In "Harrison Bergeron" by Kurt Vonnegut, what behavior do you think might be viewed as abnormal and illegal?

In the short story "Harrison Bergeron," everything that exceeds the lowest common denominator set by Handicapper General Diana Moon Glampers is considered abnormal or illegal.

Arts, in particular, would be considered abnormal or illegal. There are specific examples of this: the musicians and the ballerinas. These performers are handicapped despite the fact that the purpose of arts is to be aesthetically pleasing. But the ballerina who reads the report about Harrison "must have been extraordinarily beautiful, because the mask she wore was hideous," and "was the strongest and most graceful of all the dancers, for her handicap bags were as big as those worn by two-hundred-pound men." What would this mean for other artists? Were there composers or painters? Was any new art being composed? Would this art be beautiful?

Another thing that might be considered abnormal or illegal is contrary thought. One of the ideals in American democracy is the ability to disagree and have differences and eventually compromise. However, there is no compromise needed in the year of 2081 because everyone is forced to agree. George Bergeron states this idea concisely when Hazel suggests he remove some of the led balls in his handicap:

"If I tried to get away with it ... then other people'd get away with it—and pretty soon we'd be right back to the dark ages again, with everybody competing against everybody else."

Why does Gatsby object to letting Tom drive his car?

What is happening in chapter seven when Tom insists on driving Gatsby's car to Manhattan from East Egg is a ratcheting up of the tension that has simmered between the two men all afternoon.  Tom recognizes that Daisy is interested in Gatsby, and because Tom is a competitor unaccustomed to losing, he aggressively tries to regain control of his wife by emasculating Gatsby in any way he can.  Gatsby, also a competitor, recognizes what Tom is trying to do and objects when Tom directs him to "take my coupe and let me drive your car to town." However, Gatsby understands that he needs to act like a gentleman in front of Daisy, so he merely suggests "shall we all go in my car?"  Gatsby is, after all, a guest at the Buchanan's home and cannot risk alienating Daisy at this point, even though he understands that Tom is commandeering his car to appear more powerful than Gatsby.

Fitzgerald, F. Scott.  The Great Gatsby. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1925.

How does Jimmy's decision to use his burglary tools to save Agatha show a change in his character in "A Retrieved Reformation"?

Jimmy's skillful use of his burglary tools clearly demonstrates his willingness to return to prison rather than have a child suffocate. His change of character is from partial self-interest to complete unselfishness.

After Jimmy Valentine changes his name to Ralph Spencer, his transformation from thief and safe cracker to good citizen begins. This change is made because he has fallen in love with pretty Annabel Adams, the daughter of the bank president in Elmore, Arkansas, where he originally intended to rob the bank. It is also because of his love for Annabel that he decides to give away his tools to another man. This change to good citizen is partially because of his own self-interest in wishing to marry Annabel Adams.

Fortunately for nine-year-old Agatha—but unfortunately for him—Ralph Spencer happens to still have the safe-cracking tools in a supposed suitcase for his trip to Little Rock when he steps into the Elmore Bank on the day that the little girl has trapped herself inside. When Annabel pleads with her fiancé, "Can't you do something, Ralph—try, won't you?" he looks at her with "a queer, soft smile on his lips and in his keen eyes" because he knows that he must act nobly for his beloved Annabel, or lose her devotion. He also loves her and does not want her to be distraught.

So, in his most unselfish act of love, Ralph returns to being Jimmy Valentine and breaks into the vault, saving Agatha. Fully realizing that Annabel and her family now know that he has previously engaged in criminal activity, Jimmy walks out of the bank, thinking he has lost his beloved. But Ben Price rewards him for his truly loving act, aware that Jimmy is, indeed, now reformed. When Jimmy speaks to him, resigned to being arrested, Price pretends that he does not know Jimmy.

Is terror at Tinker Creek a chapter in Dillard's Pilgrim at Tinker Creek or a stand alone essay?

“Terror at Tinker Creek” is not a name of a chapter in Pilgrim at Tinker Creek. However, it does aptly describe the reader’s feeling once he or she reaches the book’s via negativa section, which begins with the chapter titled “Fecundity.” In this chapter, Annie Dillard expresses her growing discomfort and disgust with the immense scale of the earth’s living creatures. Particularly from a human perspective, this cycle of life and death seems wasteful and pointless. Here, Dillard begins to grapple with the thought that the universe, rather than being a place of wonder and awe, is an uncaring cycle of reproduction and death. 

After a long search, I also do not believe that “Terror at Tinker Creek” is a stand-alone essay. Dillard herself does not mention it in her website’s “Essays” section, “Stories” section, or “Odd Bits” section, and it does not appear in any search engines. I'd be interested to hear if anyone else found this essay, and I wonder if perhaps it is a scholarly essay written about Dillard's Pilgrim at Tinker Creek. However, if that is the case, I am still unable to find a satisfactory result for it. 

For a full list of chapter titles, as well as short summaries, I suggest reviewing the link at the bottom of my answer.

What is a summary of Chapter Twelve of Marc Reisner's Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water?

Chapter Twelve of Marc Reisner's scathing indictment of the development of the American West, Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water, is titled "Things Fall Apart." That choice of a title pretty well summarizes the content of the chapter. Having taken the reader along for a centuries-old history of the region's "discovery" by European imperialists (mainly the Spanish) and the millennia-old occupation of these lands by what are now called Native Americans, and having provided copious details of the failure of successive governments over those centuries to properly manage and regulate the exploitation of the region's natural resources, Reisner now, in the book's final chapter, provides a sort of wrap-up of his history. In order to do this, he reiterates the failure of those of European ancestry, in stark contrast to the indigenous tribes that occupied the land for centuries before the Europeans' arrival, to adapt to the inherent limitations of the land. It is in Chapter Twelve that Reisner provides his exceedingly pessimistic outlook for the region's future, much of the water needed to sustain the region's growth having been largely wasted for so many years. 

Reisner begins Chapter Twelve with a brief description of the Ogallala Aquifer, the vast expanse of land that begins in southern South Dakota and that stretches to the arid region of West Texas. Describing the experience of driving that expanse, and observing the seemingly endless series of flat plains on which are grown corn, sorghum, alfalfa, wheat, and cotton, the latter a particularly water-intensive crop, Reisner reminds the reader of the systemic misuse of this land by the United States throughout its history. A large part of the problem that condemns this region to a dismal future, Reisner suggests, is the role of capitalist economics in its development. The resources natural to the American West have historically been exploited according to economic factors, including interest rates and commodity prices established in remote financial centers. Throughout this chapter, as in the preceding chapters, the author emphasizes the long-term ramifications of treating the region's natural resources, especially water, which is, obviously, vital to every living creature, as artificial constructs designed to facilitate the growth of industries like mining and large-scale farming alien to a region where water is such a precious commodity.

Throughout his book, and again in Chapter Twelve, Reisner has emphasized the role of irrigation in developing the region economically. Irrigation, he points out, is essential for sustaining such large-scale agricultural activities, but it, again, was an alien concept introduced into the arid region for the purpose of facilitating the development of industries not native to the region. Reisner does not condemn the introduction of irrigation so much as conclude that its massive incorporation into the American West, rather than being gradually introduced in a more environmentally-sustainable manner, destroyed the region's long-term potential. Again, the economics of the situation provided the foundation for the scale of the disaster that is developing, but political considerations even trumped economics as a destructive force. As he wrote in this chapter,

"[T]he states had begged the government to build them dams for irrigation, and they had lobbied to keep the price of water artificially low, arguing that agriculture was the only stability they had. The opportunity for economic stability offered by the world's largest aquifer, however, was squandered for immediate gain. The only inference one can draw is that the states felt confident that when they ran out of water, the rest of the country would be willing to rescue them."

Deputy Chief of Planning for the Bureau of Reclamation Jim Casey serves in this chapter as, in Reisner's words, the Cassandra, having spent his tenure in government warning of the perils of unsustainable agricultural use and economic development. Casey, Reisner points out, was alone within the department he served in correctly foreseeing the dangers of manipulating the land through the use of dams and irrigation systems, but his warnings would be ignored. Unlike most, Casey saw an eventual end to the water supplies that sustained the region's growth. The culture of Texas, in particular, Reisner argued, remained painfully ignorant of the fragility of the land on which the politically-powerful state was built, and the author's reference to Texas' plans to reroute the Mississippi River as a means of compensating for the exhaustion of natural water supplies serves as the book's final epitaph. 

What were Charlemagne's accomplishments?

Charlemagne—who sometimes is also known as Charles I or Charles the Great—ruled a large part of Western Europe from 768 to 814. During the course of his reign, he introduced or expanded on several ideas for which he is remembered today. Some of these include:

• The establishment of missi dominici (envoy of the lord). This included the creation of an oversight system that allowed him to assign administrators to far lands, yet continue to supervise them. He did so by assigning representatives to inspect and supervise assigned districts. These representatives had wide powers to implement Charlemagne's wishes.

• An educated clergy. Charlemagne believed that those called to the service of God needed to be educated in order to teach others. He founded monastery schools for this purpose.

• Promotion of intellectual thinking. His court at Aachen is widely considered as an intellectual hub. The palace school allowed children of all classes to attend and learn. Classical literature was especially promoted within the school.

In Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, what are some of the powers of herbs? How does Friar Laurence compare man to herbs?

Herbal medicine has been used for centuries and has undergone a renaissance in recent years, as people seek more holistic ways of preventing disease. Many modern drugs are based on herbal medicine; for example, the invention of aspirin came from the use of willow bark for pain and its active ingredient, salicylic acid, is derived from the willow tree.

Friar Laurence is a learned holy man who has vast stores of herbal knowledge, which was common for monks in Shakespeare's time. Prior to the development of western medicine, herbs were widely used for healing in cultures around the world. The mystery novels and the television series Cadfael portray a medieval monk who solves murders and often relies upon his knowledge of the natural world to do so.

The Friar's herbal knowledge is displayed in his monologue when he is in his cell, thinking he is alone. But Romeo enters at a crucial point and overhears him, which is the moment that foreshadows Romeo seeking the Friar's help in finding a way to marry Juliet, which causes Romeo's death due to his wrongful belief that Juliet is dead.

In his speech, the Friar compares the benefits and dangers of herbs to human nature:  

Within the infant rind of this weak flower

Poison hath residence and medicine power;

For this, being smelt, with that part cheers each part,

Being tasted, stays all senses with the heart.

Two such opposed kings encamp them still

In man as well as herbs, grace and rude will;

And where the worser is predominant,

Full soon the canker death eats up that plant.

In this speech, we see that the predominant nature of plants and humans comes down to a binary view of human nature, where qualities can change based upon context and other factors. The idea that a plant can contain properties of both poison and medicine is being compared to the human qualities of "grace and rude will." 

How is violence a part of the theme in Fight Club by Chuck Palahniuk?

Violence is a significant part of the theme of masculinity that dominates Fight Club.

Violence can fit into several of the novel's themes. However, the novel's theme of asserting masculinity is directly linked to violence.  For the men who participate in fight club, violence is the path to reclaim their identity. When they fight, it is a rejection of the social expectation that has taken away from masculine identity. The perceived domestication of men is subverted through violence. Violence is the only way to undermine the inauthenticity of conventional society:  “...who you are at fight club was not who you are in the real world.”  Violence supplants the socially tranquil image of masculinity.  It tears this mask off and enables men to embrace a primally true nature. Violence in the form of hand to hand fighting, without weapons or even shirts, is a significant part of this reclamation.  

The novel's theme of reclaiming male identity suggests that violence can help to find truth.  Violence is a way for men to "lose everything" so that they can then gain "everything." Tyler suggests that he is "breaking attachment to physical power and possessions," and that violence is critical in this process because only through destruction of self is he able to "discover the greater power" of his spirit.  Such an idea reflects how violence is a significant part of the novel's theme of reclaiming male identity.

Why was Britain the first country to industrialise in the 18th and 19th centuries?

Good question! There is still a lot of uncertainty about why industrialization happens when and where it does (and doesn't), but there are a few unique features of 18th and 19th-century Britain that historians and economists have found to be important in triggering industrial development and economic growth.

The first and probably most important is Britain's relatively pluralistic, inclusive institutions. While they were a monarchy (I mean, technically they still are), Britain had a strong tradition of democratic representation, public dialogue, and individual rights. The monarchy's power was not absolute, but limited by Parliament and judicial precedent enshrined in common law. Individual people in Britain were relatively free to own their own property, make their own decisions, and generally live their lives without excessive government interference. This allowed for more free markets and more productive workers, as those who were productive could keep and sell what they produced instead of having it confiscated by the government, and therefore had more incentive to produce it in the first place. This is not to say that Britain didn't have taxes and regulations, which of course they did; nor that all taxes and regulations are bad---many are necessary, and others can be beneficial. But all other things equal, lower taxes and more permissive regulations are generally associated with stronger economic growth.

Another important reason was Britain's natural resources, specifically its large forests and extensive coal reserves. Industrial technology is really only useful if you have the fuel to power it; at that time petroleum was still very difficult to refine, and obviously nuclear fission and photovoltaics wouldn't be invented for over a century; so burning wood and then coal was the main way that large machines could be powered. Britain had these resources in abundance, which made it cheaper for them to industrialize than it was in most other places.

Britain also had a relatively high literacy rate, meaning they had more skilled artisans, inventors, and engineers per capita than most other places. They had a strong national defense (the British Navy was the mightiest in the world) and thus were safe from outside invasion. They had a relatively low crime rate. Their currency, the pound, was very strong and very stable (indeed, still is and always has been). All of these factors likely contributed to Britain's industrialization before other places. The United States was not far behind, perhaps because it shared most of these features with Britain as well as sharing many features of British culture and institutions.

What are two similes in Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird that show Jem's progress in maturity?

One simile author Harper Lee uses in To Kill a Mockingbird to mark Jem's progress in maturity as he grows up is found in Chapter 7 when he relays to Scout what happened the night he went back to the Radleys' property to retrieve his pants in the wee hours of the morning.

After that night, Scout noted that Jem hardly spoke a word. It is not until after school starts up again and they begin finding more items in the knothole of the oak tree that Jem starts speaking again. While crossing the schoolyard on their way home from school one day in the afternoon, Jem preludes his story of the night's events by saying, "There's something I didn't tell you ... [a]bout that night." When Scout interrupts, saying, "You've never told me anything about that night," Lee uses a simile to describe Jem's annoyed yet pensive actions:

Jem waved my words away as if fanning gnats. He was silent for a while, then he said, ... . (Ch. 7)

Next, Jem describes how he found his pants laying on the fence, neatly folded, and mended. Waving away Scout's words indicates he wants her to be silent because what he is about to explain is very difficult for him. His silence further shows that he has been thinking long and hard about what he is about to explain. Jem's thoughtfulness indicates he has been thinking long and hard about Arthur (Boo) Radley and beginning to think that their judgements of him may be completely wrong, which indicates Jem is growing up.

Another good simile is spoken by Jem to Miss Maudie the day after Tom Robinson's trial. Jem feels angered by the jury's guilty verdict and disillusioned by Maycomb because he now sees Maycomb's people as hateful, racist people, whereas he once saw them as good and decent folks. Jem explains his feelings of disillusionment in the following simile:

It's like bein' a caterpillar in a cocoon, that's what it is ... . Like somethin' asleep wrapped up in a warm place. I always thought Maycomb folks were the best folks in the world, least that's what they seemed like. (Ch. 22)

Jem's feelings of disillusionment show that he is maturing beyond the innocent boy he used to be. As a boy, he only had a perception of goodness and innocence, but now, the things he has witnessed has allowed him to see the evil that exists in the world, something he could only see if he is maturing.

What are hormones?

Structure and Functions

The definition of the term “hormone” has continued to change over the years. The classic definition is that of an endocrine hormone—that is, one secreted by ductless glands directly into the blood and acting at a distant site. The definition can be expanded to include any chemical substance secreted by any cell of the body that has a specific effect on another cell. A hormone can affect a nearby cell (paracrine action) or the cell that secretes it (autocrine action). Certain hormones are produced by the brain and kidneys, which are not thought of as classic endocrine glands. In fact, the largest producer of hormones is the gastrointestinal tract, which is not usually thought of as an endocrine gland.

Hormones fall into two major categories: peptide hormones,
which are derived from amino acids, and steroid hormones, which are derived from cholesterol. The different classes of hormones have different mechanisms of action. Peptide hormones work by interacting with a specific receptor located in the plasma membrane of the target cell. Receptors have different regions, or domains, that perform specialized functions. One part of the receptor has a specific three-dimensional structure similar to a keyhole into which a certain hormone can fit. This design allows a specific action of a hormone despite the fact that the hormone is often circulating in minute quantities in the bloodstream along with myriad other hormones.

There are different classes of plasma membrane receptors. One class is that of the receptor kinases. The insulin receptor is an example. In this case, the part of the receptor molecule that faces the cytoplasm, or inside of the cell, is able to perform a specific function. When insulin interacts with its receptor, a chemical change occurs on the receptor that allows it to activate proteins within the cell. Many hormones use a similar cascade of chemical reactions to control and amplify signals from outside the cell and effect change within the cell itself.

Another class of membrane receptors includes the G-protein coupled receptor. An example is the beta-2 adrenergic receptor. Epinephrine interacts with this receptor, causing the activation of a signal transducer or G protein. This activated G protein then leads to the modification of a specific protein, which leads to a cascade of biochemical events within the cell. This is another example of an amplification mechanism.

Steroid hormones
exert their effects by means of a different mechanism. For example, glucocorticoids exert their effects by entering the cell and binding to specific glucocorticoid receptors in the cell nucleus. The glucocorticoid-receptor complex is able to bind specific regulatory DNA sequences, called glucocorticoid response elements. This binding is able to activate gene transcription, which causes an increase in mRNA and, ultimately, the translation of the mRNA to deliver a newly secreted protein. The protein can then act to change the cell’s metabolism in some way. Cortisol, a type of glucocorticoid, is produced by the adrenal glands when a person is under stress. It can lead to changes in blood sugar levels, affect immune system function, and, at high levels, increase fat
deposition in characteristic areas of the body.

Most hormones that circulate in the blood are attached to binding proteins.
The general binding proteins in the body are albumin and transthyreitin. These two proteins bind many different hormones. There are also specific binding proteins, such as thyroid-binding globulin, which binds thyroid hormone, and insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins, which bind to the family of insulin-like growth factors. The bound hormone is considered the inactive hormone, and the free hormone is the active hormone. Therefore, binding proteins make it possible to control an active hormone precisely, without having to synthesize a new hormone.

Hormones can be secreted in a variety of time frames. Some hormones, such as testosterone, are secreted in a pulsatile fashion that changes over minutes or hours. Other hormones, such as cortisol, are secreted in a diurnal pattern, with levels varying depending on the time of day. Cortisol levels are highest at about 8 a.m. and fall throughout the day, with the lowest levels occurring between midnight and 2 a.m. The menstrual cycle is an example of the weekly to monthly variation of hormone production. For instance, progesterone (a steroid hormone) levels rise throughout the menstrual cycle and fall prior to the onset of menses. The exact control mechanisms that determine the rhythmicity of hormone production are unknown.

The ability to study and utilize hormones in treating human disease has been revolutionized by molecular biology. The first hormone to be synthesized for clinical use was insulin. The need for a secure and steady supply of insulin prompted scientists to look for alternative sources of this hormone in the 1970s. At that time, insulin was isolated and purified from animal pancreas glands, mostly those of cows and pigs. It was suspected, however, that insulin could be made in the laboratory via genetic engineering. Native insulin is produced from a prohormone, proinsulin. Recombinant DNA human insulin is currently made by encoding for the proinsulin molecule and then using enzymes to cut the molecule in the proper places, yielding insulin and a piece of protein called C peptide. This process, which is very similar to the process that the body uses to create insulin, produces high yields of active hormone.

Modern molecular biology techniques were used to identify a hormone and receptor involved in weight regulation. Originally discovered in mice, a gene called ob was identified in human beings that produced a hormone called leptin. Leptin and its receptor are believed to play a role in signaling satiety to the brain. If the leptin signal does not reach the brain as the result of a faulty receptor, the brain will not produce the satiety signal. Appetite will remain high. Thus, a defective leptin system may contribute to obesity in human beings. The functioning of leptin may also be responsible for cycles of weight loss and gain in dieters. As obese individuals lose adipose tissue, less leptin is synthesized and the brain may not send out sufficient signals to indicate satiety, thus increasing appetite and food consumption. The leptin-obesity connection is under intensive study.

The Medical Use of Hormones

The biological roles of hormones are numerous and critical to the normal function of important organ systems in human beings, and there are many examples of medical uses for hormones. In general, any derangements in the amount of hormones made, or in the timing of their production, can result in significant human disease or discomfort. For example, in women who reach menopause, declining levels of estrogen and progesterone from the ovaries can lead to undesirable consequences such as hot flashes, vaginal dryness, and bone mineral density loss. Taking exogenous estrogen and progesterone, in the form of hormone therapy, can reduce or stop these consequences. Another example of exogenous hormone use in human disease is thyroid hormone. People with thyroid disease, such as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, do not produce adequate levels of thyroid hormone. This condition can lead to intense fatigue and weight gain. These symptoms may be relieved by taking a synthetic thyroid hormone called levothyroxine.

Another example of the medical use of hormones is the role of synthetic erythropoietin in treating and preventing anemia. Normally, erythropoietin is made by the kidneys. It is essential for the differentiation and development of stem cells from the bone marrow into red blood cells. Most patients who develop kidney failure also suffer from severe anemia because the ability to synthesize erythropoietin is lost as the kidneys are destroyed by disease. Giving this hormone to a patient with kidney disease can lead to the restoration of that patient’s red blood cell mass. Correcting the anemia that accompanies chronic renal disease can improve the exercise tolerance and overall quality of life of kidney disease patients. The hormone must be given by injection several
times per week. It has been made available to the almost fifty thousand Americans with chronic renal failure who require dialysis. Erythropoietin can also be given to renal failure patients who do not yet require dialysis but who do have anemia.

Another example of a hormone that has been synthesized for treatment of human disease is calcitonin. Calcitonin is a polypeptide hormone secreted by specialized C cells of the thyroid gland (also called parafollicular cells). The parafollicular cells make up about 0.1 percent of the total mass of the thyroid gland, and the cells are dispersed within the thyroid follicles. Calcitonin has been isolated from several different animal species, including salmon, eel, rat, pig, sheep, and chicken. The main physiologic function of the hormone is to lower the serum calcium level. It does this by inhibiting calcium resorption from bone. Calcitonin has been used to treat patients with Paget’s disease, a disorder of abnormal bone remodeling that can lead to deformities, bone pain, fractures, and neurological problems. Calcitonin has also been used in the past to treat patients with osteoporosis, a condition of bone density depletion associated with aging that can lead to bone fractures.

The first and most commonly used form of the hormone in the United States is salmon calcitonin. This form is a more potent inhibitor of bone resorption than the human form. A small number of patients given the drug will develop a resistance to it. The etiology of this resistance may be the development of antibodies to the salmon calcitonin. Subsequently, calcitonin was synthesized via recombinant DNA technology. Although the human form is somewhat less potent, the fact that its amino acid structure is identical to that of the native hormone makes it much less immunogenic than salmon calcitonin, and theoretically less likely to produce resistance. In fact, patients who were resistant to salmon calcitonin may be switched to human calcitonin and achieve a therapeutic effect.

An example of a hormone with multiple medical uses is vasopressin, also known as antidiuretic hormone. Normally, vasopressin is produced in the posterior
pituitary gland (located in the brain); it is responsible for water conservation. An increase in plasma osmolality or a decrease in circulating blood volume will normally cause its release. Central diabetes insipidus, a disorder involving an absence or abnormal decrease of vasopressin, is characterized by an inappropriately dilute urine. Central diabetes insipidus can be caused by a variety of factors, including trauma, neurosurgery, brain tumors, brain infections, and autoimmune disorder. The clinical symptoms of the disease are polyuria and polydipsia. The patient may put out up to 18 liters of urine per day. If such large volume deficits are not remedied, more serious symptoms will ensue, including dangerously low blood pressure and coma. The acute treatment of any patient with central diabetes insipidus involves the replacement of body water with
intravenous fluids. The chronic therapy involves replacement of the hormone vasopressin.

Several different forms of the hormone may be used, depending on the clinical situation. Aqueous vasopressin is useful for diagnostic testing and for acute management following trauma or neurosurgery. For diagnostic testing, it is often given subcutaneously at the end of the water deprivation test to determine whether the patient will respond to the hormone with a decrease in urine output and an increase in urine osmolality greater than 50 percent. After surgery, vasopressin can be given either intramuscularly, with a duration of action of about four to six hours, or by continuous intravenous infusion to ensure a steady level of the hormone.

In obstetrics, vasopressin is also known as pitocin, a hormone that can cause powerful uterine contractions. It is commonly used to augment labor, as when the mother’s own uterine contractions are not adequate to expel the baby. It is given intravenously and titrated up until regular contractions of the uterus occur. Another use of vasopressin is in the acute setting of advanced cardiac life support, also known as a code situation. A patient noted to have a cardiac arrhythmia such as ventricular fibrillation may receive vasopressin as well as shocks from a defibrillator in an attempt to restore a perfusing cardiac rhythm.

One of the most important uses of hormones in medicine is for contraception, specifically in the form of birth control pills. In the early twentieth century, the observation was made that mice that were fed extracts from ovaries could be rendered infertile. In the 1920s, the critical substance responsible for this infertility was discovered to be sex steroid hormones. The production of birth control pills dates to the 1920s and 1930s, when steroid hormones such as progesterone were isolated from animal sources, such as pigs. By the 1940s, progesterone could be isolated in large quantities from Mexican yams, which caused the prices for progesterone to fall dramatically. With the fall in prices, the idea that progesterone could be sold in the mass market as a birth control pill became more feasible. The first clinical trial of the birth control pill in human beings occurred in 1956. Since then, several generations of progesterones have been mass produced for the purposes of birth control. Each successive generation of progesterone has caused fewer undesirable side effects, and the dosage necessary to achieve a contraceptive effect has been found to be much lower than those found in the original birth control pills.

Birth control pills and the progesterone contained within them have other medical uses besides contraception. Birth control pills can be used to regulate menstrual cycles in women who suffer from irregular menstrual cycles or abnormal vaginal bleeding. They can be used to decrease heavy menstrual periods. They can even be useful in decreasing acne, which can lead to permanent scarring when it is severe.

Perspective and Prospects

The study of hormones has been instrumental in understanding how human beings adapt to and live in their environment. Hormones are involved in the regulation of body homeostasis and all critical aspects of the life cycle. The study of hormones has expanded as scientists have produced large amounts of synthetic hormones in the laboratory for use in research.

The history of insulin discovery and production is an example of the rapid scientific progress made in the field of hormone research. In 1889, Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski demonstrated that dogs whose pancreases had been removed exhibited abnormalities in glucose metabolism that were similar to those seen in human diabetes mellitus patients. This fact suggested that some factor made by the pancreas lowered the blood glucose. The search for this factor led to the discovery of insulin in 1921 by Frederick C. Banting and Charles H. Best. They were able to extract the active substance from the pancreas and to demonstrate its therapeutic effects in dogs and humans. The chemistry of insulin progressed with the establishment of the amino acid sequence and three-dimensional structure in the 1960s. In 1960, insulin became the first hormone to be measured by radioimmunoassay. With advances in laboratory techniques in the 1970s, it became the first hormone to be commercially available via recombinant DNA technology, thus ensuring the availability of pure hormone without the need for animal sources.

The ability to synthesize hormones and their receptors has increased greatly. In fact, scientists can clone genes, or parts of genes, and synthesize the associated protein in order to make hormones that are encoded by the body. This method involves amplifying small amounts of DNA isolated from the cell using the technique of polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This allows large amounts of the same piece of DNA to be made in a matter of hours, which can then be transcribed into RNA and translated to yield the hormone. These powerful techniques, developed in the research laboratory, have been applied on a commercial basis and have provided enormous benefits to people. One such example is the production of growth hormone.

Bibliography

Barinaga, Marcia. “Obesity: Leptin Receptor Weighs In.” Science 271 (January 5, 1996): 29.

Bliss, Michael. The Discovery of Insulin. 25th anniversary ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.

Bronson, Phyllis J., and Rebecca Bronson. Moods, Emotions, and Aging: Hormones and the Mind-Body Connection. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.

Griffin, James E., and Sergio R. Ojeda, eds. Textbook of Endocrine Physiology. 6th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Kronenberg, Henry M., et al., eds. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 12th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2011.

Marieb, Elaine N. Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology. 10th ed. San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings, 2012.

McPhee, Stephen J., and Maxine A. Papadakis, eds. Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatment. 50th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical, 2011.

Pocock, Gillian, Christopher D. Richards, and Dave A. Richards. Human Physiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Simonsen, Davis. Hormones and Behavior. New York: Nova Science, 2013.

In the novel To Kill A Mockingbird, how do Jem and Scout show signs of cowardice?

There are several scenes throughout the novel, particularly towards the beginning of the story, that depict Jem and Scout showing signs of cowardice. Early on in the novel, Jem is told fascinating tales about their reclusive neighbor, Boo Radley, from the neighborhood gossip Miss Stephanie. Jem, under the influence of his active imagination, ends up creating a horrid, grotesque image of Boo Radley. At the end of Chapter 1, Dill bets Jem that he won't knock on the Radley's door. Jem displays cowardice by contemplating the decision for three days and claiming the he is not scared. Scout also mentions that Jem always runs by the Radley place because he fears Boo. Eventually, Dill makes a concession and dares Jem to touch the side of the house. Jem accepts Dill's challenge and touches Boo's house.

In Chapter 8, Miss Maudie's house catches on fire and Jem and Scout are forced to watch the flames from the Radley yard. The next morning at breakfast Atticus asks Scout where she got the blanket that is draped over her shoulders. Scout is shocked because she was unaware that there was even a blanket on her. Atticus then says, "Looks like all of Maycomb was out tonight, in one way or another" (Lee 95). Scout doesn't understand who Atticus is referring to until he tells her that Boo Radley must have put the blanket over her. Scout nearly throws up at the thought of Boo Radley sneaking up behind her. Scout is scared stiff of Boo Radley, and she displays cowardice by almost puking at the thought of Boo approaching her.

How can I compare chapters five and seven in The Catcher in the Rye?

The gist of Chapters 5 and 7 of The Catcher in the Rye are as follows, respectively:  Holden writes the composition about Allie's baseball mitt and then he decides to prematurely leave Pencey Prep for New York City.  In Chapter 5, Holden seems to be in a mental place in which he is still trying to connect with the boys at Pencey.  He takes on Stradlater's composition as a way to connect with him and ends up writing the essay about a pretty personal item:  Allie's baseball mitt.  However, by the time we get to Chapter 7, Holden has decided that he cannot stay until the start of Christmas break, and he disconnects himself from the boys at Pencey.  At the end of Chapter 7, Holden yells, "Sleep tight, ya morons!" before heading out of the dorm.  He has decided that the school is full of "phonies," and he no longer wants anything to do with the boys.  So, the two chapters contrast in the level of attachment that Holden exhibits towards the other boys at Pencey Prep.

Which two characters in To Kill a Mockingbird are compared to a mockingbird? Why is the mockingbird an appropriate symbol for these two characters?...

In the final section of To Kill a Mockingbird, both Tom Robinson and Boo Radley are compared to a mockingbird in the sense that they are both people who are unfairly targeted because of qualities they cannot change. At the beginning of the book, Miss Maudie says, "mockingbirds don't do a thing but make music for us to enjoy." This speaks to the idea that there are certain people who are senselessly hurt or killed because they are easy targets. These people love to help and bring joy to others, but are often killed for no reason. 

Tom wants nothing more than to live his life freely and pursue his happiness, just like any white man in the south is able to do. He is a kind man who did nothing but help others and work hard for others his entire life. Mr. Underwood compares Tom's death to the killing of a mockingbird and describes it as a "senseless slaughter." Tom was killed for the sake of killing; it was an acceptable act to mistreat and murder black folks in the south, just as it was acceptable to kill mockingbirds for pleasure. 

In Boo Radley's case, his handicap led him to be hidden from society and sheltered by his family. The townspeople gossip, and children make fun of him and play tricks on him. Still, he went out of his way to bring happiness to the children, doing small acts of kindness that gave them hope. Boo even saved Jem's life when Bob Ewell tried to attack him. In many ways, Boo is unaware of the evils of the world, much like the sweet songbird for which the book is named. 

Both of these characters are kind, but they are also somewhat child-like. They believe if you show others love and kindness and don't harbor any ill-will toward a fellow human being, that kindness will be returned. They feel wronged when it isn't.

Boo, however, doesn't even realize the extent to which he is ostracized. He is not as wise to the ways of the world as others might be. He does have many adults in the town who he sees as friends, much like Tom has. Unlike Boo, though, Tom knows enough to feel that although he is innocent, his skin color makes it so there is no chance he will win his case. Tom knows that being accused of a crime against a white woman is as good as signing a death warrant if you're a black man in the south. 

Why is Robert Neville forced to stay near his home on cloudy days?

In Chapter One, we are told that Robert Neville is forced to stay near his home on cloudy days because he can never accurately calculate the approach of nightfall on those days. Although we are not told at this point in the chapter why it is so important for Robert to ascertain the exact time of nightfall, the chapter provides us with some clues as we read.

First of all, we learn that Robert has to barricade all his windows with secured planks; during daylight hours, he has to replace the older garlands of garlic at his windows with fresh ones. In the chapter, we are told that 'garlic always worked' and that Robert grows mainly garlic in his hothouse, which also has to be reinforced by planks. Later, Robert lathes thick doweling into nine-inch sticks in order to form stakes or crucifixes. We are told that, as soon as the light is gone from the day, the 'filthy bastards' will be at the house again. At this point, all the signs point to a town ruled by vampires at night.

Robert stays safe by barricading himself in his house during the night hours; this is why it is so important for Robert to watch the sky diligently as he works outside. However, on cloudy days, it is difficult to rely exclusively on the sky for confirmation of nightfall. On those days, Robert has to stay close to the house so that he is not without shelter when night approaches.

What are some similarities between bacteria and protists?

Bacteria are usually more familiar to most people than protists, because bacteria are almost always covered in high school and college science classes, and are regularly brought up in the media for various reasons such as health and manufacturing. Protists, on the other hand, tend to be left out of most introductory science courses, or at least glossed over, in part because they aren't as distinct or recognizable a group and don't do as much to teach us about the different forms of life. Protists aren't even a "real" group, at least not in terms of evolutionary classification; the term is just something of a catch-all for single-celled eukaryotes, and isn't an accurate way of describing specific relationships between these organisms and anything else, including other protists.

What bacteria and protists do have in common is pretty much anything you can see in a typical "prokaryote vs. eukaryote" cell diagram. Both are cells containing a membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, RNA, ribosomes, proteins, a means of producing ATP (probably from glucose), a method of internal transport, and a method of reproduction (interestingly, protists retain the ability to reproduce asexually, like bacteria, although many can also reproduce sexually via meiosis, like more complex multicellular eukaryotes). Both classes have the potential to be beneficial, harmful or irrelevant to human life, and both can survive more extreme conditions than multicellular organisms.

How do the characters' inferiorities lead to destruction in Othello?

If by inferiorities, you mean weaknesses or inferiority complexes, it is true that every character in the play has insecurities and flaws. One of Cassio’s weaknesses is alcohol: “I have very poor and unhappy brains for drinking.” Iago uses this against him, insisting that he drink at a party. Cassio then becomes belligerent and gets into a fight, a mistake that loses him his job. In turn, he asks Desdemona to help convince Othello to forgive him. Iago pretends that Cassio and Desdemona’s “conspiring” is actually proof that they are having an affair, which ultimately leads to Cassio’s injury and the deaths of Desdemona, Othello, Emilia, and Roderigo.

Othello’s secret fears and pride also make him susceptible to Iago. Though seemingly confident and calm, Othello slowly believes Iago’s suggestions that Desdemona is cheating on him with Cassio. Iago claims that it is unnatural for a young white woman to love an older black man like Othello, and he accuses women of being manipulative and deceitful. Othello eventually starts to wonder about her loyalty and his worth, “And yet, how nature erring from itself--”.  He eventually murders his wife in a fit of jealousy.

Even Desdemona and Emilia have faults. Desdemona defends Othello as he becomes abusive, and Emilia steals Desdemona’s handkerchief for Iago and does not tell Desdemona. Iago’s wicked plots also contribute to his own downfall, since he is finally caught and tortured. One reason why Othello is such a painful play is because the imperfect characters’ flaws contribute to their tragic destruction.

What is a middle-ear infection?

Definition

An infection of the middle ear occurs when the middle ear,
which is located behind the eardrum, becomes infected and inflamed.

Causes

A middle-ear infection is caused by bacteria such as Streptococcus
pneumoniae (most common), Haemophilus influenzae,
Moraxella (Branhamella)
catarrhalis, and S. pyogenes (less common).
Viruses that cause middle-ear infections include those associated with the
common
cold.

Risk Factors

The factors that increase the chance of developing a middle-ear infection
include a recent viral infection (such as a cold); recent sinusitis;
day care attendance; medical conditions that cause abnormalities of the
eustachian
tubes, such as cleft palate; Down
syndrome; history of allergies (environmental allergies and food
allergies); gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD); and exposure to secondhand smoke from cigarettes, cooking, and burning wood. Also at
higher risk are infants and toddlers, infants whose mothers drank alcohol while
pregnant, and infants who are formula-fed. Middle-ear infections are most common
in the winter months.

Infants and toddlers. Three-quarters of children will experience
an ear infection before their third birthday, and nearly one-half of these
children will have three or more infections by age three years. Although adults
can get ear infections, children between the ages of six months and six years are
the most prone to ear infections. The risk of ear infections is higher in children
because their immune systems have had less exposure to common viruses.
Virus infections are, most likely, the direct or indirect cause of most middle-ear
infections. Moreover, children’s shorter eustachian tubes (the small channels that
let air pass from the nose into the middle ear) make it easier for bacteria to
gain access to the middle ear. Larger adenoids in some children also contribute to
the development of ear infections. Boys are probably more likely to get otitis,
especially chronic otitis media, than are girls.

Day care attendance. Children in day care or in nursery schools are more likely to get ear infections because they are exposed to more upper respiratory infections that can subsequently infect the middle ear. While day care is a necessary fact of life for many children, it is also one of the strongest risk factors for ear infection.

Exposure to cigarette smoke. Children who live with adults who smoke cigarettes are more likely to develop ear infections.

Poverty. While ear infections are common in persons from all levels of income, they tend to be more frequent and more prolonged in poor children, who often lack adequate health care.

Breast-feeding. Infants who are breast-fed, especially for four to six months or longer, have fewer and shorter ear infections than do bottle-fed infants.

Other infections. Children are more likely to get an ear infection if they have a cold, sore throat, or eye infection. Although ear infections are not themselves contagious, colds, sore throats, and other respiratory infections are readily passed from person to person.

Allergies and asthma. People with allergies or asthma are more likely to develop ear
infections. The reasons for this increased risk remain incompletely
understood.

Immune suppression. Children with immune disorders, including
acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and those receiving
immunosuppressive therapy are more likely to develop ear infections because their
bodies fight bacteria and viruses less effectively. The occurrence of an ear
infection, or even multiple ear infections, is not itself an indication of AIDS or
another immune disorder.

Congenital conditions. Medical conditions that cause
abnormalities of the eustachian tubes, such as cleft palate,
increase the risk of developing ear infections.

Drinking from a bottle while lying down. Children who drink from a bottle while lying on their backs are more likely to develop ear infections, possibly because fluid is allowed to accumulate in the eustachian tubes.

Pacifier use. Children who use pacifiers continually may be at greater risk for developing ear infections than children who use them less frequently or not at all.

Family history. A strong family history of ear infections, especially in older brothers or sisters, also increases risk.

Symptoms

Ear infections frequently develop during or shortly after another infection, such as a cold or sore throat. Symptoms include ear pain (children who can talk may say that their ear hurts, while babies may tug or rub at the ear or face or become irritable); drainage from the ear, which may appear as blood, clear fluid, pus, or dry crust on the outer portion of the ear after sleeping; hearing loss, which resolves with appropriate treatment; fever; irritability; decreased appetite or difficulty feeding; disturbed sleep; difficulty with balance, frequent falling, or sensations of dizziness; nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea; malaise (a feeling of general illness); chills; and inattentiveness.

Some children with ear infection, particularly chronic otitis, have no symptoms. Their condition may be discovered on examination for some other problem.

Screening and Diagnosis

When there is ear pain or drainage from the ear, then infection is likely present. If a child is too young to report pain, the doctor or nurse practitioner must rely solely on looking into the child’s ear with a special lighted instrument (an otoscope). A small tube and bulb (insufflator) may be attached to the otoscope so that a light puff of air can be blown into the ear. This helps the health care provider see if the eardrum is moving normally. When infection is present the eardrum is often stiffened by the presence of fluid behind it and does not move. The eardrum may also be red and bulge outward because the fluid behind it is under pressure. A red, bulging drum that does not move with an air puff is a good sign that acute otitis is present.

It is often difficult to see the eardrum in young children, and ear wax frequently makes getting a good view of the drum difficult. Even in the absence of wax, the accurate diagnosis of middle-ear infection using an otoscope is not easy. Most studies suggest that even experienced doctors may overdiagnose acute ear infections, especially if an air puff insufflator is not used. Doctors may have a particularly difficult time distinguishing between children with chronic otitis (who frequently do not need antibiotics) and those with acute otitis (for whom antibiotics are often helpful). The use of a microscope to examine the ear may also help.

Other tests may also be performed, especially if the parent or child has had repeated ear infections. Tests may include the following:

Tympanocentesis. A needle is used to withdraw fluid or pus from the middle ear under local or general anesthesia. This fluid can then be cultured to determine if bacteria are present in the fluid. Once the bacteria are cultured, the lab can determine what drugs are best for treatment. However, the fluid does not always have bacteria.

Tympanometry. A soft plug is inserted into the opening of the ear canal. The plug contains a speaker, a microphone, and a device that is able to alter the air pressure in the ear canal. This allows several different measures of the middle ear and eardrum and provides important information about the condition of the ear, but it is not a hearing test.

Hearing test. A hearing test may be ordered for persons with repeated ear infections or with signs of hearing impairment, such as speaking in a louder voice, sitting closer to a television, or turning up the volume of a television or stereo.

Treatment and Therapy

Treatments include antibiotics that are commonly used to
treat ear infections. These include amoxicillin (Amoxil, Polymox) and clavulanate
(Augmentin). Other medications are cephalosporins (cefprozil, cefdinir,
cefpodoxime, and ceftriaxone) and sulfa drugs (such as Septra, Bactrim,
and Pediazole).

Because bacteria develop a resistance to antibiotics,doctors may take a “wait
and see” approach before writing a prescription. In some cases, the doctor may
prescribe an antibiotic for children and ask the parent to administer the
medication if the pain or fever lasts for a certain number of days. This approach
has been effective. Some ear infections are caused by a virus and thus cannot be
treated with antibiotics. Most middle-ear infections (including bacterial
infections) tend to improve on their own in two to three
days.

Over-the-counter pain relievers, which can help reduce pain, fever, and
irritability, include acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and aspirin. Aspirin is not
recommended for children or teens with a current or recent viral infection because
of the risk of Reye’s syndrome. One should consult the doctor about
medicines that are safe for children. Decongestants and antihistamines are not
recommended to treat an ear infection.

In children, ear drops that have a local anaesthetic (such as ametocaine,
benzocaine, or lidocaine) can help decrease pain, especially when the drops are
used with oral pain relievers. If there is a chance that the eardrum has ruptured,
one should avoid using ear drops. Another treatment option is myringotomy,
surgery to open the eardrum. A tiny cut is made in the eardrum to drain fluid and pus.

Prevention and Outcomes

To reduce the chance of getting an ear infection, one should avoid exposure to smoke and should breast-feed for the first six months or so of an infant’s life and should try to avoid giving the infant a pacifier. If the infant is bottle-fed, his or her head should be propped up as much as possible. One should not leave a bottle in the crib with the infant.

Other preventive measures include getting tested for allergies, treating
conditions such as GERD, practicing good hygiene, and ensuring children’s
vaccinations are up to date. The pneumococcal vaccine and the flu
vaccine can prevent middle-ear infections. If the child has a history of ear
infections, one should consult the doctor about long-term antibiotic use. Another
option for the child is the use of tympanostomy tubes, which help equalize
pressure behind the eardrum. Large adenoids can interfere with the eustachian
tubes. The child’s doctor should be consulted about having the adenoids
removed.

Key Terms: Middle-Ear Infections



Cholesteatoma

:

A tumor-like mass of cells that usually results from chronic middle-ear infection.




Eardrum

:

The membrane separating the outer ear canal from the middle ear that changes sound waves into movements of the ossicles; also called the tympanic membrane.




Eustachian tube

:

The tube connecting the middle ear to the back of the throat; air exchange through this tube equalizes air pressure in the middle ear with outside air pressure.




Labyrinth

:

A structure consisting of three fluid-filled, semicircular canals at right angles to one another in the inner ear; they monitor the position and movement of the head.




Middle ear

:

The air-filled cavity in which vibrations are transmitted from the eardrum to the inner ear via the ossicles.




Ossicles

:

Three small bones in the middle ear that transmit vibrations from the eardrum to the fluid of the inner ear.




Otoscope

:

An instrument for viewing the ear canal and the eardrum.




Tympanic membrane

:

Another term for the eardrum.





Bibliography

Coleman, C., and M. Moore. “Decongestants and Antihistamines for Acute Otitis Media in Children.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2008): CD001727. Available through EBSCO DynaMed Systematic Literature Surveillance at http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed. A survey of certain medications for use in children with middle-ear infection.

EBSCO Publishing. DynaMed: Acute Otitis Media. Available through http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed. A brief, online discussion of middle-ear infection.

Ferrari, Mario. PDxMD Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders. Philadelphia: PDxMD, 2003. A clinical yet accessible reference text that provides a comprehensive list of disorders, with a summary of the condition, background, diagnosis, treatment, outcomes, prevention, and resources.

Foxlee, R., et al. “Topical Analgesia for Acute Otitis Media.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2009): CD005657. Available through EBSCO DynaMed Systematic Literature Surveillance at http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed. Presents a review of topical medications for relief of middle-ear infection pain.

Roush, Jackson, ed. Screening for Hearing Loss and Otitis Media in Children. San Diego, Calif.: Singular, 2001. Although clinical in nature, this book describes myriad hearing tests in great detail.

St. Sauven, J., et al. “Risk Factors for Otitis Media and Carriage of Multiple Strains of Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 6, no. 6 (2000): 622-630. Examines the combined effects on persons of having a middle-ear infection caused by infective viruses and bacteria.

Where was the location/setting in which "The Ransom of Red Chief" takes place?

The story takes place in Alabama, as Sam tells us in the second sentence of "The Ransom of Red Chief."

We were down South, in Alabama--Bill Driscoll and myself--when this kidnapping idea struck us. 

The fact that Sam and Bill plan "to pull off a fraudulent town-lot scheme in Western Illinois" shows that these two men must have to do a lot of traveling by horse and buggy in their profession as confidence tricksters. They are apparently always on the lam. Alabama is in the Deep South, while Illinois is up north. Although they sound like middle-aged men, Sam and Bill have only managed to accumulate six hundred dollars with all their schemes. Thus, from the very beginning, the story illustrates the moral "Crime does not pay."

Sam and Bill intend to kidnap a boy in the town of Summit, which appears to be a typical farm town. Sam tells us that the country all around Summit is perfectly flat, so it is an irony that the people have named the town Summit. The two men have a spot picked for hiding with their victim after they get one:

About two miles from Summit was a little mountain, covered with a dense cedar brake. On the rear elevation of this mountain was a cave. There we stored provisions.

Much of the action in this story takes place at or near that cave on the rear of the little mountain. Sam has to do a lot of running around in connection with trying to collect the ransom money. Meanwhile, Bill is stuck with the little demon they have kidnapped, a ten-year-old boy who calls himself Red Chief. The two kidnappers and their victim sleep on blankets on the ground and cook over an open campfire. Red Chief finds the experience exciting, but Sam and Bill find it just the opposite. 

Summit itself appears to be a sleepy little town where the local men spend a great deal of their time sitting around the post office while they are waiting for their crops to grow. Sam and Bill have picked this town for their kidnapping venture because it seems like such a quiet, backward place:

We knew that Summit couldn't get after us with anything stronger than constables and, maybe, some lackadaisical bloodhounds and a diatribe or two in the Weekly Farmers' Budget.

The entire setting--town and country alike--is peaceful and quiet. This setting serves to make their captive seem more wild by contrast. Red Chief craves excitement. And if he can't find it, he will create it. In the end, the two kidnappers are happy to pay $250 to Ebenezer Dorset, Red Chief's father, just to get rid of the boy and to get as far away as possible from Summit.

In Maniac Magee by Jerry Spinelli, what is Maniac Magee's address when he is staying with old man Grayson?

Maniac’s address with Grayson is 101 Band Shell Boulevard. 

Maniac is obsessed with having an address.  Ever since his parents died and he ran away from his aunt and uncle, he has wanted a real home.  When he lived with the Beales, he had one, briefly.  He made sure to check the address.  He had to leave the Beales because he was white and they were black.  That made him on his own again.

The zoo was comfortable enough, so Maniac found himself sleeping in the buffalo pen.  It had been a deer pen, so it may not be as strange as it sounds.  However, the buffalo pen is not a safe home and there is no address. 

Grayson, the zoo’s groundskeeper, finds Maniac and takes him in.  He is surprised that Maniac does not have a home or go to school, and also that the last place he lived was in the East End with a black family.  Grayson does not know anything about black families and is very curious about how they are similar or different.

Grayson lives at the Y, but he moves in with Maniac into the baseball room of the band shell.  Maniac feels more comfortable there, and they make themselves a happy home.  Maniac decides to give it an address.

"Fine," said Maniac. He opened the can, stirred the paint, put a jacket on, grabbed the brush and went outside. Grayson followed. He watched the kid paint on the outside of the door, in careful strokes:

101

Maniac stepped back, admiring his work. "One oh one," he proclaimed. "One oh one Band Shell Boulevard." (Ch. 29)

It is a very good Christmas, and Maniac and Grayson are happy.  Maniac has a family again.  He even teaches Grayson how to read.  The happiness is short-lived, however, as Grayson dies soon after.  Eventually, Maniac goes back to the Beales.

In the book Lyddie, Chapters 7 and 8, how does the stagecoach help Lyddie?

At the end of Chapter six, Lyddie is fired from Cutler's Tavern.  With no way to support herself, Lyddie decides to head to Lowell in order to become a factory girl.  She must take the carriage (stagecoach) to reach Lowell.  

Along the way, the carriage picks up several additional passengers, which makes for a very cramped ride.  The ride was not a smooth or clean ride, and the spring rains combined with the spring thaw made the roads nearly impassable.  At one point, the carriage got bogged down in the muddy road.  The driver ordered the male passengers out of the carriage in order to push.  They pushed for fifteen minutes, but they could not get the carriage unstuck.  

Lyddie was soon frustrated with the men's lack of intelligence.  

After a least a quarter of an hour of watching, she could stand their stupidity no longer. 

Lyddie hitched up her skirts, found a big flat stone to place under the stuck wheel, and ordered the men to push from the back.  The carriage was immediately free.  

The entire situation helped Lyddie out, because her grit and hardiness impressed the driver.  He decided to repay Lyddie by taking her to his sister's boarding house.  His sister is Mrs. Bedlow.  Mrs. Bedlow quickly befriended Lyddie and began taking care of her.  Mrs. Bedlow gave Lyddie money to buy some new clothes and arranged employment for Lyddie in one of the factories.  

Had the stagecoach not gotten stuck, Lyddie likely would not have been able to find work and boarding so quickly and easily.  

Determine the oxidation numbers of various elements for the following chemicals: (NH4)3PO4 Ba3P2 CO2 NaOH Al2O3 P2O5 Na2O2 FeO Fe2O3

The oxidation number of any element in a given compound can be determined by using some simple rules. For example, the sum of oxidation numbers of all the elements is equal to the charge over a given compound. So it would be 0 for O2 (oxygen gas) and -1 for OH- ion. Similarly, some elements always have the same oxidation number, for example hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1 (except for H2 gas) and oxygen has an oxidation number of -2 (except for O2 gas), etc.

Let us look at couple of the compounds mentioned in the question.

NaOH: 

oxidation number of Na + oxidation number of oxygen + oxidation number of hydrogen = 0 

which means, oxidation number of Na + (-2) + (+1) = 0

or, oxidation number of Na = -1 +2 = +1

P2O5: 

2x oxidation number of P + 5x oxidation number of oxygen = 0

or, 2 x oxidation number of P + 5 x (-2) = 0

or, oxidation number of P = (5 x 2)/2 = +5.

You can determine the oxidation numbers of different elements for the other cases in the same way.

Hope this helps. 

Discuss the two techniques that the poet has used to evoke a sense of the supernatural in the poem "The Listeners."

"The Listeners" by Walter De la Mare is a poem which does a superb job of evoking an atmosphere of brooding melancholy and diffuse fear. The supernatural is more a matter of a sense of the uncanny than of an overt portrait of anything lacking a naturalistic explanation.

The first way that De la Mare evokes this uncanny atmosphere is by deliberate vagueness and omission of details. The Traveller of the poem does not have a name. We know of his feelings but not any practical details about what he is trying to do, who he is, what events of the past led up to his journey, or why he decided to travel at night rather than at a more sensible time with better light. 

Next, the setting evokes mystery and strangeness. It is night time, and the world is in shadows. The house is lonely and isolated in a dark wood and only illuminated by "faint moonbeams". The world is described as eerily silent except for the noises made by the Traveller. All these sensual details evoke an otherworldly atmosphere. 

You drop a stone down a well. You hear the splash 2.03 s later. How deep is the well? The speed of sound in air is 343 m/s.

A stone is dropped down a well and the sound of the splash when it strikes the water is heard 2.03 s later. The depth of the well has to be determined.

Let the depth of the well be L meters. The acceleration of the stone due to the gravitational force of attraction is assumed to be constant at 9.8 m/s^2. The speed of sound in air is 343 m/s.

As the stone falls it takes a time t to strike the water below. The equation `L = 0*t + (1/2)*(9.8)*t^2` shows the relation between the depth of the well and the time taken for the stone to fall.

After the stone strikes the water, the time taken by sound to travel upwards and be heard is `L/343` s. This gives us two equations.

`L/343 + t = 2.03` ...(1)

`L = 0*t + (1/2)*(9.8)*t^2` ...(2)

From (1)

`L = (2.03 - t)*343`

Substituting this in (2)

`(2.03 - t)*343 = (1/2)*(9.8)*t^2`

`2.03*343 - 343*t = 4.9*t^2`

Solving this equation gives `t = +-(21*sqrt(310)-350)/10` . The negative root can be ignored.

Substituting `t = +-(21*sqrt(310)-350)/10` in `L = (2.03 - t)*343` gives:

`L = (2.03 -(21*sqrt(310)-350)/10)*343`

L = 19.0998 m

The depth of the well is 19.0998 m.

What is bipolar disorder?

Introduction

Although mood fluctuations are a normal part of life, individuals with bipolar disorder experience extreme mood changes. Bipolar disorder, or bipolar affective disorder (also called manic-depressive disorder), has been identified as a major psychiatric disorder characterized by dramatic mood and behavior changes. These changes, ranging from episodes of high euphoric moods to deep depression, with accompanying behavioral and personality changes, are devastating to those with the disorder and perplexing to the loved ones of those affected. As of 2015, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration reported that approximately 2.6 percent of the US population over the age of eighteen suffers from bipolar disorder. The disorder is divided fairly equally between men and women.

Clinical psychiatry has been effective in providing biochemical intervention in the form of mood stabilizers such as lithium carbonate or valproate, which both stimulate the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate in order to stabilize or modulate the ups and downs of this illness. Lithium treatment is most effective when treating individuals with pure mania, which is characterized by periods of euphoria and depression. Mood-stabilizing anticonvulsant medications, such as oxcarbazepine (Trileptal), carbamazepine (Tegretol), and lamotrigine (Lamictal) are often used to treat bipolar. Atypical antipsychotic medications, antidepressants, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), and nonmedical therapies such as sleep management and psychotherapy are increasingly utilized to treat individuals with bipolar disorder. Psychotherapy is seen by most practitioners as a necessary adjunct to medication.

Symptoms

In the manic phase of a bipolar episode, individuals may experience inappropriately good moods, or “highs,” or may become extremely irritable. During a manic phase, they may overcommit to work projects and meetings, social activities, and family responsibilities in the belief that they can accomplish anything; this is known as manic grandiosity. At times, psychotic symptoms such as delusions, severe paranoia, and hallucinations may accompany a manic episode. These symptoms may lead to a misdiagnosis of other psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. Although it may be difficult to arrive at a differential diagnosis between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder when a person is acutely psychotic, a long-term view of the individual’s overall symptoms and functioning can distinguish between the two disorders.

The initial episode of bipolar disorder is typically one of mania or elation, although in some people, a depressive episode may signal the beginning of the disorder. Episodes of bipolar disorder can recur rapidly—within hours or days—or may have a much slower recurrence rate, even of years. The duration of each episode, whether it is depression or mania, varies among individuals but normally remains fairly consistent for each individual.

Types

According to the fifth edition of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5, 2013), which is the diagnostic manual of the American Psychiatric Association, there are several types of bipolar disorder. Bipolar disorder specifiers are categorized according to the extent of severity; the types of the symptoms; the changes in activity, energy, and mood; and the duration of the symptoms.

Bipolar I disorder is characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression. At times, severe bipolar disorder may be accompanied by psychotic symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations. For this reason, bipolar I disorder is also considered a psychotic disorder. The prevalence of bipolar I disorder is divided fairly equally between men and women. However, women report more episodes of depression than men and are more likely to be diagnosed with bipolar II disorder.

Bipolar II disorder is characterized by alternating episodes of a milder form of mania (known as hypomania) and depression. In bipolar II disorder, although there is an observable change in mood and functioning, the hypomanic episode causes less severe impairment than that seen in mania. It is very rare for an individual’s diagnosis to change from bipolar II disorder to bipolar I disorder.

Cyclothymia
is a form of bipolar disorder in which hypomania alternates with a low-level, chronic depressive state. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
is characterized by alternating mood episodes that vary according to seasonal patterns; the mood changes are thought to be related to changes in the amount of sunlight and accompanying effects on an individual's circadian rhythm and levels of the hormone
melatonin. In the northern hemisphere, the typical pattern is associated with manic symptoms in the spring and summer and depression in the fall and winter. Manic episodes often have a shorter duration than the depressive episodes. Bipolar disorder must be differentiated from depressive disorders, which include major depression (unipolar depression) and dysthymia, a milder but chronic form of depression.

Comorbidity

Clinical comorbidity is the existence of two or more disorders in the same individual. In 2011, the Archives of General Psychiatry (now JAMA Psychiatry) reported on a World Mental Health survey conducted by researchers from Harvard University. The survey found that 75 percent of participants with bipolar spectrum disorder also met the criteria for at least one other psychiatric disorder, with anxiety disorder as the most prevalent co-occurring condition. Less than half of those with bipolar disorder reported receiving mental health treatment for the condition. Other frequently occurring comorbid disorders are attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), personality disorders, and substance use disorder.

Causes

The causes of bipolar disorder are not fully understood. However, family, twin, and adoption studies indicate that genetic factors play a major role. As of 2015, the Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance reports that approximately two-thirds of individuals with bipolar disorder have at least one close relative with the disorder. In fact, it is not uncommon to see families in which several generations are affected by bipolar disorder. Serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, brain chemicals known as neurotransmitters that regulate mood, arousal, and energy, respectively, are thought to be altered in bipolar disorder.

One theory is that bipolar disorder is associated with dysregulation in brain regions that are implicated in emotion such as the amygdala and basal ganglia. This theory is supported by functional brain imaging studies that indicate that during cognitive or emotional tasks, people with bipolar I disorder show different patterns of activity in the amygdala. In terms of structural brain imaging, people with bipolar disorder also display differences in the volume of activity in certain regions such as the amygdala and basal ganglia.

A diathesis-stress model has been proposed for some psychosomatic disorders such as hypertension. This model has also been applied to bipolar disorder. In a diathesis-stress model, there is a susceptibility (the diathesis) for the disorder. An individual who has a diathesis is at risk for the disorder but may not show signs of the disorder unless there is sufficient stress. In this model, a genetic, structural, or biochemical predisposition toward the disorder (the bipolar diathesis) may lie dormant until stress triggers the emergence of the illness. The stress may be psychosocial, biological, neurochemical, or a combination of these factors.

A diathesis-stress model can also account for some of the recurrent episodes of mania in bipolar disorder. Investigators suggest that positive life events, such as the birth of a baby or a job promotion, as well as negative life events, such as divorce or the loss of a job, may trigger the onset of episodes in individuals with bipolar disorder. Stressful life events and the social rhythm disruptions that they cause can have adverse effects on a person’s
circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms are normal biologic rhythms that govern such functions as sleeping and waking, body temperature, and oxygen consumption. Circadian rhythms affect hormonal levels and have significant effects on both emotional and physical well-being. For those reasons, many clinicians encourage individuals with bipolar disorder to work toward maintaining consistency in their social rhythms.

Investigators have compared the course of bipolar disorder to kindling, a process in which epileptic seizures increase the likelihood of further seizures. According to the kindling hypothesis, triggered mood episodes may leave the individual’s brain in a sustained sensitized state that makes the person more vulnerable to further episodes. After a while, external factors are less necessary for a mood episode to be triggered. Episode sensitization may also account for rapid-cycling states, in which the individual shifts from depression to mania over the course of a few hours or days. Some individuals are diagnosed with a subtype of bipolar disorder known as rapid cycling bipolar disorder, which is defined as four or more episodes per year. Rapid cycling is characterized by poorer outcome.

Impact

The burden of bipolar disorder is considerable. In addition to experiencing functional impairment during illness episodes, many people with bipolar disorder experience ongoing functional impairment between episodes. In 2002, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported that bipolar disorder was responsible for more adjusted life-years than any form of cancer or such major neurologic diseases as Alzheimer's and epilepsy. It was estimated that bipolar disorder was the sixth leading cause of disability worldwide among adults between the ages of fifteen and forty-four. Bipolar disorder is associated with the highest rate of suicide out of all of the psychiatric disorders. In one large-scale study, when asked to rate their perception of their well-being in terms of their culture, values, and how they live in relation to their goals, standards, and expectations (that is, their quality of life), individuals with bipolar disorder rated their quality of life lower than members of the general population did. Indeed, study findings suggest that quality-of-life ratings are poorer in bipolar disorder than they are in anxiety disorders and in depression but are better than compared with quality-of-life ratings in schizophrenia.

Organizations such as the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) and support groups such as the Depressive and Bipolar Support Alliance (DBSA) have provided a way for people with bipolar disorder to share their pain as well as to triumph over the illness. Many people have found comfort in knowing that others have suffered from the mood shifts, and they can draw strength from one another. Family members and friends can be the strongest supporters and advocates for those who have bipolar disorder or other psychiatric illnesses. Many patients have credited their families’ constant, uncritical support in addition to competent effective treatment including medications and psychotherapy, with helping them cope with the devastating effects of the illness. Early intervention, relapse prevention, and treatment of the disorder are necessary to prevent the possibility of a tragic outcome.

Treatment Approaches

Medications have been developed to aid in correcting the biochemical imbalances thought to be part of bipolar disorder. Lithium carbonate is effective for the majority of individuals who take it. Many brilliant and successful people have reportedly suffered from bipolar disorder and have been able to function successfully with competent and responsible treatment. Some people who have taken lithium for bipolar disorder, however, have complained that it robs them of their energy and creativity. They say that they actually miss the energy associated with manic phases of the illness. This perceived loss, some of it realistic, can be a factor in relapse associated with lithium noncompliance.

Other medications have been developed to help those individuals who are considered lithium nonresponders or who find the side effects of lithium intolerable. Anticonvulsant medications, such as divalproex sodium (Depakote), carbamazepine (Tegretol), and lamotrigine (Lamictal), which have been found to have mood-stabilizing effects, are often prescribed to individuals with bipolar disorder. During the depressive phase of the disorder, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and lamotrigine (Lamictal) have also been administered to help restore the individual’s mood to a normal level. Phototherapy is particularly useful for individuals who have SAD. Atypical antipsychotic medications such as risperidone (Risperdal), olanzapine (Zyprexa), and quetiapine (Seroquel) have also been prescribed to individuals with bipolar I disorder for the treatment of mania.

Cognitive behavior therapy is a form of therapy that addresses an individual’s beliefs, assumptions, and behaviors to improve that person’s emotional responses and health. Interpersonal social rhythms therapy encourages individuals to achieve and maintain stable routines, emphasizing the link between regular routines and moods, whereas the interpersonal component of the therapy focuses on the interpersonal issues that arise in individuals’ lives. Psychotherapy, especially cognitive behavior therapy or interpersonal social rhythm therapy, is viewed by most practitioners as a necessary adjunct to medication. Indeed, psychotherapy has been found to assist individuals with bipolar disorder in maintaining medication compliance.

Local mental health associations are able to recommend psychiatric treatment by board-certified psychiatrists and licensed psychologists who specialize in the treatment of mood disorders. Often, temporary hospitalization is necessary for complete diagnostic assessment, initial mood stabilization and intensive treatment, medication adjustment, or monitoring of an individual who feels suicidal.

Bibliography

Correa, R., et al. "Is Unrecognized Bipolar Disorder a Frequent Contributor to Apparent Treatment Resistant Depression?" Journal of Affective Disorders 127 (2012): 10–18. Print.

Deckersbach, Thilo, et al. Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Bipolar Disorder. New York: Guilford, 2014. Print.

Goodwin, Frederick K., and Kay R. Jamison. Manic Depressive Illness. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2007. Print.

Jamison, Kay R. An Unquiet Mind. New York: Knopf, 1995. Print.

"Mental Disorders." Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. SAMHSA, 15 June 2015. Web. 6 Aug. 2015.

Miklowitz, David J. The Bipolar Disorder Survival Guide: What You and Your Family Need to Know. New York: Guilford, 2002. Print.

Miklowitz, David J., and Sheri E. Johnson. “The Psychopathology and Treatment of Bipolar Disorder.” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 2 (2006): 199–235. Print.

Merikangas, Kathleen, et al. "Prevalence and Correlates of Bipolar Spectrum Disorder in the World Mental Health Survey Initiative." Archives of General Psychiatry 68.3 (2011): 241–51. Print.

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Yatham, Lakshmi N., and Vivek Kusumakar, eds. Bipolar Disorder: A Clinician's Guide to Treatment Management. 2nd ed. New York: Brunner, 2009. Print.

In which way do humans exhale?

Let's start with the main reason we exhale. When we exhale the air we breathe out contains carbon dioxide that we are getting rid of. Carbon dioxide is a waste product of cellular respiration, the process by which our cells convert energy from nutrients into usable energy in the form of ATP. The carbon dioxide that is produce during cellular respiration leaves the cells and enters the blood stream by diffusion. In the lungs, the carbon dioxide leaves the blood stream and enters the alveoli by diffusion. Once in the alveoli, the carbon dioxide moves through airways that get progressively larger until we breathe it out during exhalation.

The process of exhalation occurs mainly from the action of the diaphragm. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that separates our thorax from our abdomen. Because it is a muscle, it can contract and relax. When it contracts, the muscle gets shorter which makes it flatter. This provides more space in the thorax and causes the lungs to expand for inhalation. For exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and gets longer. This takes up more space in the thorax and puts pressure on the lungs causing the air to leave. For forced exhalation, such as blowing out birthday candles, other muscles such as abdominals and intercostal muscles between the ribs get involved to provide more pressure on the lungs and more exhalation.

Why was slavery terrible for slaves?

There are two main types of reasons why slavery was terrible for slaves.

First, slavery was terrible because slaves lived in very poor material conditions.  Slaves typically lived in very small, one-room huts or shacks.  Their owners gave them enough food so that they could work, but they did not give them much more than that and they did not give them much variety in their food.  Most slaves had to engage in hard, physical labor all day long, six days per week.  All of this meant that being a slave would have been physically unpleasant most of the time.

However, this is not the major problem with slavery.  Millions of poor white people suffered from a lack of material goods.  Millions of poor white people had to work hard almost all the time.  What really made slavery much worse was the fact that slaves belonged to another person who could treat them however he or she wanted.  This meant that slaves were extremely insecure and vulnerable.

Imagine what it would be like to have someone else own you and have complete control over you.  That person could do anything he or she wanted.  You would know that your owner could, at any time, sell you to someone else.  This would mean that you would be taken away from any family that you had.  Equally, your owner could sell your family members.  Either of these things meant that, without any warning, you might never see your parents, siblings, spouse, or children again.  Imagine how helpless and vulnerable you would feel.

Imagine knowing that someone else had the right to do anything they wanted to your body.  Slaves could be beaten and even killed (though this was uncommon since killing a slave was like destroying your own property) if their owners felt it was the right thing to do.  Male slaveowners could and did use female slaves for sexual purposes.  In other words, you could be beaten or raped at any point and there would be nothing you or anyone else could do about it.  Once again, how would this make you feel?

Finally, imagine that you know that your entire life will be like this.  Furthermore, imagine that you know that any children or grandchildren you have will have this same life.  Wouldn’t that be a very hopeless feeling?

Thus, the main reason why slavery was terrible was because the slaves were someone else’s property.  This meant that they were susceptible to having all sorts of terrible things happen to them because their owner wanted to do those things.  This would have been a horrible thing because it would have made many slaves feel hopeless, helpless, and vulnerable.