and Defeating Alcoholism. New York: Bantam, 2000. Print.

Martin, Scott C. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Alcohol: Social, Cultural, and Historical Perspectives. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2015. Print.

Miller, William R., and Kathleen M. Carroll, eds. Rethinking Substance Abuse: What the Science Shows, and What We Should Do about It. New York: Guilford, 2010. Print.

Olson, Kent R., et al., eds. Poisoning and Drug Overdose. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012. Print.

Patrick, Megan E., and John E. Schulenberg. "Prevalence and Predictors of Adolescent Alcohol Use and Binge Drinking in the United States." Alcohol Research: Current Reviews 35.2 (2015): 193–200. Print.

What is the meaning of the Double V campaign?

The Double V campaign was a part of World War II. African-Americans used the Double V campaign because they believed they were fighting in World War II to end racism in Europe and to end discrimination in the United States.

Adolf Hitler had expressed his ideas about the superiority of the Aryan race. Those who weren’t of the Aryan race were viewed negatively. Some people, such as the Jewish people, were imprisoned and killed. African-Americans were fighting to defeat these racist ideas as well as to bring democratic government to Germany and to other European countries.

African-Americans also were fighting to end discrimination in the United States. African-Americans faced discrimination in getting hired at federal defense plants. They had to suggest there would be a march on Washington, D.C. if no actions were taken to end this discrimination. This led to an executive order by Franklin D. Roosevelt ending discrimination in hiring workers in federal defense factories. President Roosevelt didn't want the leaders of the Axis Powers to think people in our country didn't support our war effort. African-Americans believed that if they were fighting for freedom, democracy, equal treatment, and an end to racist ideas in Europe, then those same ideas shouldn’t be allowed to exist in the United States.

Thus, African-Americans were fighting for victory both abroad and in the United States.

The epiglottis keeps swallowed food from entering the trachea: true or false?

True. The epiglottis is a piece of cartilage which acts as a valve at the entrance to the trachea. The trachea is the tube connecting the mouth and lungs through which breathing occurs. The esophagus is the tube connecting the mouth and the stomach through which food must be swallowed. 

When a person is breathing, the epiglottis is open and allows air to pass into the trachea. However, when a person swallows the epiglottis seals off the trachea. Food is then prevented from entering the trachea and instead forced down the esophagus as the person finishes swallowing. 

Food which incorrectly enters the trachea is said to have been aspirated. This can occur when a person eats too fast. Aspiration is an unpleasant sensation which will trigger a coughing reflex to expel the food from the trachea. 

In his closing argument, Atticus says that Mayella Ewell feels guilty. What does she feel guilty about?

In Chapter 20, Atticus addresses the jury and gives his closing argument. Atticus mentions that the case is as "simple as black and white" as he discusses the lack of evidence and conflicting testimonies from the Ewells. Atticus comments that Mayella Ewell has accused Tom Robinson of assault and rape in order to get rid of her own guilt. He says that guilt motivated her because she broke a "time-honored code" of society. The code that Atticus is referring to deals with interracial relations. In 1930s Alabama, it was socially unacceptable for a white person to have relations with a black person. Atticus says, "She did something that in our society is unspeakable: she kissed a black man" (Lee 272). Mayella's father caught her kissing Tom Robinson and proceeded to beat his daughter severely. According to Atticus, Mayella's shame and guilt motivated her to "destroy the evidence," which happened to be Tom Robinson. Atticus tells the jury that Tom Robinson was a daily reminder to Mayella of what she did. Instead of enduring the shame of her community, she decided to accuse Tom Robinson of raping her to save face.

How does Romeo arrange the marriage?

In Act II, Scene 3, which immediately follows the famous balcony scene where Romeo and Juliet pledge their love for each other, Romeo goes to see Friar Lawrence with the express purpose of declaring his love for the "fair daughter of rich Capulet" and asking the friar to perform the marriage between he and Juliet. He hopes that he can convince the friar that he is truly in love with Juliet even though the day before he had been madly in love with another girl named Rosaline. Friar Lawrence quickly rebukes Romeo, condemning his idea of love:

Holy Saint Francis, what a change is here!
Is Rosaline, that thou didst love so dear,
So soon forsaken? Young men’s love then lies
Not truly in their hearts, but in their eyes.

Ultimately, however, the friar agrees to perform the marriage, believing that the pairing of the two youngsters will bring about the end of the feud between their parents. Having secured the aid of Friar Lawrence, Romeo only needs to get a message to Juliet about the time and place of the wedding. He does this in Act II, Scene 4 when the Nurse ventures into the streets where Romeo and the other Montague men are standing around. Her appearance is fodder for the jokes of Mercutio and the Nurse becomes quite angry before privately meeting with Romeo who tells her the plans he has made for Juliet:

Bid her devise
Some means to come to shrift this afternoon,
And there she shall at Friar Lawrence’ cell
Be shrived and married.

"Shrift" is simply the act of confession and Juliet would have certainly been allowed to go the church to meet with Friar Lawrence for that purpose. Romeo also asks the Nurse to wait behind the "abbey wall" to receive a "tackled stair" (rope ladder) which Romeo will use to ascend Juliet's bedroom for their honeymoon. In Act II, Scene 6 the couple is indeed married by Friar Lawrence.

How do the main characters' personalities and behaviors change from the beginning of the novel to the end of The Beautiful and Damned by F. Scott...

Gloria and Anthony, the lovers and later married couple who are at the center of The Beautiful and Damned, undergo fairly dramatic changes in their personalities by the end of the novel. As the story begins, they are both vibrant and lively, eager for new experiences and eager to have lives full of excitement and pleasure. They marry, convinced they're right for each other partly because they're both popular, admired and held in high esteem within their social circles. Gloria is considered a great beauty and Anthony is considered a young man with many talents and prospects. But after they are married for a while, things begin to shift. Anthony can't find a job that he thinks is worthy of his talents and energy, and becomes depressed. Gloria is frustrated by his inability to get a job that will allow them to live in the luxurious style she is accustomed to.

Gloria is initially quite needy and dependent on others to do things for her, as well as very fastidious, fussy about food, etc. But as Anthony becomes weaker and less able to function, he becomes dependent on her and Gloria finds she must cope by become the one who is more responsible and practical. She learns to cook and stops spending money on frivolous things they can't afford. In the end, there seems to be one last opportunity for Anthony to make something of himself, but when that opportunity finally arises, he is too beaten down and disillusioned to take advantage of it. Their hope for the future seems to have left them forever.

How do the inca first react to the arrival of the Spanish

The Inca had a large population and were themselves expansionist, and were in the process of conquering and integrating much of the rest of Central America when the Spanish arrived. They made some effort to be civilized, and would try to negotiate peace rather than engaging in total war---but still, they were imperialists.

The Inca were initially relatively welcoming to the Spanish explorers, trying to open diplomatic relations with them. They didn't realize that their recent plagues were due to new diseases from Europe, nor that the Spanish had no particular desire for diplomacy or compromise.

But the plague (most likely smallpox) threw the Inca into disarray, and exploiting this advantage along with their technological superiority the Spanish swiftly conquered the Incan capital Cusco. The fact that so few were able to so decisively conquer so many is still a little baffling to historians.

There were subsequent revolts against the Spanish and a series of civil wars; but the Spanish ultimately prevailed. Eventually the Spanish-controlled governments in the region became independent states such as Chile and Argentina.

What is a craniotomy?

Indications and Procedures

Problems requiring craniotomy include tumors, abscesses, hematomas, and vascular
lesions. The cranium may also be opened to excise an area of cortex or to disrupt various nerves and fiber tracts for the relief of pain, seizures, tremors, or spasms that do not respond to pharmacologic therapy. Skull fractures and other traumatic head wounds may be repaired by opening the cranium. Bony defects, dural tearing, bleeding, and removal of penetrating objects are also treated with this procedure. In case of a neoplasm (tumor), the goal of surgery is to remove the pathology completely while preserving the normal neural and vascular structures.

In craniotomy, the skin is cut to the skull bone. Small bleeding arteries are sealed with electric current, and the skin is pulled back. Three burr holes are drilled into the skull, and a fine-wire Gigli’s saw is used to connect the holes. The skull piece is hinged open, and the dura mater, a tough membrane covering the brain, is dissected away. After the required procedure on the brain is completed, the dura mater is stitched together, the bone flap is replaced and secured with soft wire, and the scalp incision is closed.

An intracranial operation can be considered a planned head injury, and the complications are similar. Postoperatively, the degree of impairment depends on the extent of damage to neural tissue caused both by the neurological disorder and by surgical manipulation. Damage may be transient or permanent.

Uses and Complications

With craniotomy, complications include cerebral edema (swelling), which is a normal reaction to the manipulation and retraction of brain tissue. Periorbital edema and ecchymosis (bleeding under the skin) usually follow frontal and temporal surgery. Focal motor deficits result from cerebral edema and are transitory. Permanent focal motor deficits may occur and are a direct and predictable consequence of the surgical procedure or the result of a complication such as stroke. Hematomas are the most devastating and dreaded complication. The clots may be extradural, intradural, or both and usually are caused by a single bleeding vessel rather than a generalized bleed.

Pain and discomfort are expected following cranial surgery, with headache being most common. Pain control may be accomplished with mild analgesics. Fever may occur following operations in the region of the upper brain stem and hypothalamus, and it requires vigorous treatment. Infection may occur, with the risk being greater following open head trauma and if a cerebrospinal fluid leak is present. Postoperative seizure risk is related to the underlying pathological condition and the degree of damage caused by surgery. Diabetes insipidus and the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) secretion are also possible complications of craniotomy. These endocrine disorders may be transient or permanent. If unchecked, either may be life-threatening because of the severity of the fluid and electrolyte imbalance precipitated.

A cerebrospinal fluid leak may occur immediately following surgery but usually appears later in the postoperative course. Fluid seeps from the wound edges. Discharge from the nose (rhinorrhea) or ears (otorrhea) of cerebrospinal fluid is frequent with basal skull fractures, but these conditions may also occur following surgery in the frontal sinus or mastoid cavity. Anosmia
(loss of sense of smell) frequently occurs following head injury or frontal craniotomy. Visual loss may be caused by damage to the optic nerve, resulting in blindness and lack of response to direct light. Hydrocephalus may develop as a result of postoperative adhesions secondary to blood sealing the subarachnoid space. Postoperative meningitis, abscess formation, and osteomyelitis of the bone flap occur as complications of a break in sterility or the introduction of organisms as a result of a contaminated open wound.

Bibliography

Aminoff, Michael J., David A. Greenberg, and Roger P. Simon. Clinical Neurology. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2012.

Bakay, Louis. An Early History of Craniotomy: From Antiquity to the Napoleonic Era. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1985.

Jasmin, Luc. "Brain Surgery." MedlinePlus, February 9, 2011.

Kellicker, Patricia Griffin. "Craniotomy." Health Library, February 6, 2013.

Rowland, Lewis P., ed. Merritt’s Textbook of Neurology. 12th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2010.

Samuels, Martin A., ed. Manual of Neurologic Therapeutics. 7th ed. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004.