What is the longest phase of mitosis?

Mitosis is the process of cell division and consists of the following 5 phases:

• Prophase


• Prometaphase


• Metaphase


• Anaphase


• Telophase

Interphase and cytokinesis may sometimes be included in this process, although the former precedes mitosis and the latter succeeds it. A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase, but it is technically not a part of mitosis.

Among the phases of mitosis, prophase is the longest and anaphase is the shortest. During interphase, the chromosomes divide and exist in the form of chromatin fibers. During prophase, chromatin condenses and chromosomes become visible. The centrioles moves to the opposite ends and the mitotic spindles are formed. During prometaphase, dissolution of the nuclear membrane takes place and chromosomes are pulled in opposite directions by microtubules. During metaphase, the chromosomes line up along an imaginary line known as the metaphase plate. In anaphase, chromosomes move at the opposite ends of the cell and in telophase, a new membrane is formed around the daughter nuclei and the cell is ready for partitioning.

Hope this helps. 

To what extent is globalization important to the world?

There are at least two ways in which to interpret this question.  Let me answer both briefly.

First, we can say that this question is asking how globalization has helped to improve our world.  If this is the case, we can say that globalization has given us more cultural choices and more economic opportunity than we had before globalization.  Because of globalization, practically every part of the world is connected to every other.  In the United States, we can easily get products made in Bangladesh or food grown in Chile.  People in those countries can watch movies made in the US, soccer games from the UK, or music videos from South Korea.  We can also say that globalization has helped to create a world where the poorer countries are not as poor as they once were.  China has become much less poor since it has opened itself to the world economy.  The link below tells us that 1 billion people have been lifted out of extreme poverty in the last 20 years.  We can attribute this to economic gains brought about by globalization.  In these ways, globalization has been important in improving our lives.

Second, we can ask how globalization has been important in shaping our world, both for good and for bad.  The good has been discussed above, which means we would need to add in negative aspects to globalization.  We can argue that globalization has hurt people in specific industries in specific countries.  For example, blue-collar workers in rich countries have been hurt because they have lost their jobs to cheaper competition in poorer countries.  In addition, we can say that globalization has helped to keep developing nations down.  Because we have a globalized world, they focus on making cheap things to export to the rich world instead of building their own self-contained economies where they could make, for example, cars and computers that would bring more value.  We can also argue that globalization has reduced cultural diversity in the world.  Because the entire world can see South Korean music videos and Hollywood or Bollywood movies, the people of other countries become less interested in their own indigenous arts scenes. As more people adopt Western ways, unique cultural practices are lost.  In these ways, and others, we can also argue that globalization has shaped our world in negative ways as well as the more positive ways discussed in the previous paragraph.

How did the beliefs of the Church affect Medieval European society?

The beliefs of the Church had a huge impact Medieval European society-- in fact, the entire structure of society was based on Church teachings! The Church was really the only remaining intellectual institution after the fall of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, so what they said went! The Church taught (and people believed) that God had dictated that there were three natural classes (or "Orders") of society. These were the Oratores ("those who pray," the Church,) Laboratores ("those who work," the peasantry,) and Bellatores ("those who fight," the nobility.) Each Order had their role in society. Primarily, the peasantry lived and worked to support the nobility, and the Church both reinforced this idea but existed somewhat outside the parasitic relationship between the other two classes. Becoming a member of clergy (as in a nun, priest, or monk) was really the only way for a peasant laborer to escape their weary lifestyle.

This structure of three Orders laid the foundation for and developed into the Feudal System. It still maintained the three general classes of society, but was far more complex in terms of who owed what to whom. Of course, the Church also played a role in the more intricate beliefs and actions of people's lives. The scholar Burchard of Worms even wrote a text on how to repent for some very specific sins!  Everything in Medieval society, from the class you were born into, down to the sinful nature of eating scabs-- yuck!-- was influenced by the Church.

What is the overall function of Chapter 5 of The Pearl?

Chapter 5 of John Steinbeck's The Pearl achieves the function of making it clear that the pearl will only bring unhappiness to Kino and Juana. At the beginning of the chapter, Juana tries to throw the pearl into the sea, but Kino, enraged, follows her. Steinbeck describes Kino as "red with anger," and Kino hisses at Juana "like a snake" (page numbers vary by edition). Kino has become unmoored by greed and his beating of Juana, followed by her passive acceptance of it, shows that the family is beginning to break apart.

After Kino beats Juana, he is attacked, and he kills the man who attacks him. At this point, "Juana knew that the old life was gone forever" (page numbers vary by edition). Juana understands that her peaceful way of life has been shattered. Juana tells Kino that they have to flee their home, and they later find that their boat has been destroyed and that their house is in flames. It is clear that the discovery of the pearl has only brought disaster and discord to their family. 

What are some significant examples of doubling throughout the story, other than the opposed doubles of Lucie Manette and the alike doubles of...

The beginning paragraph sets up the theme of doubles (“It was the best of times; it was the worst of times,” etc.). The family friends, the solicitor Mr. Stryver and Jarvis Lorry, are also doubles. Mr. Stryver looks to Lucie as a possible romantic attachment and wife, while Mr. Lorry looks on her as a surrogate daughter. While both intend the best for her, their motives are different, one being self-serving and the other being selfless.

Monsieur Defarge and Mr. Lorry can also be seen as opposites. Both have been in positions of service to Doctor Manette. Monsieur Defarge’s loyalty to the revolution can be seen as of a pair with Mr. Lorry’s loyalty to Tellson’s bank. While this loyalty is strong, they do not go as far in defending these institutions as does Madame Defarge. There is a limit to their defense of these institutions.

Another example of doubling can be found in Miss Pross and Madame Defarge. Miss Pross is willing to give her life to save Lucie, while Madame Defarge is willing to give her own life to destroy Lucie. Madame Defarge is killed by Miss Pross, while Miss Pross loses her hearing because of the gunshot that killed Madame Defarge.

Compare and contrast Whitman's depiction of the Civil War in his poem "The Artilleryman’s Vision" with the depiction in his letter to his mother.

This is an interesting comparison. Whitman, as far as I know, never directly witnessed a battle in the Civil War; he certainly never was a soldier. But he did serve as a nurse in hospitals for wounded soldiers. His brother George fought in the Union army and saw action in many battles, but Whitman's experience of the war came as a wound-dresser. So it is interesting to read the poem, about a dream vision of a battle, and compare it with his letter (I assume you mean the  letter of January 29, 1865) in which he paints a very different picture of the aftermath of a battle.

The poem consists of two parts: the reality of the artilleryman, safe in bed with the war safely in the past, and the dream of being back in combat. Laying in the dark, he can "hear, just hear, the breath of my infant," marking the beginning of this poem's emphasis on sound. The artilleryman begins to dream of a battle, and most of what he dreams is the sound of the conflict:

"I hear the sounds of the different missiles, the short t-h-t! t-h-t! of the rifle balls, / I see the shells exploding leaving small white clouds, / I hear the great shells shrieking as they pass, / The grape like the hum and whirr of wind through the trees."

The sounds are meant to convey the artilleryman's personal relationship to the action, which nevertheless is epic in scope: 

I see the gaps cut by the enemy’s volleys, (quickly fill’d up, no delay,)
I breathe the suffocating smoke, then the flat clouds hover low concealing all; Now a strange lull for a few seconds, not a shot fired on either side,
Then resumed the chaos louder than ever, with eager calls and orders of officers,
While from some distant part of the field the wind wafts to my ears a shout of applause, (some special success,)
And ever the sound of the cannon far or near, (rousing even in dreams a devilish exultation and all the old mad joy in the depths of my soul,)

The battle is depicted as a great collection of human vitality and emotion, something that arouses the "old mad joy" for being part of something larger than oneself. This is in stark contrast to the peaceful opening of the poem.

It is also in stark contrast to Whitman's own experience of the war, which he writes about to his mother. While in the poem he says "...The falling, dying, I heed not, the wounded dripping and red I heed not, some to the rear are hobbling," in his letter he discusses a particular case of a soldier gravely wounded and stranded on the battlefield for two days. When Whitman asked this soldier about his treatment by the rebels while he was laying on the battlefield, he told the story of a man who helped him:

One middle-aged man, however, who seemed to be moving around the field among the dead and wounded for benevolent purposes, came to him in a way he will never forget. This man treated our soldier kindly, bound up his wounds, cheered him, gave him a couple of biscuits, gave him a drink and water, asked him if he could eat some beef.

Whitman clearly has a lot of experience with "the falling, dying" casualties of the war. This particular extract shows that Whitman had an exquisite sympathy for the wounded and their stories. While there is a kind of nobility in Whitman's description of the kind caretaker, which correlates with his sense of war as a "grand human enterprise," at the same time, this story is meant in part to assuage his mother's fears about his brother, George, and about the brutality of war in general, and about himself. Whereas the "vision" of the artilleryman is a dream of glory, Whitman's letter is a record of the actual reality of war.

In To Kill A Mockingbird, how does Harper Lee use parallelism and sequencing to explain a social commentary in chapters 6-8?

The term sequencing can refer to the series of events that make up a story. Therefore, in looking at parallelism as well as sequencing, one would look at the sequences of events that are parallel to each other in that they they share similarities. In Chapters 6 through 8 of To Kill a Mockingbird, we see some parallelism with respect to the series of events pertaining to the children's interactions with their neighbor Arthur (Boo) Radley, and author Harper Lee uses these parallel events to give a social commentary on prejudices and treatment of others.

In Chapter 6, when Jem, Dill, and Scout are chased off the Radleys' property by the sounds of Mr. Nathan Radley's shotgun, Jem gets his pants caught on the fence during the escape and must go back to retrieve them; however, he doesn't find them in the condition he would expect to find them. In Chapter 7, Jem confides to Scout that he found them "folded across the fence ... like they were expectin' me." Jem further informs Scout:

They'd been sewed up. Not like a lady sewed 'em, like somethin' I'd try to do. All crooked. (Ch. 7)

The condition of Jem's pants actually tells us quite a bit about Arthur's character. First, it tells us he is perfectly aware of what antics the children are up to. Second, since mending Jem's pants was an act of benevolence, the reader begins to learn Arthur is not the insane, dangerous person the children believe him to be as a result of prejudices; he is actually a kind and caring person who looks out for the children.

The benevolent act of mending Jem's pants in chapters 6 and 7 is paralleled by Arthur's further displays of kindness in chapters 7 and 8. In Chapter 7, Scout and Jem begin finding more items left in the knothole of the oak tree on the Radleys' property that they pass every day on their way home from school. Jem begins to realize that they are being left by Arthur and intended as gifts for the children, an act of kindness that becomes particularly evident when Scout and Jem find two soap dolls carved to look exactly like them. In Chapter 8, the children realize Arthur has carried out yet another benevolent act that parallels his other benevolent acts: he has sneaked up behind Scout and covered her shoulders with a woolen blanket while the two children stand out in the freezing cold early morning hours in front of the Radley gate, watching people try to mitigate the fire damage done to Miss Maudie's burning house.

This sequence of parallel events concerning Arthur's acts of benevolence help the children, especially Jem, realize Arthur has been misjudged. Jem realizes that Arthur is not the sort of person who would actually hurt the children and that Arthur is reaching out to the children in his own quiet way.

What are gliomas?

Risk factors: Most brain tumors have no known risk factors. Exposure to radiation or radiation of the brain may cause a brain tumor. There are no studies that prove brain tumors are caused by cell phone use, electric lines, injury or accidents, exposure to toxic fumes, hair dyes, or any food or food product. The National Cancer Institute reports that exposure to vinyl chloride, a gas used in making plastic, may increase the chance of developing glioma.

Etiology and the disease process: There is no known cause for glioma. Malignant gliomas are aggressive tumors that may spread quickly throughout the brain. Because the brain controls almost all body functions, a rapidly growing tumor may cause problems with breathing, sight, hearing, smell, balance, body temperature, and other functions, creating life-threatening conditions. As the glioma increases in size, the symptoms progress, leading to difficulty with activities of daily living. Gliomas are considered incurable, and once diagnosed, a survival time of less than one year is not unusual.

Incidence: Gliomas account for approximately 42 percent of all central nervous system (CNS) tumors and 77 percent of all malignant CNS tumors. Just over 9,000 gliomas are diagnosed each year in the United States. The average age at diagnosis for adults is fifty-four. Children with brain tumors are diagnosed evenly over the ages from birth to nineteen years.

Symptoms: Depending on the type and grade of the tumor, tumors may grow one to two years before symptoms develop. The brain can adjust to a slow-growing, low-grade tumor and may adapt over time, but symptoms eventually will occur. A high-grade or aggressive tumor may cause dramatic symptoms that develop quickly. The most common symptoms are headache, seizures or convulsions, weakness or paralysis, nausea or vomiting, difficulty walking due to poor balance, behavior changes, confusion, and vision changes.

Screening and diagnosis: There are no screening tests for gliomas. Diagnosis begins when the patient complains of symptoms suggestive of a glioma. A physician with a specialty in neurology or neurosurgery should be involved in a comprehensive physical examination of the patient. Diagnostic radiology procedures such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the head are most commonly used when a patient exhibits symptoms. A positron emission tomography (PET) scan may be used as it can assist in determining if the tumor is malignant. A biopsy is generally not done for diagnosis because of inability to reach the tumor, but one is usually done at the time of surgery to determine the specific cell type. Staging is based on identifying the location of the primary tumor (T X-4), evidence of metastasis (M X-1), and grade (G I-IV).

Treatment and therapy: Treatment for gliomas is difficult and usually combines surgery (if the tumor can be reached) and radiation. Radiosurgery is an option if the tumor is inoperable. Chemotherapy has limited use because of the difficulty of getting the drugs into the brain in the proper amounts to kill cells. Carmustine (BCNU) is one drug that is able to penetrate into the brain and has shown some activity against gliomas. It does have toxicity that limits its use. Recommendations for treatment are consistently moving toward surgery, radiation, and systemic chemotherapy. Advances in the treatment of gliomas include a wafer with carmustine that is placed into the surgical site after removal of the tumor. Temozolomide (Temodar), an oral drug with few side effects, has shown activity when a glioma returns. Clinical studies are ongoing to determine other chemotherapy combinations that may be useful in treating gliomas.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: The prognosis depends on the type of the glioma, the age of the patient, and the symptoms of the patient when diagnosed. Gliomas are difficult to treat, and survival time is often limited. Slower growing, low-grade tumors, even when treated successfully at first, have the potential to grow back and progress. Avoiding radiation to the head is the only documented prevention. If the tumor is treated successfully, which is rare, there may still be major physical limitations that exist from side effects of the tumor or its treatment.

Ashby, L. S., and T. C. Ryken. “Management of Malignant Glioma: Steady Progress with Multimodal Approaches.” Neurosurgical Focus 20.4 (2006): E6. Print.

Barańska, Jolanta. Glioma Signaling. New York: Springer, 2013. Print.

Barnett, Gene H., ed. High-Grade Gliomas: Diagnosis and Treatment. Totowa: Humana, 2007. Print.

Berger, Mitchel S., and Charles B. Wilson, eds. The Gliomas. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1999. Print.

Hayat, M. A. Teratoid/Rhabdoid, Brain Tumors, and Glioma. New York: Springer, 2012. Print.

Yamanaka, Ryuya. Glioma: Immunotherapeutic Approaches. New York: Springer, 2012. Print.

What is throat cancer?

Risk factors: Studies have found that as many as 90 percent of
people with head
and neck cancers, particularly of the oropharynx,
hypopharynx, and larynx, have a history of smoking cigarettes or chewing tobacco,
and as many as 80 percent have a history of drinking alcohol. Risk increases with
the frequency, duration, and number of “pack-years” of cigarette smoking,
independent of alcohol consumption. (One pack-year is defined as equivalent to
smoking one pack, or twenty cigarettes, per day for one year.) One study indicated
that smoking or chewing tobacco in conjunction with excess drinking of alcohol
increases the risk beyond that for those who use either tobacco or alcohol alone.
In a study among those who never smoked, only those with excessive amounts of
alcohol consumption (three or more drinks per day) were at increased risk of head
and neck cancers.

Other factors vary by tumor site and include Chinese ancestry, consumption of
preserved and salted foods, wood dust exposure, and infection with the
Epstein-Barr
virus for nasopharyngeal cancer; poor oral hygiene, a diet
low in fruits and vegetables, chewing betel quid, and infection with the
human
papillomavirus (HPV) for oropharyngeal cancer; Plummer-Vinson
syndrome, a disorder characterized by severe anemia and trouble swallowing, for
hypopharyngeal cancer; and asbestos exposure for laryngeal cancer.
Individuals of East Asian descent who drink alcohol and possess a genetic mutation
that prevents effective elimination of acetaldehyde, a carcinogen created by
metabolism of alcohol, are at greater risk for oropharyngeal cancer.

Etiology and the disease process: Most throat cancers begin in
squamous cells lining mucosal surfaces in the throat. Squamous cell cancers grow
aggressively. They begin as carcinomas in situ, abnormal cells lining the cells in
the epithelium, before they progress to invasive squamous cell
cancers. Salivary gland tumors can develop in the mucosal
lining of the oropharynx and oral cavity.

What makes squamous cells become cancerous is unknown, but it is believed that tobacco and alcohol use damage the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in the cells of the mouth and throat, causing changes that lead to cancer.

Incidence: According to the National Cancer Institute, in 2014,
there were an estimated 12,630 new cases of laryngeal cancer and 14,410 new cases
of pharyngeal cancer. Furthermore, an estimated 3,610 people will die of laryngeal
cancer and 2,540 will die of pharyngeal cancer. Cancers of the throat occur more
often in men than in women, with men making up approximately 80 percent of those
with hypopharyngeal cancer
and 70 percent of those with nasopharyngeal cancer. The incidence of head and neck
cancers has declined since the 1980s, attributable in part to a drop in the number
of people smoking cigarettes.

Symptoms: Symptoms of throat cancer may be mild or absent but may
include a lump or sore that does not heal or becomes larger, sore throat, trouble
swallowing, and a change in voice such as hoarseness. Patients with cancer of the
oropharynx or hypopharynx may experience ear pain, and those with cancer of the
nasopharynx may have ear pain and difficulty hearing, headaches, and difficulty
breathing or talking. Symptoms of cancer of the larynx may include sore throat,
hoarseness, ear pain, or a lump in the neck.

Screening and diagnosis: There are no routine screening tests for
throat cancer for asymptomatic patients. If throat cancer is suspected, the
physician will take a complete medical history for risk factors and perform a
physical exam. During the physical exam, the physician will palpate for lumps in
the throat to rule out other conditions related to the symptoms, look for signs of
metastasis, and determine the patient’s overall health. Then, the physician will
most likely perform an endoscopy to view areas that are not visible during a
physical exam and to look for lesions. (A laryngoscope examines the larynx; a
nasopharyngoscope examines the nasal cavity and nasopharynx.) During this
procedure, the physician will excise tissue for examination. Depending on the
location of the tumor, the biopsy can be one of three types: an
exfoliative biopsy, incisional biopsy, or fine needle aspiration biopsy (commonly
done to stage oropharyngeal cancer). The physician may recommend a panendoscopy, a
diagnostic procedure done under general anesthesia during surgery to thoroughly
examine the nose, throat, voice box, esophagus, and bronchi to look for areas of
lesions and obtain a biopsy.

If cancer is present, it will be staged, from Stage 0, localized cancer, to
Stage IV, metastasized cancer. Staging depends not only on the pathology results
but on clinical data such as results of the endoscopy, findings on physical
examination, and results of any imaging studies. Imaging studies may include an
X-ray to determine if there is cancer in the lungs; computed tomography (CT) scans
for a cross-sectional picture of the size, location, shape, and position of the
tumor; magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); positron emission tomography (PET) to see
if the cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes; and a barium swallow, a series of
X-rays to determine if the cancer has spread to the esophagus in the digestive
tract and to see if the cancer affects swallowing.

Treatment and therapy: If cancer is present, the physician will
discuss treatment options, taking into consideration the patient’s overall health,
prognosis, staging, psychosocial supports, treatment side effects, and the impact
of the cancer and treatment on functions such as swallowing, talking, and chewing.
The patient’s medical team may consist of otorhinolaryngologists, oral surgeons,
pathologists, plastic surgeons, prostodontists, and radiation and medical
oncologists. Other allied health professionals such as dieticians, speech
pathologists, physical therapists, and social workers may be involved as
needed.

Surgery and radiation therapies are commonly used for treating throat cancers, particularly when the tumor is small and can be destroyed before spreading to other areas of the body. Radiation therapy may follow surgery if not all the cancer has been removed, or radiation may be used before surgery to preserve the voice. Individuals receiving radiation therapy may experience side effects including nausea, irritation and sores in the mouth, decreased appetite, earaches, and stiffness in the jaw.

If a larger tumor is involved or if the cancer has spread, a combination of
radiation and chemotherapy is often successful and can preserve the voice box.
Rarely will a partial laryngectomy be recommended and only in
cases in which the larynx and primary tumor must be removed. Palliative
care is needed for individuals whose primary throat cancer
has spread to other organs or distant parts of the body and cannot be treated.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: The five-year survival rates
for throat cancers vary based on the location and the stage of the cancer at the
time it was found. The five-year survival rates for stage I laryngeal cancer is 59
percent for cancer of the supraglottis, 90 percent for cancer of the glottis, and
65 percent for cancer of the subglottis. The five-year survival rate is 53 percent
for stage I hypopharyngeal cancer and 72 percent for stage I nasopharyngeal
cancer. However, these rates drop when these cancers are detected after
metastasis: the five-year survival rate for stage IV cancers is 34 percent for
cancer of the supraglottis, 44 percent for cancer of the glottis, 32 percent for
cancer of the subglottis, 24 percent for hypopharyngeal cancer, and 38 percent for
nasopharyngeal cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, the relative
five-year survival rate is 66 percent for cancers of the oropharynx and tonsils,
although survival rates by stage are not available.

Rehabilitation is often a critical component in caring for patients treated for throat cancers. Many patients need therapy for assistance in speaking and swallowing following treatment. Patients may need dietary counseling as well. Those who receive a laryngectomy will have a stoma, a surgical opening in the throat, and will need to learn how to care for it and how to speak again if the stoma is permanent.

Follow-up care for those treated for throat cancer is essential to ensure that
the cancer does not recur. Individuals with a prior diagnosis of throat cancer are
at the highest risk of recurrence of the cancer within two to three years of
initial diagnosis. During follow-up visits, the physician will perform a physical
exam and sometimes order X-rays, blood tests, and imaging studies. Regular dental
exams may be necessary as well. If patients received radiation therapy, the
physician may monitor functioning of the thyroid and pituitary glands. The
treating physician will also urge patients to stop drinking alcohol and to pursue
smoking
cessation, as alcohol and tobacco have been shown to
compromise treatment and increase the risk that a second cancer will develop.

Gordon, Serena.
“Oral Sex Implicated in Some Throat and Neck Cancer.” Washington
Post. Washington Post, 27 Aug. 2007. Web.

Hardefeldt, H. A., M. R. Cox, and G. D.
Eslick. "Association between Human Papillomavirus (HPV) and Oesophageal
Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Meta-Analysis." Epidemiology and
Infection 142.6 (2014): 1119–37.

Hashibe, Mia, et
al. “Alcohol Drinking in Never Users of Tobacco, Cigarette Smoking in Never
Drinkers, and the Risk of Head and Neck Cancers: Pooled Analysis in the
International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium.” Journal
of the National Cancer Institute 99 (2007): 777–89.
Print.

Lydiatt, William
M., and Perry J. Johnson. Cancers of the Mouth and Throat: A
Patient’s Guide to Treatment. Omaha: Addicus, 2001.
Print.

Mehanna, Hisham M., and K. Kian Ang.
Head and Neck Cancer Recurrence: Evidence-Based,
Multidisciplinary Management. Stuttgart: Thieme, 2012.
Print.

Radosevich, James A., ed. Head and
Neck Cancer: Current Perspectives, Advances, and Challenges.
Dordrecht: Springer, 2013. Print.

Spitz, M. R.
“Epidemiology and Risk Factors for Head and Neck Cancer.” Seminars
in Oncology 31.6 (2004): 726–33. Print.

How is power used for evil in A Tale of Two Cities?

Two groups are shown to use power for evil in the French Revolution as related in A Tale of Two Cities. The nobility is represented by the Marquis of Evrémonde, Charles Darnay’s uncle. His estate is his sole concern, not the people who live and work in it. He has no compassion for the poor, despite his great wealth. He uses the power of his money to crush them and then thinks that a little money alone will satisfy them. He throws a coin at Gaspard after his carriage runs over Gaspard’s son.

On the opposite end of the spectrum is Madame Defarge, who represents the peasants who are trying to overthrow the nobility. Her method is murder, killing many people herself and turning others over to the tribunal for execution. She uses her power of persuasion to rouse the people to revolt. In the process, many people die.

Charles Darnay, in contrast, relinquishes his power, giving up his title of marquis, as well as his estate, in favor of living in peace in England. He tries to use that power for good, to save his former servant, even though it is dangerous for him to return to France. As a result, he is captured by the revolutionaries and is imprisoned. It is only the power of self-sacrifice of Sydney Carton that saves him.

Which parameters affect the rate of dissolution of a solid in water?

There are a number of parameters that affect the rate of dissolution of a solid in water. These include the solubility of the solid, stirring, the surface area of the solid particles and the temperature of the solvent. Once we have selected a solid, its solubility is known to us (or provided to us and hence cannot be varied). We can vary the rate of dissolution by changing the other parameters.

Stirring always helps in increasing the rate of dissolution by causing a uniform distribution of solute particles throughout the solvent. This causes more collisions between water molecules and solute particles, thus increasing the rate of dissolution. Increasing the surface area of the solids (by crushing them) also increases the number of collisions between the particles and water molecules. Similarly, increasing the temperature of a liquid increases the kinetic energy of its particles which results in more collisions, which will help break the bonds between the solid's molecules, and will result in a faster rate of dissolution. 

Hope this helps. 

Can someone describe the culture and political organization of the Plains Indians? Also, discuss how and why their relationship with white...

The Plains Indians were comprised of many tribes, with many differences between them; but certain general patterns of similarity can be found across them.

Most Plains tribes were largely decentralized, with most decisions made at the level of an individual village of a few dozen people. This is likely due to the geography; the Great Plains were very spread out, and thus travel or communication over the long distances was quite difficult. Different villages were united into clans, with social norms expecting people to marry those of other clans in the same tribe. Of course, it would be possible to go into much greater detail about the complex cultures of all these different groups of people; if you have more specific questions please ask them as separate questions.

Instead I'll move on to the question of how the relationship between Great Plains Indians and European settlers changed over time.

For centuries after the arrival of European colonists, the Great Plains were largely ignored by European settlers, because land was not scarce and they didn't seem to contain any particularly useful natural resources. It wasn't until the mid-1800s when the United States began intentionally expanding territory westward (including the Louisiana Purchase, the annexation of Texas, the Oregon Trail, etc.) that Great Plains Indians had a great deal of contact with European---well, now actually American---settlers. This process accelerated in the late 1800s as oil became an important resource, because suddenly the Great Plains had a resource that people were willing to fight over.

A lot of American ideas and attitudes toward Native American populations ("cowboys and Indians") come from this period, which was generally characterized by conflict between settlers and indigenous populations. Eventually these conflicts smoldered down, but not before the United States had annexed almost all of the territory and left only a small portion in reservations for indigenous people.

Does the water motif from T.S. Eliot's The Waste Land have an influence on The Great Gatsby?

Certainly scholars have compared the two texts, many seeing The Great Gatsby as a prose version of The Waste Land, and identifying similar themes, settings, motifs, and more. Water as a motif is huge in The Waste Land, appearing as both a giver of life and a dangerous possibility for death. While water is not as heavily analyzed in The Great Gatsby, it still plays the same role of life-bringing or deadly, particularly in two critical scenes.

In most desolate wastelands, the lack of water is what keeps things so barren. Water is life-giving because it keeps plants and animals alive and readers see this again and again in The Waste Land. Towards the end of the poem, the desire for water indicates how much the desert is at the mercy of it. In the barren land there:

"is no water but only rock
Rock and no water and the sandy road
[...]
If there were water we should stop and drink
Amongst the rock one cannot stop or think
Sweat is dry and feet are in the sand
If there were only water amongst the rock" (lines 331-338).

The horrors of the waste land comes from its lack of water. Water is shown to be the renewing force that would bring the land and its travelers to life again. In The Great Gatsby, rain comes as a symbol of renewal during the tea and lunch that Gatsby has Nick engineer so he can have some time alone with Daisy to rekindle their love. The scene begins very awkwardly, as a rain storm casts a shadow over the event. However, this shower seems to act as a re-birth for Daisy and Gatsby's relationship, and by the end of the visit they are in love again.

Further, references to watery deaths are notable in The Waste Land. Consider Phlebas the Phoenician and his death by drowning, not to mention the eating of his corpse by sea life. Additionally, in The Burial of the Dead section, Madam Sosostris' actions of pulling the Drowning Sailor card, quoting The Tempest lines about Alonso's supposed death in a shipwreck, and warning the reader to "fear death by water" (line 55) all work to show water as a deadly force. The Great Gatsby addresses this version of water as well, again with a rainstorm. This rainstorm comes at Gatsby's funeral, where Nick is depressed to discover that he was Gatsby's only real friend. Unlike the previous rain shower, which brought on hope and joy, this storm seems to confirm that working towards the American Dream is futile and kills the hope that was brought by the previous rain. And Gatsby died while in the swimming pool, which you can connect back to the Phoenician sailor in The Waste Land to analyze the role of water as a bringer of death. 

How did the attack on Pearl Harbor hurt the US?

In military terms, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor did not hurt the United States much at all.  Not that many ships were destroyed and none of the US aircraft carriers were even at Pearl Harbor so the most important ships were not harmed at all.  The US was able to turn around and crush the Japanese at Midway only about six months later.  This shows that the US was not really hurt that badly by the actual Pearl Harbor attack.

The Japanese meant to destroy the entire US fleet by attacking Pearl Harbor.  That would have made it impossible for the US to go out and resist Japan in the Western Pacific.  However, the Japanese failed to actually destroy the fleet.  The aircraft carriers, which would become the most important ships in the fleet, were out of port and so were not damaged.  Only 7 or 8 US ships total were damaged badly enough to be out of service for a year or more.  This is not a very large number.  At the time, it seemed like it was a major loss because it was unexpected and because many people thought that the battleships (which took the brunt of the damages in the attacks) were going to be the most important kind of ship.  As it turned out, battleships were not that important and aircraft carriers became the dominant kind of ship.

So, the Pearl Harbor attack did not really hurt the US in military terms.  Of course, it hurt the families of the people who were killed and it hurt the people who were wounded in the attack.  It ended up hurting Americans of Japanese descent on the West Coast who were interned because Americans feared that they would help bring about further surprise attacks.  But it did not hurt the actual US war effort very much and it certainly helped the US by motivating most people in the country to participate in WWII.

What is the relationship between aging and genetics?

Why Study Aging?

Biologists have long suspected that the mechanisms of aging would never be understood fully until a better understanding of genetics was obtained. As genetic information has exploded, a number of theories of aging have emerged. Each of these theories has focused on a different aspect of the genetic changes observed in aging cells and organisms. Animal models, from simple organisms such as Tetrahymena (a single-celled, ciliated protozoan) and Caenorhabditis (a nematode worm) to more complex organisms like Drosophila (fruit fly) and mice, have been used extensively in efforts to understand the genetics of aging. The study of mammalian cells in culture and the genetic analysis of human progeroid syndromes (that is, premature aging syndromes) such as Werner syndrome and diseases of old age such as Alzheimer’s disease have also improved the understanding of aging. From these data, several theories of aging have been proposed.

Genetic Changes Observed in Aging Cells

Most of the changes thus far observed represent some kind of degeneration or loss of function. Many comparisons between cells from younger and older individuals have shown that more mutations
are consistently present in older cells. In fact, older cells seem to show greater genetic instability in general, leading to chromosome deletions, inversions, and other defects. As these errors accumulate, the cell cycle slows down, decreasing the ability of cells to proliferate rapidly. These genetic problems are partly a result of a gradual accumulation of mutations, but the appearance of new mutations seems to accelerate with age due to an apparent reduced effectiveness of DNA repair mechanisms.

Cells that are artificially cultured have been shown to undergo a predictable number of cell divisions
before finally becoming senescent, a state where the cells simply persist and cease dividing. This phenomenon was first established by Leonard Hayflick in the early 1960s when he found that human fibroblast cells would divide up to about fifty times and no more. This phenomenon is now called the Hayflick limit. The number of divisions possible varies depending on the type of cell, the original age of the cell, and the species of organism from which the original cell was derived. It is particularly relevant that a fibroblast cell from a fetus will easily approach the fifty-division limit, whereas a fibroblast cell from an adult over age fifty may be capable of only a few divisions before reaching senescence.

The underlying genetic explanation for the Hayflick limit appears to involve regions near the ends of chromosomes called telomeres. Telomeres are composed of thousands of copies of a repetitive DNA sequence and are a required part of the ends of chromosomes due to certain limitations in the process of DNA replication. Each time a cell divides, it must replicate all of the chromosomes. The process of replication inevitably leads to loss of a portion of each telomere, so that with each new cell division the telomeres get shorter. When the telomeres get to a certain critical length, DNA replication seems to no longer be possible, and the cell enters senescence. Although the process discussed above is fairly consistent with most studies, the mechanism whereby a cell knows it has reached the limit is unknown.

A result of these genetic changes in aging humans is that illnesses of all kinds are more common, partly because the immune system seems to function more slowly and less efficiently with age. Other diseases, like cancer, are a direct result of the relentless accumulation of mutations. Cancers generally develop after a series of mutations or chromosomal rearrangements have occurred that cause the mutation of or inappropriate expression of proto-oncogenes. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that are involved in regulating the cell cycle and often are responsible for moving the cell forward toward mitosis (cell division). Mutations in proto-oncogenes transform them into oncogenes (cancer genes), which results in uncontrolled cell division, along with the other traits displayed by cancer cells.

Progeroid Syndromes as Models of Aging

Several progeroid syndromes have been studied closely in the hope of finding clues to the underlying genetic mechanisms of aging. Although such studies are useful, they are limited in the sense that they display only some of the characteristics of aging. Also, because they are typically due to a single mutant gene, they represent a gross simplification of the aging process. Several genetic analyses have identified the specific genetic defects for some of the progeroid syndromes, but often this has only led to more questions.

Down syndrome
is the most common progeroid syndrome and is usually caused by possession of an extra copy of chromosome 21 (also called trisomy 21). Affected individuals display rapid aging for a number of traits such as atherosclerosis and cataracts, although the severity of the effects varies greatly. The most notable progeroid symptom is the development of Alzheimer’s disease–like changes in the brain such as senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. One of the genes sometimes involved in Alzheimer’s disease is located on chromosome 21, possibly accounting for the common symptoms.

Werner syndrome is a very rare autosomal recessive disease. The primary symptoms are severe atherosclerosis and a high incidence of cancer, including some unusual sarcomas and connective tissue cancers. Other degenerative changes include premature graying, muscle atrophy, osteoporosis, cataracts, and calcification of heart valves and soft tissues. Death, usually by atherosclerosis, often occurs by fifty or sixty years of age. The gene responsible for Werner syndrome has been isolated and encodes a DNA helicase (called WRN DNA helicase), an enzyme that is involved in helping DNA strands to separate during the process of replication. The faulty enzyme is believed to cause the process of replication to stall at the replication fork, the place where DNA replication is actively taking place, which leads to a higher-than-normal mutation rate in the DNA,
although more work is needed to be sure of its mechanism.

Hutchinson-Gilford progeria shows even more rapid and pronounced premature aging. Effects begin even in early childhood with balding, loss of subcutaneous fat, and skin wrinkling, especially noticeable in the facial features. Later, bone loss and atherosclerosis appear, and most affected individuals die before the age of twenty-five. The genetic inheritance pattern for Hutchinson-Gilford progeria is still debated, but evidence suggests it may be due to a very rare autosomal dominant gene, which may represent a defect in a DNA repair system.

Cockayne syndrome, another very rare autosomal recessive defect, displays loss of subcutaneous fat, skin photosensitivity (especially to ultraviolet, or UV, light), and neurodegeneration. Age of death can vary but seems to center around forty years of age. The specific genetic defect is known and involves the action of a few different proteins. At the molecular level, the major problems all relate to some aspect of transcription, the making of messenger RNA (mRNA) from the DNA template, which can also affect some aspects of DNA repair.

Another, somewhat less rare, autosomal recessive defect is ataxia telangiectasia. It displays a whole suite of premature aging symptoms, including neurodegeneration, immunodeficiency, graying, skin wrinkling, and cancers, especially leukemias and lymphomas. Death usually occurs between forty and fifty years of age. The specific defect is known to be loss of a protein kinase, an enzyme that normally adds phosphate groups to other proteins. In this case, the kinase appears to be involved in regulating the cell cycle, and its loss causes shortening of telomeres and defects in the repair of double-stranded breaks in DNA. One of the proteins it appears to normally phosphorylate is p53, a tumor-suppressor gene whose loss is often associated with various forms of cancer.

Although the genes involved in the various progeroid syndromes are varied, they do seem to fall into some common functional types. Most have something to do with DNA replication, transcription, or repair. Other genes are involved in control of some part of the cell cycle. Although many other genes remain to be discovered, they will likely also be involved with DNA or the cell cycle in some way. Based on many of the common symptoms of aging, these findings are not too surprising.

Genetic Models of Aging

The increasing understanding of molecular genetics has prompted biologists to propose a number of models of aging. Each of the models is consistent with some aspect of cellular genetics, but none of the models, as yet, is consistent with all evidence. Some biologists have suggested that a combination of several models may be required to adequately explain the process of aging. In many ways, understanding of the genetic causes of aging is in its infancy, and geneticists are still unable to agree on even the probable number of genes involved in aging. Even the extent to which genes control aging at all has been debated. Early studies based on correlations between time of death of parents and offspring or on the age of death of twins suggested that genes accounted for 40 to 70 percent of the heritability of longevity. Later research on twins has suggested that genes may only account for 35 percent or less of the observed variability in longevity, and for twins reared apart, the genetic effects appear to be even less.

Genetic theories of aging can be classified as either genome-based or mutation-based. Genome-based theories include the classic idea that longevity is programmed, as well as some evolution-based theories such as antagonistic pleiotropy, first proposed by George C. Williams, and the disposable soma theory. Mutation-based theories are based on the simple concept that genetic systems gradually fall apart from “wear and tear.” The differences among mutation-based theories generally involve the causes of the mutations and the particular genetic systems involved. Even though genome-based and mutation-based theories seem to be distinct, there is actually some overlap. For example, the antagonistic pleiotropy theory (a genome-based theory) predicts that selection will “weed out” lethal mutations whose effects are felt during the reproductive years, but that later in life lethal mutations will accumulate (a mutation-based theory) because selection has no effect after the reproductive years.

Genome-Based Theories of Aging

The oldest genome-based theory of aging, sometimes called programmed senescence, suggested that life span is genetically determined. In other words, cells (and by extrapolation, the entire organism) live for a genetically predetermined length of time. The passing of time is measured by some kind of cellular clock and when the predetermined time is reached, cells go into a self-destruct sequence that eventually causes the death of the organism. Evidence for this model comes from the discovery that animal cells, when grown in culture, are only able to divide a limited number of times, the so-called Hayflick limit discussed above, and then they senesce and eventually die. Further evidence comes from developmental studies where it has been discovered that some cells die spontaneously in a process called apoptosis. A process similar to apoptosis could be responsible for cell death at old age. The existence of a cellular clock is consistent with the discovery that telomeres shorten as cells age.

In spite of the consistency of the experimental evidence, this model fails on theoretical grounds. Programmed senescence, like any complex biological process, would be required to have evolved by natural selection, but natural selection can only act on traits that are expressed during the reproductive years. Because senescence happens after the reproductive years, it cannot have developed by natural selection. In addition, even if natural selection could have been involved, what advantage would programmed senescence have for a species?

Because of the hurdles presented by natural selection, the preferred alternative genome-based theory is called antagonistic pleiotropy. Genes that increase the chances of survival before and during the reproductive years are detrimental in the postreproductive years. Because natural selection has no effect on genes after reproduction, these detrimental effects are not “weeded” out of the population. There is some physiological support for this in that sex hormones, which are required for reproduction earlier in life, cause negative effects later in life, such as osteoporosis in women and increased cancer risks in both sexes.

The disposable soma theory is similar but is based on a broader physiological base. It has been noted that there is a strong negative correlation among a broad range of species between metabolic rate and longevity. In general, the higher the average metabolic rate, the shorter-lived the species. In addition, the need to reproduce usually results in a higher metabolic rate during the reproductive years than in later years. The price for this high early metabolic rate is that systems burn out sooner. This theory is not entirely genome-based, but also has a mutation-based component. Data on mutation rates seem to show a high correlation between high metabolic rate and high mutation rates.

One of the by-products of metabolism is the production of free oxygen radicals, single oxygen atoms with an unpaired electron. These free radicals are highly reactive and not only cause destruction of proteins and other molecules, but also cause mutations in DNA. The high metabolic rate during the reproductive years causes a high incidence of damaging DNA mutations that lead to many of the diseases of old age. After reproduction, natural selection no longer has use for the body, so it gradually falls apart as the mutations build up. Unfortunately, all attempts so far to assay the extent of the mutations produced have led to the conclusion that not enough mutations exist to be the sole cause of the changes observed in aging.

Mutation-Based Theories of Aging

The basic premise of all the mutation-based theories of aging is that the buildup of mutations eventually leads to senescence and death, the ultimate cause being cancer or the breakdown of a critical system. The major support for these kinds of theories comes from a number of studies that have found a larger number of genetic mutations in elderly individuals than in younger individuals, the same pattern being observed even when the same individual is assayed at different ages. The differences among the various mutation-based theories have to do with what causes the mutations and what kinds of DNA are primarily affected. As mentioned above, the disposable soma theory also relies, in part, on mutation-based theories.

The most general mutation-based theory is the somatic mutation/DNA damage theory, which relies on background radiation and other mutagens in the environment as the cause of mutations. Over time, the buildup of these mutations begins to cause failure of critical biochemical pathways and eventually causes death. This theory is consistent with experimental evidence from the irradiation of laboratory animals. Irradiation causes DNA damage, which, if not repaired, leads to mutations. The higher the dose of radiation, the more mutations result. It has also been noted that there is some correlation between the efficiency of DNA repair
and life span. Further support comes from observations of individuals with more serious DNA repair deficiencies, such as those affected by xeroderma pigmentosum. Individuals with xeroderma pigmentosum have almost no ability to repair the type of DNA damage caused by exposure to UV light, and as a result they develop skin cancer very easily, which typically leads to death.

The major flaw in this theory is that it predicts that senescence should be a random process, which it is not. A related theory called error catastrophe also predicts that mutations will build up over time, eventually leading to death, but it suffers from the same flaw. Elderly individuals do seem to possess greater amounts of abnormal proteins, but that does not mean that these must be the ultimate cause of death.

The free radical theory of aging is more promising and is probably one of the most familiar theories to the general public. This theory has also received much more attention from researchers. The primary culprit in this theory is free oxygen radicals, which are highly reactive and cause damage to proteins, DNA, and RNA. Free radicals are a natural by-product of many cellular reactions and most specifically of the reactions involved in respiration. In fact, the higher the metabolic rate, the more free radicals will likely be produced. Although this theory also involves a random process, it is a more consistent and predictable process, and through time it can potentially build on itself, causing accelerated DNA damage with greater age.

Significant attention has focused on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Because free radicals are produced in greater abundance in respiration, which takes place primarily in the mitochondria, mtDNA should show more mutations than nuclear DNA. In addition, as DNA damage occurs, the biochemical pathways involved in respiration should become less efficient, which would theoretically lead to even greater numbers of free radicals being produced, which would, in turn, cause more damage. This kind of positive feedback cycle would eventually reach a point where the cells could not produce enough energy to meet their needs and they would senesce. Assays of mtDNA have shown a greater number of mutations in the elderly, and it is a well-known phenomenon that mitochondria are less efficient in the elderly. Muscle weakness is one of the symptoms of these changes.

The free radical theory has some appeal, in the sense that ingestion of increased amounts of antioxidants in the diet would be expected to reduce the number of free radicals and thus potentially delay aging. Although antioxidants have been used in this way for some time, no significant increase in life span has been observed, although it does appear that cancer incidence may be reduced.

From Theory to Practice

Many of the genetic theories of aging are intriguing and even seem to be consistent with experimental evidence from many sources, but none of them adequately addresses longevity at the organismal level. Although telomeres shorten with age in individual cells, cells continue to divide into old age, and humans do not seem to die because all, or most, of their cells are no longer able to divide. Cells from older individuals do have more mutations than cells from younger individuals, but the number of mutations observed does not seem adequate to account for the large suite of problems present in old age. Mitochondria, on average, do function more poorly in older individuals and their mtDNA does display a larger number of mutations, but many mitochondria remain high functioning and appear to be adequate to sustain life.

Essentially, geneticists have opened a crack in the door to a better understanding of the causes of aging, and the theories presented here are probably correct in part, but much more research is needed to sharpen the understanding of this process. The hope of geneticists, and of society in general, is to learn how to increase longevity. Presently, it seems all that is possible is to help a larger number of people approach the practical limit of 120 years through lifestyle modification and medical intervention. Going significantly beyond 120 years is probably a genetic problem that will not be solved for some time.

Key Terms



antioxidant

:

a molecule that preferentially reacts with free radicals, thus keeping them from reacting with other molecules that might cause cellular damage




free radical

:

a highly reactive form of oxygen in which a single oxygen atom has a free, unpaired electron; free radicals are common by-products of chemical reactions




mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

:

the genome of the mitochondria, which contain many of the genes required for mitochondrial function




pleiotropy

:

a form of genetic expression in which a gene has multiple effects; for example, the mutant gene responsible for cystic fibrosis causes clogging of the lungs, sterility, and excessive salt in perspiration, among other symptoms





Bibliography

Arking, Robert, ed. Biology of Aging: Observations and Principles. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2006. Print.

Manuck, Stephen B., et al., eds. Behavior, Health, and Aging. Mahwah: Erlbaum, 2000. Print.

McDonald, Roger B. Biology of Aging. New York: Garland, 2013. Print.

Medina, John J. The Clock of Ages: Why We Age, How We Age—Winding Back the Clock. New York: Cambridge UP, 1996. Print.

Moody, Harry R., and Jennifer R. Sasser. Aging: Concepts and Controversies. 8th ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2015. Print.

Read, Catherine Y., Robert C. Green, and Michael A. Smyer, eds. Aging, Biotechnology, and the Future. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2008. Print.

Ricklefs, Robert E., and Caleb E. Finch. Aging: A Natural History. New York: Freeman, 1995. Print.

Silvertown, Jonathan W. The Long and the Short of It: The Science of Life Span and Aging. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2013. Print.

Timiras, Paola S. Physiological Basis of Aging and Geriatrics. 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare, 2007. Print.

Toussaint, Olivier, et al., eds. Molecular and Cellular Gerontology. New York: New York Acad. of Sciences, 2000. Print.

Vijg, Jan. Aging of the Genome: The Dual Role of the DNA in Life and Death. New York: Oxford UP, 2007. Print.

Yu, Byung Pal, ed. Free Radicals in Aging. Boca Raton: CRC, 1993. Print.

Early on in "Cathedral," the narrator reveals that he is not looking forward to his wife's friend's visit. Why not?

There are several reasons that the narrator seems uncomfortable with the visit from his wife's friend, Robert. The narrator is not a social person. In fact, his wife tells him, "You don't have any friends."

It is likely, however, that the narrator is jealous of Robert and his relationship with his wife. The narrator seems uncomfortable about the poem that his wife has written about the time Robert (who is blind) put his hands on her face. His jealousy is also seen in his refusal to call his wife's ex-husband by name.

Her officer -- why should he have a name? he was the childhood sweetheart, and what more does he want?

He also denies a name to Robert, insisting on calling him "the blind man."

Yet the narrator specifically states, "A blind man in my house was not something I looked forward to." In addition to revealing the narrator's offensive and prejudiced attitude, these words show that the narrator is uncomfortable with someone who doesn't see the world the way he does. The narrator only knows the world through sight. He feels sorry for Robert's wife because he doesn't believe that Robert could compliment her (presumably because he couldn't see her). The narrator doesn't realize that there are things beyond appearance to compliment someone for. It is not until the end of the story that with the help of Robert the narrator realizes that one can understand something without seeing it.

Why are white people racist against black people?

Sadly, we cannot go back in history and determine where racism came from.  My own view is that racism is part of our human nature.  It is not something that has to exist, but it is something that comes from the way we are as people.  We should also note that it is not only whites who are racist.  I would argue that all people have the potential for racism in their human nature, but that white people have had the most power so their racism has hurt other people the most.

I believe that all people tend to separate the world into two groups.  There are people who are fundamentally like them and people who are not.  Our propensity to differentiate between these two types of people helps to cause much (if not all) of the conflict in the world.  We would not dream of taking things from people who are like us, but we would happily take from the “other.”  Therefore, we get along relatively well with our own kin, our own townspeople, or our own tribe.  But we fight with people from outside our group as we try to take their resources from them. 

Over the ages, people have gone to war for all sorts of reasons.  They have fought with people from other countries, from other religions, from other political ideologies, and from other ethnic groups.  All of these are conflicts between the people who we think of as “self” and the people we think of as “other.”  The conflict between Catholics and Protestants, Sunni and Shia, and Hutu and Tutsi show us that we do not need race to cause us to hate people who are the “other.”

However, race seems to be a really easy way to determine who is “other.”  If I am Catholic and I hate Protestants, I will have a hard time telling who my enemy is just by looking at them. The same is true if I am a capitalist and I hate communists.  But it is very easy to look at someone who is of another race and to say “that person is not like me.”  People of other races look different from us in ways that are obvious at the first glance and so we can easily classify them as “other,” as people we might potentially hate.

With white and black people in specific, from their first contact, white Europeans looked down on what they saw as inferior African technology. The Europeans could easily defeat the Africans in war and they had much more in the way of material goods due to their technology. This led Europeans to believe that Africans were not just different, but also inferior.

I believe that we humans are wired to separate the world into our group and outsiders.  We do this in many different ways, but race is a really easy way to differentiate between people. Racism, I would argue, comes about because of this innate tendency to prefer people “like us” and to dislike people who are not.

In the story, it was heavily implied that Fred Collins was in a Union (Northern) regiment, but in the video he was a Confederate soldier. Why would...

I know the video that you are talking about.  It was made in 1977, and it was done in black and white.  It is possible that the filmmaker chose to make Fred Collins a Confederate soldier, because the audience wouldn't be able to tell that Collins was wearing blue.  A blue uniform in a black and white film would either look dark gray or black.  An audience would assume that a soldier in a gray uniform would be a Confederate soldier. It might have just been easier to change the army Collins was fighting for rather than trying to get the audience to understand that his uniform was blue. 

Another possibility might be because choosing the Confederate army fit better with a theme of the story.  Collins's efforts were wasted, because other soldiers knocked over the bucket.  Essentially, his efforts were futile.  The Confederate army ultimately lost the Civil War, so perhaps their efforts can be seen as futile too.  Making Collins a Confederate soldier reinforces that concept of Southern futility.  

Which are the steps followed in taking up an insurance policy?

Let's start with the basics.  An insurance policy is a contract between an insurer and an insured under which the insurer promises to pay a determinable amount to the beneficiary(ies) of the policy if one or more events occur in the future. 

In order for the contract to not be considered gambling, the person taking out the insurance needs to have an "insurable interest" in the item, person, or company being insured.  For example, you can't buy auto insurance which pays you money if your neighbor's car is damaged in an accident.  Likewise, you can't take out life insurance on someone whose death would not negatively affect you (e.g. total strangers).

The contract needs to have a way to set a specific amount on the payment.  For typical personal and corporate policies, this is some portion of the value of some physical asset, like the value of a car or truck or building.  It can also be meant to pay amounts for which you are determined to be liable by a court of law (liability insurance, "personal umbrella" policies, etc).  There will usually be a deductible, which is an amount of loss for which you are responsible before the insurance policy pays anything.

Finally, the contract can only be for events that have not yet happened, and which you are not planning on having happen.  For example, you can't get a new insurance policy for your car to cover a crash that happened yesterday.  Also, if you take out insurance and it is later determined that you intentionally caused the event leading to a payout, typically the contract becomes unenforceable.

The insurance company will generally go through a process known as underwriting to assure all of these factors are met, and to determine the price at which they are willing to offer you a policy.

That being said, your steps break down into:

1) Determine what sorts of events you want to cover against (car crashes, being sued, a relative passing away, etc.).

2) Determine how much compensation you would like in that event (subject to limitations as described in the background).

3) Assemble the information an insurer will want for its underwriting process.

4) Contact several insurers, either directly or through a broker.

5) Submit applications, compare the offers they give you, and select the one that has the best combination of terms and premium costs.

It is important to note that buying insurance, for either personal or business risks, should be considered as part of an overall financial and risk management plan.  This is the most important part of steps 1 and 2.  It is common for people to underinsure to save premium costs when they have limited income and financial assets, although arguably this is the circumstance in which they need insurance the most due to lacking the assets to deal with the event themselves.  For example, if you depend on your car for getting to work, and you don't have enough cash to buy a new one if it gets wrecked, you should make sure you purchase adequate collision coverage so you don't end up carless.

Finally, note that insurance products can become complicated, with differing combinations of deductibles, benefits and premiums.  The can often differ as well in the restrictions they place on the situations generating the loss.  It ultimately helps to (a) work with an agent you can trust, and (b) be ready to lay out the policy features in some kind of spreadsheet to analyze the differences and make a good decision.

In The Great Gatsby, what does Nick tell us about Tom before we meet him?

As the narrator of The Great Gatsby, Nick Carraway tells the reader Tom Buchanan was a powerful football player while at Yale and that he comes from an extremely wealthy family.

Nick says Tom, who is from the Midwest like he is, went East "in a fashion that rather took your breath away." Coming from Lake Forest, the upscale suburb of Chicago, Tom brought with him several polo ponies, among other luxury possessions. He drifts wherever people play polo and are "rich together." Even before coming to the East, Tom Buchanan and his new wife Daisy seemed to have "drifted" as they spent a year in France "for no particular reason." They now live in the very fashionable East Egg. When Daisy talks with Tom on the phone, she declares their move is permanent, but Nick doubts this is true. Instead, he feels that Tom will "drift on forever," seeking the "dramatic turbulence of some irrecoverable football game."

Overall, Nick characterizes Tom Buchanan's as a man among the idle rich who used to play football. Tom seeks excitement to relieve his luxurious ennui.

Why does Jem say "We got him" in To Kill a Mockingbird?

In Chapter 17, Atticus is questioning Bob Ewell, who is on the witness stand. Atticus asks Bob several questions regarding what happened on the evening of November 21st, and asks him why he didn't find it necessary to call a doctor right away. Bob Ewell says that he never called a doctor in his entire life and didn't have the money to pay for one anyhow. Atticus goes on to ask Bob Ewell about the location of Mayella's injuries. Bob says that he agrees with Heck Tate's testimony that Mayella's right eye was blackened, and the right side of her face was badly beaten. Then, Atticus asks Bob Ewell if he can read and write, and asks Ewell if he could sign his name on the back of an envelope. Mr. Gilmer asks what is so interesting, and Judge Taylor is quick to point out that Bob is left-handed. Bob Ewell gets upset at Atticus and calls him a tricky lawyer before Atticus excuses him. Mr. Gilmer stands up to ask Mr. Ewell one more question. Mr. Gilmer asks Bob if he is ambidextrous. Bob Ewell says, "I most positively am not" (Lee 238). Scout mentions that Jem was softly pounding on the balcony rail and whispers, "We've got him" (Lee 238).

Jem whispers "we've got him" because he feels that Atticus has clearly proved that Bob Ewell was the person who beat up Mayella. The fact that Mayella was beaten on the right side of her face indicates that a left-handed man more than likely would have beaten her. Scout says, "Sherlock Holmes and Jem Finch would agree" (Lee 238). Scout goes on to mention that Tom Robinson could have easily been left-handed, and she believes that Jem is "counting his chickens."

What did the Civil War accomplish?

The Civil War accomplished a few things. There was a great deal of discussion about slavery in our country prior to the Civil War. Some people wanted to keep slavery in existence. Other people want to prevent slavery from spreading but to allow it to remain where it already existed. Other people wanted to ban slavery completely. This Civil War resolved the slavery question. Slavery was abolished after the Civil War ended.

Another question resolved by the Civil War was the issue of states’ rights. The South believed the states should have the power to nullify federal laws if those laws hurt a state. The North believed that federal laws should take priority over state laws. The Civil War made it clear that federal laws take priority over state laws.

The Civil War also helped Americans to realize there was a better way to resolve their differences. With over 600,000 dead and over one million casualties, Americans realized that fighting each other was not a good way to resolve the differences that existed in our country.

What are the disadvantages and advantages of friction?

There are countless ways that friction can have disadvantages and advantages in different situations. I will provide a few examples that will hopefully lead to more ideas for you.

A main disadvantage of friction is that it causes energy in a system to be converted to heat or sound energy, making that system less efficient. A good example is an internal combustion engine used in cars. In an engine there are dozens of moving metal parts, and in places where they are touching they will experience a large amount of friction which will generate a large amount of heat that can damage the parts. This is why we use engine oil to lubricate the parts and reduce the amount of friction. If an engine has a large amount of friction, some of the mechanical energy that we want to use to move the car is transferred to heat energy, making the engine less efficient and negatively affecting gas milage.

Keeping with the car example, an advantage of friction is that it does in fact make the car move. Friction between the tires and the road allows the tires to 'grip' the road and causes the car to move forward. Without this friction, tires would just spin and the car wouldn't go anywhere. We also rely on friction to help our car stop. The more friction there is between our tires and the road, the shorter our stopping distance will be, which is usually a good thing when it comes to avoiding accidents. 

These are just a few examples of how friction has disadvantages and advantages. 

What are the similarities between Lincoln's, Johnson's, and Congress's plans for Reconstruction?

There were very few things that were similar about these three plans. Lincoln's plan had evolved by his death to include such measures as voting rights for African-American war veterans, so this was a major departure from Johnson's plan. Overall, Congressional Reconstruction featured a much greater emphasis on equality for freedmen in the South, and the federal government played a much more prominent role in making this happen. Such measures as the Freedmen's Bureau, the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and the administration of the former Confederacy by military governors featured in Congressional Reconstruction, which was promoted by a faction of so-called "Radical" Republicans. Johnson vetoed congressional legislation aimed at establishing these measures. The main feature that these plans for Reconstruction all shared was an acceptance that slavery had to be abolished and that the Southern states, or at least their leaders, had to renounce the Confederacy and swear allegiance to the Union in order to regain admission. But Congressional Reconstruction was far more attentive to the rights of African-Americans than Johnson's vision for Reconstruction.

How do I start to write an essay and come up with a thesis on death in "A Rose for Emily" by William Faulkner?

Great topic! I recommend writing your thesis statement first. It will help you plan the rest of your essay.

To create your thesis statement, try picking one of the questions below and writing one sentence to give your own opinion as the answer.

1. By writing the story, what is Faulkner saying about death?

2. How does the story portray something interesting, unusual, or surprising about death?

3. Because the story mixes the idea of death with another big idea (such as loneliness, tradition, reputation, memory, or romance,) what new insight becomes clear as a result?

4. Does the story wrongly or inappropriately represent death? How?

For example, you might answer the questions above with these respective thesis statements:

1. Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily" expresses the painful morbidity of our thoughts and actions when we are unable to accept the reality of death.

2. "A Rose for Emily" portrays the extent to which our reactions to death can be both dignified and shameful.

3. Because it explores the relationship between death and tradition, "A Rose for Emily" reveals that changing our traditions can be just as painful and difficult as accepting the death of someone we know.

4. "A Rose for Emily" fundamentally warps and misrepresents the seriousness of death, turning it into an entertaining spectacle.

As you'll notice, the four example thesis statements above all:

• Express an opinion


• Say something about the story and death


• Require explanation and proof


• Could be something that another reader disagrees with

Because they are arguable, these thesis statements are "good" in the sense that they will be easy to use as the central idea in an essay. In other words, they contain an opinion that you'll have to both explain and show evidence for. 

So, once you've settled on your thesis statement, you can write your essay around it.

Thesis statements typically appear in the introductory paragraph of an essay. Some students like to put the thesis statement as the very first sentence of the essay; some prefer to introduce the story a little bit first, and then work up to the thesis statement. Regardless of where in the introduction you want to place your thesis statement, let's figure out how to write the content of the essay.

Imagine that you've shown your thesis statement to a friend who has already read the story. Your friend will say: "Neat idea! But what do you mean, exactly? Also, show me in the story where you came up with that idea."

Write a couple of paragraphs to answer your friend's questions: say what you mean exactly, and talk about the parts of the story that make you believe your idea. This is a good time to plop in some brief quotations from the story to help explain and give support for your idea. As you write, keep imagining that you're just writing for your friend: you want to show her what you mean by your thesis statement and why you believe it.

Now imagine that your friend has read your work and says, "Okay, I see what you mean now! And I see your proof here. BUT, actually, I think you might be wrong because _____."

In other words, try to think of why someone would disagree with what you've said. Now you can write one or more paragraphs to talk about why people might disagree—and what you have to say in response to those objections. 

By this point, your essay is probably three, four, or five paragraphs long. All you have to do now is write one final paragraph (your conclusion) to say why your idea matters or say why people should care about your idea.

In the The Help by Kathryn Stockett, how did the relationship between Celia and Minny change and evolve? How is it shaped by the events in the story?

The relationship between Miss Celia and the outspoken Minny Jackson is especially engaging in the way that it evolves throughout the course of the novel. Miss Celia does not adhere to the same social norms that her peers adopt; indeed, she treats Minny more like a friend and confidant than hired help. Interestingly, Minny does not appreciate Celia’s attitude as she initially considers Celia ignorant and backward. In chapter 17, Celia asks to eat with Minny, which Minny sees as incredibly unusual:

“’But why? I don’t want to eat in there all by myself when I could eat in here with you,’ Miss Celia said. I didn’t even try to explain it to her. There are so many things Miss Celia is just plain ignorant about” (Chapter 17).

Minny does not trust Celia because she is white, and Minny is accustomed to being mistreated and degraded by her white employers. Indeed, she forms an uneasy relationship with Celia that eventually blossoms into genuine friendship. The two women help each other with major life events. Minny helps Celia through her miscarriage and her ostracized position within high society while Celia accepts Minny without judgment and is there for her when she decides to leave her abusive husband Leroy. Thus, their relationship is molded through these major events, and despite their initial relationship as employer/employee, they go on to develop a deep and sincere bond as friends.  

In "The Sniper" by Liam O'Flaherty, how do the conflicts experienced by the main character reveal his personality?

The Republican sniper, who is the protagonist of Liam O'Flaherty's short story, is at once cold and calculating, while also revealing profound guilt and regret as he battles an enemy sniper on the rooftops of Dublin during the Irish Civil War. At first, the sniper displays a fearless, calculating approach to his job. He is described as a "fanatic" who was used to "looking at death." He kills, seemingly without remorse, the old woman and the armored car commander. When he is wounded by the opposition sniper, he acts without panic, treating his wound and devising a plan to rid himself of his enemy. He tricks the Free State sniper into revealing himself by faking his own death. Then, he uses his pistol to coldly shoot his opponent. O'Flaherty even notes that the Republican sniper did so with a smile. Afterward, however, the shock and senselessness of his actions overwhelm the sniper as he temporarily breaks down into grief and madness:

The sniper looked at his enemy falling and he shuddered. The lust of battle died in him. He became bitten by remorse. The sweat stood out in beads on his forehead. Weakened by his wound and the long summer day of fasting and watching on the roof, he revolted from the sight of the shattered mass of his dead enemy. His teeth chattered, he began to gibber to himself, cursing the war, cursing himself, cursing everybody.

While being initially portrayed as heartless and machine-like, the sniper is given very human qualities in this paragraph. He understands the cruel nature of war and how it has impacted his life. Even before it is revealed that he had killed his own brother, the reader may decide that the sniper will always carry the figurative scars of warfare. After the final line of the story, it will be impossible for him to ever forget what he has done.

Is Walter Mitty considered crazy ?

I don't think that Walter Mitty is considered crazy by those around him because he does not merit that much attention.

If Walter was considered crazy, then attention would have to be paid to him. In the world that Walter lives, he does not merit that. No one pays significant attention to Walter. The people in the outside world treat him with scorn and derision. They laugh at him or simply don't acknowledge him in a meaningful way. He does not experience any significant human interaction. Even Walter's wife does not really pay significant attention to him. She dismisses him as needing a doctor to "look him over" or that he needs to have his temperature taken when they go home. However, she does not examine her husband's needs. She presumes he is fine because her needs are met. No one really pays attention to Walter and his experiences.

That leaves us with our reaction to Walter. It might be easy to dismiss him as crazy because of his frequent flights into his dreams. However, it should be clear to us that he longs for some type of meaningful personal contact. When he dreams, Walter is a person of importance. He has relevance and value to other people. Walter is not crazy for wanting some fragment of this in his daily life. He should not be seen as insane because he wants to be treated as the center of someone's universe. Walter cannot be nuts because he wants to be validated as a human being.

Walter finds in his dreams what he cannot achieve in his real life. We could fault him for being unable to articulate this need to the people around him. He might be worthy of criticism because he does not speak out against the people who denigrate him. However, this does not make him crazy. Sadly enough, it simply makes him human.

What is bacterial meningitis?

Definition

The brain and spinal cord are encased by layers of tissue. These layers are
called the meninges. Certain bacteria can cause an infection in
these layers called bacterial meningitis, a serious infection that can cause death
within hours. A quick diagnosis and treatment are vital.

Causes

Many times, the bacteria first cause an upper respiratory tract infection. Then the bacteria travel through the bloodstream to the brain. Worldwide, three types of bacteria cause the majority of cases of acute bacterial meningitis: Streptococcus pneumoniae
(the bacterium that causes pneumonia); Neisseria meningitidis
; and Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib). In the United States, widespread immunization has almost eliminated meningitis caused by Hib. Other forms of bacterial meningitis include Listeria monocytogenes meningitis, Escherichia coli meningitis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis meningitis, and group B Streptococcus meningitis.

Newborn babies and the elderly are more prone to get sick. Some forms are spread by direct contact with fluid from the mouth or throat of an infected person. This can happen during a kiss or by sharing eating utensils. In general, meningitis is not spread by casual contact.

Risk Factors

Risk factors for bacterial meningitis are close and prolonged contact with persons with meningitis caused by Hib or N. meningitidis; a weakened immune system caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection or other conditions; alcoholism; smoking (for meningitis caused by N. meningitidis); and living in proximity to others, such as in dormitories and military barracks (for meningitis caused by N. meningitidis). At higher risk are infants, young children, and persons older than age sixty years.

Symptoms

Classic symptoms can develop over several hours or may take one to two days.
These symptoms are a high fever, headache, and a stiff, sore neck. Other symptoms
may include red or purple skin rash, cyanosis (bluish skin), nausea,
vomiting, photophobia (sensitivity to bright lights), sleepiness, and mental
confusion.

In newborns and infants, symptoms are hard to see. As a result, infants younger than three months of age with a fever are often checked for meningitis. Symptoms in newborns and infants may include inactivity; unexplained high fever or any form of temperature instability, including a low body temperature; irritability; vomiting; jaundice (yellow color to the skin); feeding poorly or refusing to eat; tautness or bulging of soft spots between skull bones; and difficulty awakening. As the illness progresses, seizures or hearing loss, or both, can occur. This can happen to patients of all ages.

Screening and Diagnosis

A doctor will ask about symptoms and medical history and will conduct a
physical exam. Tests may include a spinal tap (removal of a small amount of
cerebrospinal
fluid to check for bacteria); other cultures (testing of
samples of blood, urine, mucus, and pus from skin infections); magnetic resonance
imaging (a scan that uses radio waves and a powerful magnet
to produce detailed computer images) to be sure the inflammation is not from some
other cause, such as a tumor; and a computed tomography scan (a detailed
X-ray picture that identifies abnormalities of fine tissue structure).

Treatment and Therapy

More than 90 percent of all people with this infection survive when they
receive immediate care that includes antibiotics and corticosteroids, which are often given together, and fluids.
Options include antibiotics, which are given intravenously (IV). This is started
as soon as the infection is suspected. The antibiotics may be changed once tests
name the exact bacterial cause. The patient usually stays in the hospital until
his or her fever has fallen. The fluid around the spine and the brain must also be
clear of infection.

Another treatment option is corticosteroids. These are usually given by IV early in treatment. They control brain pressure and swelling and reduce the body’s production of inflammatory substances. This treatment can prevent further damage. Also, fluids can be lost because of fever, sweating, or vomiting. They may be replaced through an IV, but replaced carefully to avoid complications of fluid overloading. The doctor might prescribe pain medications and sedatives, and also anticonvulsants to prevent seizures.

Prevention and Outcomes

To help reduce the chances of infection with bacterial meningitis, one should
consider getting the recommended vaccines (for oneself and one’s child). The vaccines include Hib vaccine (for
babies), pneumococcal vaccine (for children younger than two years of
age, for adults older than age sixty-five years, and for others with certain
medical conditions), and meningococcal vaccine (for children age
eleven to twelve years and for others at high risk; people in the high-risk group
may need to be vaccinated every five years).

Persons such as health care workers, who have close contact with someone who is infected, should take preventive antibiotics. Another preventive measure is to use only pasteurized milk and milk products, which can prevent meningitis caused by L. monocytogenes. Persons who are pregnant will be monitored by a doctor to ensure the infection is not passed to the fetus.

Bibliography

"Bacterial Meningitis." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC, 1 Apr. 2014. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “An Updated Recommendation from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) for Revaccination of Persons at Prolonged Increased Risk for Meningococcal Disease.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 58.37 (2009): 1042–043. Print.

Christodoulides, Myron, ed. Meningitis: Cellular and Molecular Basis. Boston: CABI, 2013. Print.

Ferreiros, C. Emerging Strategies in the Fight Against Meningitis. New York: Garland Science, 2002. Print.

Greenlee, John. "Meningitis." Merck Manual Consumer Version. Merck, n.d. Web. 29 Dec. 2015.

Shmaefsky, Brian. Meningitis. Rev. ed. Philadelphia: Chelsea, 2010. Print.

Tunkel, Allan R. Bacterial Meningitis. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 2001. Print.