How would you describe Sylvia?

Sylvia is very shy around people.  When she lived in the city, her family believed that she was "'Afraid of folks,'" and it wasn't until she moved to the country, away from the "crowded manufacturing town" that she really began to thrive.  When her grandmother first brought her to the farm, Sylvia immediately described it as "beautiful" and said that she never wanted to go home again.  But as shy as she is around people, she comes alive when she's outside, in nature.  When she hears the thrushes sing, her "heart [...] beat[s] fast with pleasure," and when she hears the hunter's whistle, she is "horror-stricken." 

Sylvia is young, but not too young.  She is charmed by the hunter, once she spends more time with him, though she doesn't understand why he insists on his gun, why he wants to kill the very birds he says that he loves.  Delighted by him, nonetheless, "the woman's heart, asleep in the child, was vaguely thrilled by a dream of love."  She is not immune to his charms or to the benefits of the $10 he offers, but, ultimately, she puts her beloved nature ahead of both.

What is the setting of the age ceremonies in The Giver?

The age ceremonies take place in December of every year in a community meeting hall. 

Everyone in the community attends the yearly ceremonies.  They are a very big deal to the community.   There are a few very important things that happen during these ceremonies.  All of the children that are Elevens become Twelves, get their assignments, and are considered practically adults.  Newchildren (babies) are assigned to family units.  

There is a ceremony for every age between One and Twelve.  After Twelve, age does not matter.  All children born in a year are considered the same age and turn the same age on this day, regardless of when they were actually born.  There are fifty children born each year. 

Jonas is nervous about his ceremony because he does not know what to expect.  He talks to his parents about it and imagines what it will be like.  He has witnessed many Ceremonies of Twelve, and has taken part in all of the other age ceremonies.

Jonas shivered. He pictured his father, who must have been a shy and quiet boy, for he was a shy and quiet man, seated with his group, waiting to be called to the stage. The Ceremony of Twelve was the last of the Ceremonies. The most important. (Ch. 2) 

At the community’s ceremonies, each age group has some kind of special presentation.  Some of these just involve things like new clothes or haircuts.  The Nines get bicycles, which is a big deal because it makes them more independent.  If any child died in an accident, a Ceremony of Loss takes place and the family may get a new child. 

The hall must be pretty big, because the entire community can fit in it.  We know that it has a stage as well.

The entire community attended the Ceremony each year. For the parents, it meant two days holiday from work; they sat together in the huge hall. Children sat with their groups until they went, one by one, to the stage. (Ch. 6) 

The Ceremony of Twelve involves a special presentation where the Chief Elder describes the group.  Then each child is called up and a little life story is told.  The child is assigned a job.  Children are assigned jobs in order.  When it is Jonas’s turn, he is skipped.  He thinks he has done something wrong, but it turns out he has a very unique and special assignment, the Receiver of Memory.

What are mood disorders?

Introduction

Descriptions of mood disorders can be found in ancient texts such as the Bible and writings of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. Aulus Cornelius Celsus, a medical writer, described melancholia as a depression caused by “black bile” in about 30 CE

Mood disorders are characterized predominantly by a disturbance in mood. Although earlier editions of the American Psychiatric Association’s
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) grouped a wide variety of disorders under the heading of mood disorders, the fifth edition of the DSM (DSM-5), published in 2013, divides them into two categories: depressive disorders and bipolar and related disorders. Both categories include disorders characterized by mood epidodes, which include major depressive episode, manic episode, and hypomanic episode.

In a major depressive episode, a person experiences depressed mood for a period of at least two weeks. For the diagnosis of a depressive episode, the person must experience at least four of the following symptoms: changes in appetite or weight, sleep, and psychomotor activity; decreased energy; feelings of worthlessness or guilt; difficulty concentrating; or recurrent thoughts of death or suicide. There is significant impairment in occupational or social functioning.

In a manic episode, a person experiences an abnormally elevated or irritable mood for at least one week. In addition, the person must experience at least three of the following symptoms: inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep, pressured (loud, rapid) speech, racing thoughts, excessive planning of or participation in multiple activities, distractibility, psychomotor agitation (such as pacing), or excessive participation in activities that may lead to negative consequences (such as overspending). There is severe impairment in social or occupational functioning, or there are psychotic features. The DSM-5 emphasizes that manic episodes typically feature changes in energy level and activity.

A hypomanic episode is characterized by a period of at least four days of abnormally elevated or irritable mood. The affected person must experience at least three of the following symptoms: inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep, pressured speech, flight of ideas, increased involvement in goal-directed activities, psychomotor agitation, or excessive participation in activities that may lead to negative consequences. The hypomanic episode is differentiated from the manic episode by less severe impairment in social or occupational functioning and a lack of psychotic features.

The fourth edition of the DSM also described the characteristic of a mixed episode, in which a person displays symptoms of both manic and major depressive episodes nearly every day for a period of one week. However, the American Psychiatric Association determined that such episodes are exceedingly rare and opted to eliminate the category from the DSM-5, replacing it with the "mixed features" specifier, which refers to episodes that are predominantly of one type but have some features of another.

Depressive disorders include major depressive disorder, characterized by one or more major depressive episodes, and persistent depressive disorder, which involves at least two years of depressed mood with symptoms that do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode. Bipolar and related disorders include bipolar I disorder, which features one or more manic or mixed episodes with major depressive episodes; bipolar II disorder, characterized by one or more major depressive episodes with at least one hypomanic episode; and cyclothymic disorder, represented by at least two years of hypomanic episodes and depressive symptoms that do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode.

Major Depressive Disorder

Major depressive disorder, often known simply as depression, involves disturbances in mood, concentration, sleep, activity, appetite, and social behavior. A major depressive episode may develop gradually or appear quite suddenly, without any relation to environmental factors. The symptoms of major depressive disorder will vary among individuals, but there are some common symptoms. People with major depressive disorder may have difficulty falling asleep, sleep restlessly or excessively, and wake up without feeling rested. They may experience a decrease or increase in a desire to eat. They may crave certain foods, such as carbohydrates. They may be unable to pay attention to things. Even minor decisions may seem impossible to make. A loss of energy is manifested in slower mental processing, an inability to perform normal daily routines, and slowed reaction time. Sufferers may experience anhedonia, an inability to experience pleasure. They lose interest in activities they used to enjoy. They ruminate about failures and feel guilty and helpless. People with major depressive disorder tend to seek negative feedback about themselves from others. They see no hope for improvement and may be thinking of death and suicide. In adolescents, depression may be manifested in acting out, anger, aggressiveness, delinquency, drug abuse, poor performance in school, or running away. Depression is a primary risk factor in suicide, one of the leading causes of death among young people in the United States.

There is probably no single cause of major depressive disorder, although it is primarily a disorder of the brain. A chemical dysfunction and genetics are thought to be part of the cause. Neural circuits, which regulate mood, thinking, sleep, appetite, and behavior, do not function normally. Neurotransmitters are out of balance. One neurotransmitter implicated in depression is serotonin. It is thought that in major depressive disorder there is a reduced amount of serotonin available in the neural circuits (specifically, in the synapse). This results in reduced or lacking nerve impulse. In many patients with the disorder, the hormonal system that regulates the body’s response to stress is overactive. Stress, alcohol or drug abuse, medication, or outlook on life may trigger depressive episodes.

Cognitive theories of depression state that a negative cognitive style, such as pessimism, represents a diathesis (a predisposition) that, in the presence of stress, triggers negative cognitions such as hopelessness. Negative cognitions increase the person’s vulnerability to depression. Some common precipitants of depression in vulnerable people include marital conflict, academic or work-related difficulty, chronic medical problems, and physical or sexual abuse.

In most cases, medication, psychotherapy, or both are the treatment of choice. Treatment depends on the severity and pattern of the symptoms. With treatment, the majority of people with major depressive disorder return to normal functioning.

Antidepressant drugs
influence the functioning of certain neurotransmitters (serotonin, which regulates mood, and norepinephrine, which regulates the body’s energy). Tricyclic antidepressants act simultaneously to increase both these neurotransmitters. This type of antidepressant has often intolerable side effects, such as sleepiness, nervousness, dizziness, dry mouth, or constipation. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) increase levels of these same neurotransmitters plus dopamine, which regulates attention and pleasure. MAOIs can cause dizziness and interact negatively with some foods. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have fewer side effects but can cause nausea, insomnia or sleepiness, agitation, or sexual dysfunction. Aminoketones increase norepinephrine and dopamine, with agitation, insomnia, and anxiety being common side effects. Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) increase levels of norepinephrine and can cause dry mouth, constipation, increased sweating, and insomnia. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and blockers (SSRIBs) increase serotonin and elicit the fewest side effects (nausea, dizziness, sleepiness). Herbal remedies, such as St. John’s wort, may act like SSRIs. Some drugs blunt the action of a neurotransmitter known as substance P. Other drugs reduce the level and effects of a stress-sensitive brain chemical known as corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). The hypothalamus, the part of the brain that manages hormone release, increases production of CRF when a threat is detected. The body responds with reduced appetite, decreased sex drive, and heightened alertness. Persistent overactivation of this hormone may lead to depression. The effects of antidepressants are caused by slow-onset adaptive changes in neurons. They may take several weeks to have a noticeable effect.

Psychotherapy works by changing the way the brain functions. Cognitive behavioral therapy helps patients change the negative styles of thinking and behaving associated with depression. Therapies teach patients new skills to help them cope better with life, increase self-esteem, cope with stress, and deal with interpersonal relationships. There is evidence that severe depression responds most favorably with a combination of medication and psychotherapy.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), or shock therapy, is an effective treatment for major depressive disorder. The treatment, first developed in 1934, produces a seizure in the brain by applying electrical stimulation to the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp. ECT reduces the level of CRF. The treatment is usually repeated to obtain a therapeutic response. Common, yet short-lived, side effects include memory loss and other cognitive deficits.

Persistent Depressive Disorder

Persistent depressive disorder comprises the disorders formerly known as chronic major depressive disorder and dysthymic disorder. It is characterized as a mild, chronic depression lasting at least two years. Some people with persistent depressive disorder also develop major depressive disorder, a state called double depression. The disorder is more prevalent in women than in men.

Essentially, dysthymic disorder is a low-grade, chronic depression. Diagnosis of dysthymic disorder requires the impairment of physical and social functioning. Treatment may include cognitive and behavioral therapy as well as pharmacotherapy, especially SSRIs.

Bipolar Disorder

In 1686, Théophile Bonet, a French pathologist, described a mental illness he called maniaco-melancholicus. In 1854, Jules Falret, a French physician, described folie circulaire, distinguished by alternating moods of depression and mania. In 1899, Emil Kraepelin, a German psychologist, described manic-depressive psychosis, later described as bipolar disorder.

There is a genetic link to bipolar disorder, and individuals who have a least one parent with the disorder are significantly more likely to develop it themselves. An increased level of calcium ions is found in the blood of patients with bipolar disorder. There is also a lowered blood flow in the brain, as well as slower overall metabolism. Some research suggests that bipolar disorder may be caused by disturbed circadian rhythms and related to disturbances in melatonin secretion.

The DSM-5 divides bipolar disorder into bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, and cyclothymic disorder. Bipolar I disorder is characterized by the occurrence of one or more manic episodes and one or more major depressive episodes; episodes may also have mixed features. Bipolar II disorder is characterized by the occurrence of one or more major depressive episodes accompanied by at least one hypomanic episode. Cyclothymic disorder is a chronic, fluctuating mood disturbance involving periods of hypomanic episodes and periods of major depressive episodes.

Treatment options include psychotherapy and medication.
Mood stabilizers, such as lithium and divalproex sodium, are the most commonly used medications. Lithium is a naturally occurring substance that increases serotonin levels in the brain. Side effects can include dry mouth, high overdose toxicity, nausea, and tremor. Divalproex sodium increases gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain. Neurotransmitters trigger either “go” signals that allow messages to be passed on to other cells in the brain or “stop” signals that prevent messages from being forwarded. GABA is the most common message-altering neurotransmitter in the brain. Possible side effects of divalproex sodium include constipation, headache, nausea, liver damage, and tremor. Olanzapine increases levels of dopamine and serotonin. Side effects include drowsiness, dry mouth, low blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, and tremor. Anticonvulsants are also widely prescribed. Carbamazepine, for example, increases GABA and serotonin. Possible side effects include blurred vision, dizziness, dry mouth, stomach upset, or sedation. In the case of severe mania, patients may take a tranquilizer or a neuroleptic (antipsychotic drug) in addition to the mood stabilizer. During the depressive episode, the person may take an antidepressant, although some antidepressants are known to intensify symptoms in some patients. ECT may also be helpful during severe depressive episodes.

Specifiers for Mood Disorders

Specifiers allow for a more specific diagnosis, which assists in treatment and prognosis. A peripartum onset specifier can be applied to a diagnosis of major depressive disorder, or bipolar I or II disorder, if the onset is during pregnancy or within four weeks after childbirth. Symptoms include fluctuations in mood and intense (sometimes delusional) preoccupation with infant well-being. Severe ruminations or delusional thoughts about the infant are correlated with increased risk of harm to the infant. The mother may be uninterested in the infant, afraid of being alone with the infant, or may even try to kill the child (infanticide) while experiencing auditory hallucinations instructing her to do so or delusions that the child is possessed. Postpartum mood episodes severely impair functioning, which differentiates them from the “baby blues” that affect many women within ten days after birth.

The seasonal pattern specifier can be applied to bipolar I or II disorder or major depressive disorder. Occurrence of major depressive episodes is correlated with seasonal changes. In the most common variety, depressive episodes occur in the fall or winter and remit in the spring. The less common type is characterized by depressive episodes in the summer. Symptoms include lack of energy, oversleeping, overeating, weight gain, and carbohydrate craving. Light therapy, which uses bright visible-spectrum light, may bring relief to patients with a seasonal pattern to their mood disorder.

The rapid cycler specifier can be applied to bipolar I or II disorder. Cycling is the process of going from depression to mania, or hypomania, and back or vice versa. Cycles can be as short as a few days or as long as months or years. Rapid cycling involves the occurrence of four or more mood episodes during the previous twelve months. In extreme cases, rapid cyclers can change from depression to mania and back or vice versa in as short as a few days without a normal mood period between episodes..

Bibliography

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5. Washington: American Psychiatric Association, 2013. Print.

American Psychiatric Association. "Highlights of Changes from DSM-IV-TR to DSM-5." DSM-5 Development. American Psychiatric Association, 2013. Web. 5 June 2014.

Copeland, Mary Ellen. The Depression Workbook: A Guide for Living with Depression and Manic Depression. Oakland: New Harbinger, 2002. Print.

Court, Bryan L., and Gerald E. Nelson. Bipolar Puzzle Solution: A Mental Health Client’s Perspective. Philadelphia: Taylor, 1996. Print.

Cronkite, Kathy. On the Edge of Darkness. New York: Dell, 1994. Print.

Cutler, Janis L. Psychiatry. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2014. Print.

Dowling, Colette. You Mean I Don’t Have to Feel This Way? New Help for Depression, Anxiety, and Addiction. New York: Macmillan, 1991. Print.

Gold, Mark S. The Good News About Depression: Breakthrough Medical Treatments That Can Work for You. New York: Bantam, 1995. Print.

Gordon, James. Unstuck: Your Guide to the Seven-Stage Journey Out of Depression. New York: Penguin, 2008. Print.

Ingersoll, Barbara D., and Sam Goldstein. Lonely, Sad, and Angry. New York: Doubleday, 1996. Print.

Moreines, Robert N., and Patricia L. McGuire. Light Up Your Blues: Understanding and Overcoming Seasonal Affective Disorders. Washington: PIA, 1989. Print.

Nelson, John E., and Andrea Nelson, eds. Sacred Sorrows: Embracing and Transforming Depression. New York: Tarcher, 1996. Print.

Radke-Yarrow, Marian. Children of Depressed Mothers. New York: Cambridge UP, 1998. Print.

Thompson, Tracy. The Beast: A Journey Through Depression. New York: Penguin, 1996. Print.

Williams, Mark, John Teasdale, Zindel Segal, and Jon Kabat-Zinn. The Mindful Way Through Depression: Freeing Yourself from Chronic Unhappiness. New York: Guilford, 2007. Print.

In The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton, why does Dally tell Johnny that he shouldn't turn himself in?

Dally tells Johnny he should not turn himself in because he will not survive well in prison.

Dally comes to get Johnny and Pony and takes them to Dairy Queen.  Johnny tells Dally that they are going to turn themselves in, but Pony says that the idea must be a “jolt” to Dally.  Dally swears when Johnny tells him that he wants to turn himself in.

"I got a good chance of bein' let off easy," Johnny said desperately, and I didn't know if it was Dally he was trying to convince or himself. "I ain't got no record with the fuzz and it was self-defense. Ponyboy and Cherry can testify to that. And I don't aim to stay in that church all my life." (Ch. 6)

Johnny is afraid of going back because he is worried about cops, but he doesn’t think that he will get in much trouble.  He tells Dally that they will say that they hitchhiked because that way the cops won’t know that he helped them.

Dally decides to take them back, but they can tell he is upset.  He explains that the other boys in the gang are worried about them.  Johnny asks about his parents.  Dally tells him the gang cares, and that’s all that matters.

Dally asks Johnny why he didn't just turn himself in to begin with.  It would have saved a lot of trouble.  Johnny agrees.  He tells Pony that they ruined their hair for nothing.  However, Dally tells Johnny that he isn't the type that will survive jail.

" ... You don't know what a few months in jail can do to you. Oh, blast it, Johnny"--- he pushed his white-blond hair back out of his eyes--- "you get hardened in jail. I don't want that to happen to you. Like it happened to me..." (Ch. 6) 

Dally is right about the boys not going on the run in the first place.  If the boys had not gone on the run, they would not have hidden in the church.  The church fire is what caused Johnny to get hurt.  Johnny’s death caused Dally’s suicide.

How much power do you get from being a part of the United Nations? What is a country able to do? What can it not do?

A country does not gain any real power by becoming a member of the United Nations.  There is not UN Army that the country can call upon.  There are no special powers that UN countries have and others do not.  For example, Taiwan is not part of the UN (because China will not allow it).  This does not cause it to lose the ability to trade with other countries, to have its international boundaries respected, or anything else.  Membership in the UN simply does not bring with it any real powers.

If UN membership carries no power, why are essentially all of the countries in the world part of the organization?  First, it means that your country is a recognized part of the international community.  Kosovo, for example, would like to be in the UN because that would mean that the international community recognizes it as an independent nation.  However, this is a matter of prestige, not one of power. 

Second, being in the UN does give countries access to some money through UN programs that help countries develop.  A poor country might like to be in the UN because the UN will have programs that can give that country money for education, for health infrastructure, and the like. However, even this is not a really important reason to join the UN as the UN does operate in Kosovo even though Kosovo is not a member state.

Finally, being in the UN gives countries an easy way to talk to the governments of other countries.  One of the main purposes of the UN is to allow countries to interact easily so that they can resolve conflicts.  The idea is that countries that can talk to one another frequently will not end up going to war.

Because of the nature of the UN, there is no real power that comes with membership.  Countries belong to the UN more because there are a few benefits and because that is what is expected of all countries.  They do not join to gain any tangible power.

What was the notion of Manifest Destiny and what impact did it have on the United States in the mid-1800s?

The philosophical underpinnings behind the notion of Manifest Destiny date back to the first Puritan settlers, such as John Winthrop, and his group’s explicit desire to build “a new Jerusalem,” or a “Shining City on a Hill.” The belief that America and its Puritan founders had a moral right and obligation to invent a better, purer world, informed the notion of what came to be known as “American Exceptionalism,” which is the belief that buttressed Manifest Destiny, and drove our foreign policy during the 19th century. 

Manifest Destiny implies that The United States, by its very nature, and because of its founding ideals, has a moral destiny to rule the western hemisphere and to project its power and values across the continent, by force if necessary. Thomas Jefferson expanded on this notion when he envisioned a vast agricultural economy stretching from sea to sea. Jefferson's decision to go ahead with the Lousiana Purchase as president was a big first step in actualizing that dream.

In the mid-1800s, starting in 1824 with president Andrew Jackson, and continuing on with his successors, Martin Van Buren and James Polk, American leaders used the argument of inherent moral superiority and Manifest Destiny to justify their brutal treatment of Native Americans. This treatment included policies of extermination, forced migration, ethnic cleansing and the forced relocation of tribes on reservations. James Polk was a major proponent of territorial expansion both as a military leader and as a president. Although America’s westward expansion was rationalized and cloaked in terms of moral superiority, it was ironically fueled in large part by the rapacious appetite of Southern plantation owners and later, by ruthless industrialists, who believed it was their right and destiny to exploit the land and its untapped resources.

By the 1840s, the term “Manifest Destiny” had started to be coopted by mining and railroad companies, which enjoyed the political and financial support of the federal government, and could rely on the United States Army to protect its business interests not only from Native Americans who had lived on the land, but also from laborers who had the temerity to demand better pay or safer conditions.

Finally, and perhaps most notably from a foreign policy standpoint, in 1846, President Polk led America to war against Mexico, using Manifest Destiny as a rallying cry in a war that netted the United States the territories that would become Arizona, California and New Mexico. By the end of that war, the United States had mostly realized Jefferson and Madison's vision of a nation stretching from coast to coast. 

Comment on the role of the supernatural in Macbeth.

The supernatural world versus the natural world is one of the central themes in the play. The supernatural world is represented by the witches and is viewed as mysterious, dark, and unpredictable. 

The presence of the witches' power in the play (or its absence) has been the subject of many debates. There are many questions that critics have been occupied with. Is the witches' power so strong that it drives Macbeth to change his life for the worse? Or is Macbeth the one responsible for initiating his own downfall? We cannot give a precise answer to these questions. But, we can always rely on textual evidence. And the textual evidence suggests that Macbeth is the one who acts on the witches' prophecy and who, later, seeks out the witches because he is obsessed with finding out what awaits him in the future. 

So, the play implies that the witches could emphasize the dark and evil forces that are hidden in Macbeth's soul and that they only motivate him to follow those forces. They do not make Macbeth listen to their prophecy. Macbeth is the one who decides to accept whatever the witches tell him. He accepts the supernatural because he voluntarily denies the natural order of things. When he kills Duncan, he embraces the dark and evil forces and lets them guide him, which inevitably leads to his downfall. 

How does Ralph lack self-confidence in Lord of the Flies?

Ralph lacks self-confidence with his hesitancy to assert the values that he initially represents.

When Ralph first blows the conch and the boys assemble, they afford Ralph respect because he looks like a leader; for, he is the handsome golden boy. Ralph encourages the boys to build a rescue fire and maintain it at all times, and he urges them to build shelters from storms. But, somehow, Ralph does not possess the forcefulness to ensure that tasks are completed. 

Further, as the group gradually yields to their savage instincts, Ralph’s position declines while Jack’s rises. And because Ralph possesses some of these savage instincts himself--he is gratuitously cruel to Piggy in the beginning, for instance--he participates in some activities and finds himself in a quandary, at times.
In Chapter Eight, for instance, he stands on the platform and reiterates the importance of the fire:

"Without the fire we can't be rescued. I'd like to put on war-paint and be a savage. But we must keep the fire burning."

However, he is ineffective in keeping the boys directed toward doing what they should, especially as Jack gains power. For instance, in Chapter Nine, Ralph again urges the boys to keep up the fire. He accuses them of running after food, instead. Interrupting him, Jack accuses Ralph of running himself. When Ralph says he has the conch, Jack derisively tells him, "You haven't got it with you...And the conch doesn't count at this end of the island--"
As the boys run with Jack, Piggy warns Ralph that there is going to be trouble.
Then, it is not long before Simon comes down from the mountain to tell them that there is no visible beast. Ignoring Simon in their ritual frenzy, the boys perform their hunting dance, and this time they beat Simon who wants to tell them what he knows about evil. Sadly, they kill him before he can explain that there is no visible beast. Moreover, Ralph and Piggy have been on the outer ring of this dance when Simon dies.

Ralph's participation in the rituals of the evening have short-sighted him, also, but the next day he confronts the truth. Piggy tries to excuse their participation by saying that they were frightened although Ralph scolds him, "Don't you understand, Piggy? The things we did--"
At this point Ralph's self-confidence is gone as the memory of the dance "that none of them had attended" shook him and Piggy. After this tragic knowledge, Ralph, who has lost his confidence, must simply try to survive against the savagery to which the others have descended since chaos and anarchy reign over the island.

What are over-the-counter (OTC) drugs?

Definition

Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs are medications that can be purchased and used without a doctor’s prescription. Some OTC medications, however, are restricted and require proof of age or a consultation with a registered pharmacist before purchase.

Types

OTCs are drugs or health-care-related preparations that are considered both effective and safe for use by consumers without a doctor’s prescription. As of 2010, more than 100,000 OTCs were available in the United States and Canada, according to the Consumer Healthcare Products Association (CHPA). Most OTCs are used to maintain good nutrition or to treat minor illnesses or conditions that do not require a doctor’s attention. These nonprescription drugs can be grouped into the following categories:

Nutritional aids. These OTCs include vitamin and mineral supplements and, sometimes, herbal teas, capsules, and similar products considered
nutrition-related OTCs because they are sold without a prescription. Unlike
vitamins and mineral supplements, however, herbal products are not regulated by
the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA).

Digestive aids. OTCs in this category include antiemetic preparations to relieve nausea and
vomiting, laxatives to treat constipation, antidiarrheal preparations to stop
diarrhea, antacids to relieve acid indigestion by neutralizing stomach
acid, and acid reducers that work to relieve heartburn or acid reflux by lowering
the amount of acid produced by the stomach. Some preparations in this category can
serve more than one function. For example, bismuth subsalicylate, a liquid
preparation sold under the trade name Pepto-Bismol, can be used to treat nausea,
heartburn, and diarrhea.

Relief of upper respiratory infections and allergies. OTCs can
treat coughing, sneezing, and watery eyes associated with colds and seasonal allergies. OTC cough medicines, such as expectorants, are designed to
help a person cough up mucus; others, such as antitussives, are designed to stop
coughing. Some cough medicines contain both types of ingredients. Allergy
medications and cold medications contain antihistamines to stop sneezing and decongestants
to clear stuffy nasal passages. Decongestants are also available as nasal sprays.
Some cold medications also include aspirin or another pain reliever to
treat the muscle aches and low-grade fever associated with colds.

Pain relief. OTCs can help to relieve mild pain from such conditions as muscle or menstrual cramping, toothache,
arthritis, colds, and tension headache. There are two major categories of pain
relievers: those containing acetaminophen (Tylenol) and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, or NSAIDs. NSAIDs
include such drugs as aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil), and naproxen (Aleve). Acetaminophen is an OTC pain reliever that should
be used with caution because it can cause liver damage in high doses.

Topical medications. Topical OTCs, which are products applied to the skin and other surface tissues of the body (such as the eyes or lining of the mouth), include such medications as moisturizing or redness-relieving eye drops; anti-itch creams or lotions to relieve discomfort from sunburn, poison ivy, or other minor skin irritations; soaps and cleansers for treating acne; liniments and gels to relieve the pain of arthritis; local anesthetic gels or liquids to treat mouth ulcers; rubbing alcohol and hydrogen peroxide solutions to cleanse and disinfect minor cuts and scrapes; and anti-cavity, dental sensitivity, tartar control, and tooth-whitening toothpastes.

Regulation and Advertising

In the United States, OTCs have been regulated by the FDA since Congress passed the
Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) of 1938. This legislation was introduced
after a tragic mass poisoning in the fall of 1937, in which more than one hundred
people died after taking a sulfanilamide medication that had been made with
diethylene glycol, a solvent that is poisonous to humans. The then-new medication
had not been tested on animals before being sold, even though diethylene glycol
was known at the time to be poisonous. The FFDCA replaced the Pure Food and Drug
Act of 1906, which did not require companies to submit safety data to the FDA
before marketing and selling their products.

Manufacturers of drugs seeking FDA approval for sale as nonprescription items must follow one of two main paths. The first path is to state that the OTC complies with an existing FDA monograph (set of rules) for a specific category of OTC. According to the FDA, these monographs, which are published in the Federal Register, “state [the] requirements for categories of non-prescription drugs, such as what ingredients may be used and for what intended use.” Examples of OTCs covered by FDA monographs include sunscreen, acne soap and cream, and dandruff shampoo. FDA monographs also cover OTCs that were in use long enough before the 1938 passage of the FFDCA to be considered “generally recognized as safe and effective” when used as directed. This phrase, taken from the FFDCA, is abbreviated as GRAS or GRAS/E. Aspirin is an example of an OTC that is considered GRAS/E.

The other path to FDA approval for an OTC is obtaining a new drug application, or NDA. The manufacturer or sponsor of the proposed drug must show that it is safe and effective and that its benefits outweigh any risks. An NDA must be obtained if the product does not fit within any of the existing FDA monographs for OTCs.

The NDA system is also used to move drugs that were first approved as prescription-only into the OTC category. In addition to determining that OTCs are safe and effective when consumers use them according to package directions, the FDA has the authority to decide that drugs formerly available only with a prescription can be safely sold to consumers as an OTC. This change, which the FDA calls an Rx-to-OTC (“Rx” meaning “prescription”) switch, has made available about seven hundred new drugs as OTCs since 1980. Acid reducers and antihistamines are recent examples of the Rx-to-OTC switch.

The major difference between FDA oversight of prescription drugs and its oversight of OTCs is a matter of advertising. In the case of prescription drugs, the FDA regulates advertising and approval for use. Advertising of nonprescription drugs, however, is regulated by the Federal Trade Commission.

An important aspect of FDA regulation of OTCs is labeling. Each OTC approved for sale in the United States must carry a “Drug Facts” label on the product or its package. The label has a standard format and must be clearly and simply written. It has the following parts: product name, active ingredient or ingredients, purpose, uses, warnings, directions, inactive ingredients, and other information.

Safety

Although the FDA’s definition of OTCs includes the assurance that OTCs are “safe and effective,” this assurance assumes that the medications are used correctly by consumers. There are several steps consumers should follow to make sure that they are using nonprescription medications correctly. These steps include the following:

Read the Drug Facts label carefully. It is especially important
to note the active ingredients in the medicine, particularly when using two or
more OTCs to treat the same condition or illness, such as the common cold.
It is possible to take an accidental overdose of the active ingredients in cough
and cold medicines because many of these preparations contain several active
ingredients. The Drug Facts label will also contain important warnings about
drug
interactions (particularly interactions with alcohol),
activities to avoid while taking the medicine (usually driving and operating heavy
equipment), and dosage instructions.

Persons should never take more than the recommended dosage or take the medicine more often than recommended. If one’s symptoms do not improve within a few days, that person should see a doctor. Persons should also consult a doctor or pharmacist if they have any questions about the medication, particularly its possible side effects or possible interactions with other drugs.

Check for tampering. Before purchase, one should check the tamper-evident packaging (TEP) features, such as internal plastic seals or blister packaging, to ensure the medication has not been tampered with. TEPs are safety features that were mandated by the FDA in 1983 following a still-unsolved crime in which seven people in Chicago died after taking a pain reliever that had been poisoned with potassium cyanide. If the package or the contents look suspicious in any way, the consumer should return the OTC to the store or pharmacy where it was purchased.

Store medication in a childproof cabinet or medicine chest. Also, one should keep all medicines away from children. OTCs should never be left on counter tops or tables where curious children can open and use them. Medications should always be kept in their original containers so that no one in the household can take the wrong drug by accident. Expiration dates should be checked periodically; medicines with expired dates should be discarded safely.

OTC Abuse

The purchase of some OTCs is restricted in the United States because these medications have been abused or have been used illegally. The purchaser may be required to show proof of age before buying the product or may have to ask a registered pharmacist for the product.

The two major types of OTCs in this category are cold and allergy medications
containing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, which are decongestants, and cough medicines
containing dextromethorphan (DMX), a cough suppressant. Ephedrine and
pseudoephedrine can be used to make methamphetamine, a dangerous drug of
abuse. To prevent the illicit production of methamphetamine from OTCs, the U.S.
Congress passed the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act, or CMEA, in 2005. The CMEA sets monthly
limits on the amount of these products that consumers can purchase and requires
that consumers show proof of identity to a pharmacist before purchase.

Cough medicines containing DMX have been abused by teenagers and others who consume large amounts of the preparations to get intoxicated. According to the CHPA, about 6 percent of teenagers in the United States abuse cough syrups containing DMX. Although there is no federal legislation controlling the sale of medications containing DMX, some states require proof that a would-be purchaser is eighteen years of age or older at the time of sale.

Impact

Over-the-counter medications represent a considerable portion of the money
spent on health care in the United States. In the first decade of the twenty-first
century, sales of OTCs for minor health conditions came to $20 billion per year,
with dietary
supplements accounting for another $12 billion.
Nonprescription drugs are also widely available for purchase on the Web and in
supermarkets and other retail outlets that do not have pharmacies. OTCs can be
purchased at more than 750,000 locations in the United States.

The widespread availability of nonprescription products and the ongoing
transfer of some classes of prescription drugs into the OTC category make it
easier for consumers, particularly older adults, to take a more active part in
their health care. The FDA notes that increased access to nonprescription drugs is
beneficial to people age sixty-five years and older, 80 percent of whom have some
type of chronic health problem that can be managed effectively with OTCs. In terms
of infectious diseases, however, it is unlikely that many anti-infective drugs
will be switched into the OTC category because of concern about the potential
overuse of antibiotics, commonly used for bacterial
infections, and concern about the risk of developing even
more drug-resistant disease organisms.

Bibliography

Dlugosz, Cynthia Knapp, ed. The Practitioner’s Quick Reference to Nonprescription Drugs. Washington, D.C.: American Pharmacists Association, 2009. Intended for health care professionals, this guide organizes its discussion of nonprescription drugs according to the twenty-five most common conditions consumers treat with OTCs, including acne, allergic rhinitis, tooth hypersensitivity, and warts.

Griffith, Henry Winter. Complete Guide to Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs. Rev. and updated by Stephen W. Moore. New York: Penguin Books, 2009. This reference work, updated annually, covers more than five thousand OTCs by brand name and eight hundred more by generic name. Written for nonprofessionals, it includes information on side effects, potentially dangerous drug interactions, and FDA changes in drug labeling or classification.

Knowles, Johanna. Over-the-Counter Drugs. New York: Chelsea House, 2008. This book is not a reference guide to OTCs but a discussion of the abuse of OTCs by adolescents and the scope of the problem. Also includes advice about where and how to get help.

2011 PDR for Nonprescription Drugs, Dietary Supplements, and Herbs. Toronto, Ont.: Thomson Health Care, 2010. The basic drug reference book for health care professionals, this PDR guide to nonprescription drugs is updated yearly with information about commonly used OTCs, organized alphabetically by manufacturer’s name. The book also includes photographs of OTCs to simplify identification.

How does pumpkin seed work as a dietary supplement?

Overview

The familiar Halloween pumpkin is a member of the squash family, native to North and Central America. The seeds of the pumpkin were used medicinally in Native American medicine, primarily for the treatment of kidney, bladder, and digestive problems. From 1863 to 1936, the United States Pharmacopoeia listed pumpkin seeds as a treatment for intestinal parasites.

Uses and Applications

Pumpkin seed oil has become popular today as a treatment for prostate enlargement (benign prostatic hyperplasia, or BPH), and it was approved for this use in 1985 by Germany’s Commission E. However, there is no meaningful evidence that pumpkin seed is helpful for this condition. Only double-blind, placebo-controlled studies can prove a treatment effective, and none have been reported for pumpkin seed oil alone. However, two such studies evaluated a combination product containing pumpkin seed oil and the herb saw palmetto.

These studies did suggest benefit with the combination product, but because saw palmetto is thought to be effective for BPH, it is not clear whether pumpkin seed oil made any additional contribution. The only reported study on pumpkin seed oil alone lacked a placebo group, and for this reason its results prove little. (BPH is a condition that responds greatly to the power of suggestion, so it could have been assumed, even before conducting this trial, that people given pumpkin seed oil would show improvement.)

In highly preliminary research, pumpkin seed or its constituent cucurbitin has shown some activity against intestinal parasites. These studies, however, can only be regarded as preliminary investigations of a traditional use; they were not designed in such a way that they could prove effectiveness.

Two studies performed in Thailand hint that pumpkin seed snacks might help prevent kidney stones among children at high risk for developing them. However, this research looked only at chemical changes in the urine suggestive of a possible preventive effect, not at actual reduction of stones. Furthermore, the design of the studies did not reach modern standards.

Dosage

In studies, the dose of pumpkin seed oil used for the treatment of BPH was 160 milligrams three times daily. For the prevention of kidney stones, the dose of pumpkin seed snack tried was 5 to 10 grams per day.

Safety Issues

As a widely eaten food, pumpkin seeds are presumed to be safe (though there have been cases in which incompletely chewed seeds have lodged in the esophagus). There are no known or suspected safety risks with pumpkin seed oil.

Bibliography

Caili, F., S. Huan, and L. Quanhong. “A Review on Pharmacological Activities and Utilization Technologies of Pumpkin.” Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 61 (2006): 73-80.

Naghii, M. R., and M. Mofid. “Impact of Daily Consumption of Iron Fortified Ready-to-eat Cereal and Pumpkin Seed Kernels (Cucurbita pepo) on Serum Iron in Adult Women.” Biofactors 30 (2007): 19-26.

Suphiphat, V., et al. “The Effect of Pumpkin Seeds Snack on Inhibitors and Promoters of Urolithiasis in Thai Adolescents.” Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand 76 (1993): 487-493.

Based on the last meeting between Mrs. Drover and her fiance, what type of person is the fiance?

Based on the last meeting, Mrs. Drover's former fiance appears to be a possessive and domineering man. Before he leaves for the war, he makes Mrs. Drover promise to wait for him; he does not entertain any other response from Mrs. Drover but that of acquiescence to his mysterious wishes. He also reiterates his own promise that he will join her sooner or later. Strangely, he does not behave towards Mrs. Drover as a lover would on the eve of battle; he does not kiss her but instead makes sure that her hand bears the cruel imprint of one of the brass buttons from his jacket. He appears to be the sort of man who is relentless when it comes to the pursuit of his desires.

When Mrs. Drover protests that he is going so far away, he cryptically answers that he will not be going as far as she thinks. His statement is prescient and may explain why an oppressive presence continues to plague Mrs. Drover's conscience even after twenty five years. Whether the presence is real or perceived has been a subject of great speculation for many readers. In all respects, Mrs. Drover's former fiance is an enigmatic man, but he is also a sinister character. His haunting presence lends an ominous undertone to the resolution of the story.

Who influences Macbeth the most in Shakespeare's tragedy Macbeth?

According to renowned Shakespearean critic Harold Bloom, Macbeth is most deeply influenced by his imagination, as he terms the play "a tragedy of the imagination."

Because of its numerous murders, this play becomes a virtual tragedy of blood, but Bloom contends it becomes even more horrific because of the "ultimate implications of Macbeth's imagination itself being bloody":

The usurper Macbeth moves in a consistent phantasmagoria of blood: blood is the prime constituent of his imagination. He sees that what opposes him is blood in one aspect...and that this opposing force thrusts him into shedding more blood. (Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human) 

Macbeth himself says, "It will have blood, they say: blood will have blood" (Act II, Scene 4, line 128). That is, Macbeth imagines the blood he has shed will return to avenge itself by killing him. Thus, his mind becomes consumed by these horrible imaginings of this continuing battle of blood.
This concept is suggested in Macbeth's soliloquy of Act II in which he imagines the bloody dagger that is suspended in front of him before he kills King Duncan:

Mine eyes are made the fools o' th' other senses,
                                             ....I see thee still;
And on thy blade and dudgeon gouts of blood
....It is the bloody business which informs 
Thus to mine eyes. (Act II, Scene 2, lines 52-57)

Throughout the play, the word blood in its various forms is repeatedly used by Macbeth and later even by his wife, Lady Macbeth, who imagines that she cannot wash away the blood of Duncan that has fallen upon the steps of their castle.

In his plan to have Banquo and his son killed in Act III because of his fears about the witches' predictions that Banquo's sons will be kings, Macbeth tells the two murderers that Banquo is his enemy "in such bloody distance [disagreement]." Moreover, in this act there is imagery of turmoil, suspicion, and paranoia. This is because the further Macbeth involves himself with bloodshed, the more violent, bloody, and horrified he becomes. "[T]here is no power of the mind over the universe of death," Bloom writes, and this bloody path continues until Macbeth's mind finally succumbs to all its terrifying imaginings when he perceives "Birnam Forest come to Dunsinane," just as the witches have predicted, and he goes to meet his end.

Macbeth's tragedy is his complete yielding to his ambitious, bloody imagination. For, as Bloom contends, the witches have placed nothing in Macbeth's mind that has not already been there. Indeed, from the beginning, Macbeth proves himself a bloody killer in his battle with Macdonwald. With their preternatural powers, the "three sisters" identify Macbeth's terrible imagination, and merely spur his mind further with their predictions. 

How do I write a reflection for Tuck Everlasting by Natalie Babbitt?

A reflection is a piece of writing in which you write about your personal response to a book.  A good way to begin is to look at parts of the book’s plot and themes of the book that meant something to you personally.  Since this book is about the consequences of being immortal, that might be a good place to start. 

The author’s message for the book is that there is a cycle to life, and all living beings must take part in that cycle.  To not take part in it makes for a lonely existence, where you do not fully get to realize all that life’s existence has to offer.  

Consider Pa Tuck’s explanation to Winnie about how the Tucks feel about being immortal. 

But this rowboat now, it's stuck. If we didn't move it out ourself, it would stay here forever, trying to get loose, but stuck. That's what us Tucks are, Winnie. Stuck so's we can't move on. We ain't part of the wheel no more. Dropped off, Winnie. Left behind. And everywhere around us, things is moving and growing and changing. (Ch. 12) 

A reflection may include quotes like this, from parts of the book that you found meaningful or important.  Then you can share how you feel.  Do you agree with the author’s presentation of immortality?  Do you think the book does a good job exploring the consequences of living forever? 

In your reflection, you should write about what the book’s themes mean to you, and how you relate to the characters.  For example, do you understand Winnie and the choices she makes?  Do you appreciate the Tuck family’s response to their situation?  These reactions to the book would be useful additions to your reflection.  Basically, write about what the book means to you.  You can also write about if you liked the book.

What sources did Erick Larson use to write The Devil in the White City?

Erik Larson has said before in interviews that he does all of his own research. He doesn't have a research assistant to help him because he says he likes to encounter the sources himself. He likes to find then, follow them, and handle them all on his own.

For Devil in the White City, as with his other nonfiction historical books, he relied heavily on primary sources from the timeframe the book takes place. He tracked down documents that each of the people in the book had actually written, like in this example where he discusses the postcards from Prendergast:

I found it infinitely valuable to be able to touch the original postcards on which Patrick Prendergast revealed his insane delusion, one that would bring the fair to such a tragic end. The obvious pressure he placed on his pencil as he wrote brought his part of the story vividly to life (Crown Publishing interview).

He also found historical records of deaths, real estate sales, contracts related to the building of the fair site, blueprints for the fair and the murder mansion, arrest records, newspapers documenting the search for Holmes, and so on.

Larson also regularly travels to the places he is researching so that he can access the sources directly, as many are kept in historical societies, local libraries, cemeteries, and city records. His research methods also often require travel, as he does not typically use the Internet to do his research, as noted in a NY Times article:

It's worth noting that Mr. Larson insisted on doing research by himself, only with firsthand sources. (No researchers, no Internet.) When he found one of Mr. Prendergast's threatening notes at the Chicago Historical Society, he says, ''I saw how deeply the pencil dug into the paper.'' (New York Times).

What are 3 adjectives that show the relationship between Atticus and his children, Scout and Jem?

1. Respectful

It is not unusual for children to respect their father, but it is unusual for a father to give as much respect to his children as Atticus does. Though Scout and Jem lament the fact that Atticus doesn't fish or hunt like other dads, they are fiercely proud of him regardless. Like many of the adjectives that describe the family's relationship, respect is a quality that Atticus both preaches and practices, by doing things like making polite conversation with Mrs. Dubose after she insults him and listening to the children's side of the story every time, before making any judgement. Though the former example hurts Scout and Jem's pride, they appreciate Atticus's respect towards them and can understand why he approaches even mean and petty people with that attitude. 

2. Egalitarian

Scout and Jem don't call Atticus "dad," but use his first name. That's odd enough for most people today, which makes it even stranger in 1960s Alabama, but it shows how Atticus sees Scout and Jem as his equals. When Scout doesn't want to go to school, Atticus not only listens to her arguments as to why, he also responds to her (as he always does) without talking down to her:

"'I'm afraid our activities would be received with considerable disapprobation by the more learned authorities.'

Jem and I were accustomed to our father's last-will-and-testament diction, and we were at all times free to interrupt Atticus for a translation when it was beyond our understanding.

'Huh, sir?'"

In this instance, Atticus is treating his children as intellectual equals, a common practice for him.  

3. Honest

Honesty is one of Atticus's most important traits and one that he works hard to pass down to his children. He shows that it is important to do the right thing even when it's hard when he insists that Sheriff Tate not cover up what Atticus thinks is Jem's murder of Bob Ewell, saying,

"Thank you from the bottom of my heart, but I don't want my boy starting out with something like this over his head. Best way to clear the air is to have it all out in the open. Let the county come and bring sandwiches. I don't want him growing up with a whisper about him, I don't want anybody saying, 'Jem Finch... his daddy paid a mint to get him out of that.' Sooner we get this over with the better."

Atticus expects honesty from his children, but is also very upfront and honest with them as well. Atticus's honesty and openness about the situations that come up in his defense of Tom Robinson help Scout and Jem through the ordeal. 

What is the main idea of "La Belle Dame sans Merci" by Keats?

There have been many interpretations of this poem. Mine is that the beautiful and cruel woman of the ballad is a personification of nature. It is easy to fall in love with nature, but in the end she is cruel because she claims you in death, as she does all the "death pale" kings, princes and warriors.

I saw pale kings and princes too,
   Pale warriors, death pale were they all,
They cried -- "Le Belle Dame sans Merci
   Hath thee in thrall!"

We are all destined to become part of nature again--to be slowly absorbed into the soil, the roots, the trunks, branches, leaves and blossoms of the trees we loved while we were alive. John Keats died at an extremely early age. He was only twenty-five. Much of his poetry is haunted by his feelings about death, and "La Belle Dame sans Merci" is a prime example. Those feelings are not of fear but of a characteristic mood. He always sees nature through a veil of melancholy. He has seen his brother die of tuberculosis and knows what to expect for himself. He is tormented by the thought that he has to leave the world in which he finds so much that is beautiful for him to love, not excluding Fanny Brawne, the beautiful girl he loved. 

What do the following quotes from Things Fall Apart mean? "That was a source of great sorrow to the leaders of the clan, but many of them...

The first quote is an extract from chapter sixteen and relates to the arrival of the Christian missionaries. They had come to Umuofia (Okonkwo's village) and had built a church there. They had been able to convert a number of villagers and were sending evangelists to the surrounding towns and villages. It was this new development which was such a source of concern to the leaders.

The leaders were sad because they felt that those who adopted the Christian religion were betraying their own culture and their faith in favour of that of an outside force. The new religion was strange to them because firstly, they had never experienced or had any contact with something similar before—all they ever had was their own belief system and they were comfortable in the knowledge that it served its purpose. Secondly, the new faith was entirely different to their own, for it spoke of only one God, whilst they had many gods in theirs. The new religion required a building for worship whilst theirs did not, except for a shrine.

The leaders called it 'the white man's god' because the missionaries were white people who introduced the religion. The leaders believed that this new ideology would soon die out because their clans would reject its principles and its practice because it was so vastly different from what they were accustomed to.

Unfortunately, the leaders were wrong, since many of their followers took a liking to the tenets of the new religion and became believers. Okonkwo's son, Nwoye, for example, became a Christian. The new religion was less harsh and more forgiving and did not require the severe forms of punishment imposed by customary religious teaching. It was, therefore, easy to find converts. This acceptance is one of the major reasons why the Ibo became a fragmented tribe.

The second quote is the reply given by a white man, through an interpreter, to a question by a clansman from Okonkwo's mother's village Mbanta. The man had mentioned the names of several of their gods and wanted to know which god the white man's was.

"All the gods you have named are not gods at all. They are gods of deceit who tell you to kill your fellows and destroy innocent children."

What the white man meant was that the gods which the Ibo were worshipping were not, in his opinion, real. These supposed gods were misleading them by telling them to kill their fellow men and to destroy children who had not committed any crime or any sin. The purpose of this visit was to convert those who adhered to customary beliefs. The missionaries believed that the tribespeople were uneducated and that their religion was that of savages.

The statement made by the missionary was based on what the missionaries had learnt about Ibo custom since their arrival. Ibo religion imposed severe penalties on those who did not adhere to its tenets. Children, for example, were permanently banished from villages if faith decreed that they had been cursed by the gods. They then became outcasts.

In the end, the introduction of a new faith was a deliberate attempt by the missionaries and the colonialists to fragment the traditions that held tribal societies together. Once they had created dissension amongst the ranks, it was easy to dominate them and impose their will upon the people by assuming the roles of benevolent leaders who wished to do what was best for everyone. In the end, the gullible and naive were easily lured by the promises of a supposedly better life. This led to the eventual destruction of most of the fabric of traditional society.

What is the importance of Dally's relationship to Johnny in The Outsiders?

Johnny's relationship with Dallas is mutually beneficial.  To Johnny, Dallas is someone to emulate, someone to strive to be.  Johnny's home life is terrible, and while he has good friends in the gang, they treat him like a puppy or a little brother. He gets little respect.  He sees Dallas and his pull on society and those around him, and Johnny realizes that if he is more like Dallas, if he is hard and angry and scary, then he will get the respect he thinks he deserves.  Johnny looks up to Dallas as the paragon of respect, the most powerful person he knows. 

On the other hand, Dallas sees in Johnny someone he can save.  Dallas absolutely doesn't want to see Johnny end up like him and will do anything in his power to make sure Johnny has a better chance at life than Dallas did.  The sole reason Dallas hides Johnny and Ponyboy after Bob's death is to keep Johnny out of jail.  Dallas realizes that the beginning of his difficult life was when he was in jail and he will do everything in his power to keep Johnny from going down the same road.  On page 89, Dallas says:

I ain't mad at you.  I just don't want you to get hurt. You don't know what a few months in jail can do to you... You get hard in jail.  I don't want that to happen to you.  Like it happened to me...

This type of feeling is uncharacteristic for Dallas, who Ponyboy says "never gave a Yankee dime about anyone but himself," but it shows that Johnny is the only person Dallas cares about in the world, and their friendship is based around Dallas's need and desire to keep Johnny from ending up like him.

What motifs, such as dialogue, conflict, and setting, are used in "Indian Camp"? Also, can you explain them?

The story begins with an evocation of setting: at the lake shore. It is here where Nick and his father disembark from some vague location, presumably their side of town, and are rowed over to the Indian camp by some Native Americans who live over there. 

The lake is the physical boundary that separates the white inhabitants of this town from the natives on the reservation. Metaphorically, it also operates as a racial, cultural, and economic boundary. Nick's father is a doctor and, presumably, the most accessible medical care available to those in the camp. Those in the camp live in shanties.

The dialogue in the story is very terse, a common feature of Hemingway's prose. Also, the only people who speak are the three white people: Nick, his father, and Uncle George. The Native Americans in the camp, however, are the ones who perform all of the action in the story: those who row Nick and his father over to the camp, the woman struggling for two days to give birth, her husband smoking a pipe in the bunk above her, then slitting his own throat out of fear and distress.

Much of the dialogue involves the doctor explaining to his son how a woman gives birth, then talking, very briefly at the end of the story, about suicide. The focus of the dialogue is, thus, on life and death. The doctor is determined to ensure that the baby is born and, therefore, is indifferent to the woman's screams: "But her screams are not important. I don't hear them because they are not important." A Caesarian is performed without an anesthetic, causing the woman to bite Uncle George in pain. His response, "Damn squaw bitch!" echoes the doctor's indifference to the woman and her labor pains.

Arguably, between this indifference to the woman and the doctor's insistence on checking on the father, as "they're usually the worst sufferers in these little affairs," Hemingway's misogyny seems apparent. One could look beyond this, however, and argue that Hemingway's indifference to the "squaw" stems from the notion that she is merely the conduit through which life occurs. Her survival and that of the baby are important only because they confirm the triumph of life over death. The latter is personified by the father's suicide.

It is important that the story ends with Nick and his father rowing home, on the verge of a new day:

The sun was coming up over the hills. A bass jumped, making a circle in the water...It felt warm in the sharp chill of the morning.

At this moment, Nick feels "quite sure that he would never die." One could read this conclusion literally, as a boy's naive feeling of immortality, or symbolically. Though the father in the camp killed himself, his newborn is a part of him and will live on and probably propagate more children. The tragedy of what occurred in the camp is left behind, a memory now in the past, while Nick and his father sail on into the morning and a new beginning. In the water, a bass's jump makes a circle in the water. Circles, too, continue on indefinitely. Thus, the conflict between life and death, as presented in the story, is resolved by the reader's understanding, through Nick, that life goes on.

Why might one agree or disagree with Socrates' assertion in Apology that the unexamined life is not worth living?

This statement occurs in the context of Socrates' trial for asebeia. In this part of the dialogue, Socrates is describing how Chaerephon brought back a message from the Delphic oracle saying that no man was wiser than Socrates. Socrates interprets this as affirming that he has divine authorization for his quest to seek knowledge and question those people who claim to be wise even if he offends them. The specific claim that the unexamined life is not worth living is one he advances in response to the choice of whether he will cease his practice of elenchus in face of the death penalty. In response to that choice, he argues that his life, were he to stop his quest for truth, would not be worth living. 

For specific examples, you will need to think about those people such as Socrates, Jesus, and Galileo who died or were persecuted for their beliefs. The statement should not be read in light of twenty-first century narcissism, which tends to be purely inward looking, but in terms of a quest for absolute truth. Emulating Socrates in this, therefore, would involve more in the way of careful reading of the Apology and related books as a form of intellectual inquiry than of pure self-reflection. 

How does Odysseus reflect the Greek's cultures and values ?

Odysseus reflects many characteristics of ancient Greek culture. Two of these are xenia and bravery. First, he has a strong commitment to xenia, the Greek word for hospitality. Greeks were expected to go to great lengths to show hospitality to their guests, even if they were strangers; likewise, visitors were expected to be good guests. In the Odyssey, there are several times where Odysseus punishes people for not abiding by the code of xenia. Polyphemus the cyclops did not extend xenia to Odysseus and his crew; instead, he tried to eat them, so Odysseus blinded him. When Odysseus returned to his home in Ithaca, his house was full of single men who wanted to marry his wife since he was presumed dead; these men were incredibly bad guests, which is one of the reasons Odysseus slaughtered them.

Second, Odysseus reflected the Greek virtue of bravery. Despite facing a number of incredibly difficult trials (shipwrecks, imprisonment, monsters, etc.), Odysseus remained brave and did not lose heart.

What happens in Chapter One of Black Beauty?

In Chapter One of Black Beauty, Black Beauty reflects upon his childhood next to a lovely meadow where he lives with his mother, Duchess, and six other colts. Black Beauty loves to play with his fellow horse friends, although Duchess scolds him for consorting with horses who have poor manners. Black Beauty, on the other hand, is a "well-born" horse and the descendant of a racehorse; his mother wishes for him to grow up to be a gentle, hard-working creature. 

We are introduced to Black Beauty's master, Farmer Grey, who is a kind man who seems to favor Duchess and "Darkie" (Grey's nickname for Black Beauty). Farmer Grey intently protects his animals, and when he catches Dick, a ploughboy, throwing sticks and stones at the young horses, he punishes him severely and bans him from the farm. 

Finally, we are introduced to Old Daniel, who is the horses' caretaker, a man who is described as being "just as gentle" as Farmer Grey. 

From what we can assess from this first chapter, Black Beauty leads a happy life and is well taken care of by those responsible for him, both human and horse. 

What is a justification for Shylock seeking a pound of Antonio's flesh in The Merchant of Venice?

Shylock's primary motive for seeking a pound of Antonio's flesh was to take revenge. At the time that Antonio signed the bond as surety for the loan Shylock made to Bassanio, the moneylender had no idea that Antonio would later experience misfortune and lose his ships. He had, however, included this as a condition in the deal, obviously hoping that Antonio would forfeit and that he would then be able to have his revenge. The reason for Shylock seeking revenge is clearly stated in the aside he utters in Act 1, scene 1:

I hate him for he is a Christian,
But more for that in low simplicity
He lends out money gratis and brings down
The rate of usance here with us in Venice.
If I can catch him once upon the hip,
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.
He hates our sacred nation, and he rails,
Even there where merchants most do congregate,
On me, my bargains and my well-won thrift,
Which he calls interest. Cursed be my tribe,
If I forgive him!

Antonio had agreed to this particular condition for he was confident that his ships would all arrive safely at their destinations and that he would easily settle the debt within the three month period. He acted against Bassanio's advice to sign the bond for he was putting himself at risk. Bassanio, unlike Antonio, had the presence of mind to realize that there always existed the possibility that things might go awry.

Shylock obviously shared this sentiment for he was generous enough to exclude charging interest on the bond. As it was, Shylock had nothing to lose whilst Antonio, conversely, could pay with his life. As it turned out, fortune favored Shylock since Antonio suffered disaster when all his ships and their precious cargo were destroyed. It seems as if the Christian merchant had tempted fate too much and suffered the unfortunate consequences.

In addition, Shylock believed that the law was on his side and that his appeal for restitution was justified. Antonio was, after all, of sound body and mind when he signed their agreement. He knew exactly what the conditions were and signed the bond even against his best friend's admonition that he did not trust Shylock.

Ironically, though, it was Shylock's malice that turned against him. He was so determined in hurting Antonio that he turned a deaf ear against numerous appeals for mercy. He even rejected an offer by Bassanio of twice the original amount owed to him. Shylock believed that he was entirely within his rights. Eventually, it was Portia's intelligent intervention that not only saved Antonio's life but also irrevocably altered the Jew's destiny.

Portia proved to the court that Shylock's malicious claim against the Christian was a crime punishable by death and the forfeiture of his entire fortune. The duke, though, was merciful and spared him his life. Antonio's also appealed, and spared him the ignominy of losing his entire fortune. In the end, Shylock had to forfeit half of his estate to his daughter and her Christian husband and had to relinquish his own religion and become a Christian.

Can the annual average rainfall in the Ring of Fire be measured?

The Ring of Fire is a large, horse-shoe shaped band that circumscribes a large area of the Pacific Ocean. The area contains 452 volcanoes and is known for its high number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The Ring of Fire is home to more than 75% of the world's volcanoes.

From one end of the Ring of Fire to the other is approximately 25,000 miles, and as such, the climate (and thus the annual precipitation) varies greatly throughout its different parts. It reaches as far north as the Aleutian Strait, and as far south as Antarctica. Its path transverses East Asia and the western coast of the Americas. Very roughly, the Ring of Fire outlines the Pacific Ocean. 

Since the Ring of Fire roughly outlines the Pacific Ocean, the annual precipitation within the Ring of Fire can be estimated based on the annual average precipitation over the Pacific ocean, which is 57.5 inches per year.

Generally, parts of the Ring of Fire that are closer to the equator receive more rainfall than parts of the ring that are farther from the equator. The annual rainfall at Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines, for example, is between 80-160 inches per year, whereas the annual average rainfall of Mt. Erebus, Antarctica is 32 inches per year. Both of these places are located on the Ring of Fire, but have vastly different annual average rainfall measurements due to their proximity to the equator.

Because the Ring of Fire spans such a large portion of the globe, rainfall varies based on the location, and it would be a long process of data collection to determine the average rainfall of the entire Ring. To do so, one would have to collect data on average rainfall for a specific set of locations along the Ring. From that data, the numbers could be averaged to determine the average rainfall of the entire Ring of Fire.

In Chains by Laurie Halse Anderson, what do bees symbolize?

The bees symbolize Isabel's racing and cloudy thoughts.  

When Anderson writes about Isabel and bees in this book, it is always referencing Isabel's state of mind.  Additionally, the bees become a prevalent symbol after Madam Lockton sells Ruth.  

Melancholy held me hostage, and the bees built a hive of sadness in my soul.

Whenever Isabel mentions the bees and their effects, it is always to illustrate how unclearly she is thinking.  The bee symbolism might be because the "bee" activity of her brain is so hectic that she can't think straight.  The bee activity also fills so much of her head that Isabel's thoughts are slowed down.  Anderson also allows the bee activity to be so noisy that Isabel couldn't process any other information coming in.  The bees are simply too noisy and bothersome to Isabel.  

The bees threatened to overtake my mind again, their wings beating quickly. 

When Isabel begins thinking clearly again, Anderson makes a point of telling readers that the bees also fall silent.  This doesn't happen until chapter 26.  Isabel subconsciously hears somebody say that the British can give slaves freedom.  Isabel's brain focuses on that singular thought, and the bees fall silent momentarily, because Isabel does not have a head full of beehive activity.  

"If the British win, we'll all be free."

"Shhh!" several people scolded.

I blinked. The bees in my head fell silent and hugged their wings tight to their bodies.  The British would free us? All of us? 

What are natural treatments for carpal tunnel syndrome?

Introduction

Carpal tunnel
syndrome (CTS) is a common and often disabling condition most
often associated with data entry and general computer use, but it can affect
anyone who performs repetitive hand motions. CTS occurs in women more often than
men and is a relatively common temporary complication of pregnancy (because of
fluid retention). It also occurs frequently among people with rheumatoid
arthritis or diabetes.

CTS is caused by compression of the median nerve. On its way to the hand, the median nerve passes through an opening in the wrist called the carpal tunnel. Constant, repetitive hand motion may aggravate the ligaments and tendons encased in the tunnel, causing them to swell. As the tunnel walls close in, they compress the median nerve. This causes tingling and numbness in the thumb, index finger, middle finger, and half of the ring finger. The discomfort of CTS often wakes people during the night and eventually makes it difficult to grasp small objects.

Most instances of CTS are job-related. Paying attention to proper ergonomics is essential for preventing CTS. This might involve repositioning a computer keyboard or taking breaks more often. Conventional medical treatment for more stubborn CTS cases is variable in its success. Splinting the affected hand, especially at night, may help reduce symptoms. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications, such as ibuprofen or naproxen, may help slightly. Surgery is considered the ultimate treatment, but corticosteroid injections may be equally or slightly more effective. In some cases, a person with work-related CTS may have no choice but to change vocation.

Proposed Natural Treatments

There are no natural treatments for carpal tunnel syndrome that have any meaningful supporting evidence. Those that have been scientifically evaluated to any extent include vitamin B6, yoga, and magnet therapy.

Vitamin B
6
. Late in the twentieth century, researchers noted that people
with CTS seemed to be deficient in vitamin B
6. This led to
widespread use of vitamin B6 as a CTS remedy. However, a more recent
study found no association between CTS and vitamin B6 deficiency. In
any case, even if vitamin B6 deficiency were common in CTS, that by
itself would not prove that taking vitamin B6 supplements can reduce
symptoms.

A few studies have investigated the effectiveness of vitamin B6 for CTS. Most were poorly designed and involved few people. The two (albeit small) randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies that do exist found no evidence that vitamin B6 effectively treats CTS. The first study, which enrolled only fifteen people, found no significant difference after ten weeks among those taking vitamin B6, placebo, or nothing. The second study, involving thirty-two people, did find some benefits, but these were fairly minor. There was no improvement in nighttime pain, numbness, or tingling, or in objective measurements of median nerve function. Some benefit, however, was seen in the relatively less important symptoms of finger swelling and discomfort after repetitive motion.

Because vitamin B6 has not been proven effective and may be harmful in high doses, it is not recommend for treating carpal tunnel syndrome.

Yoga. Hatha yoga, a system of stretching and
balancing exercises, has been tried for CTS. In one study, forty-two persons with
CTS were randomly assigned to receive either yoga instruction or a wrist splint
for eight weeks. The results indicated that yoga was more effective than the wrist
splint.

However, this study has a serious flaw: Participants in the control group were simply offered the wrist splint and given the choice of using it or not. It would have been preferable for them to have received an option such as fake laser acupuncture or, even better, phony yoga postures. Experience from numerous studies shows that when people believe they are receiving an effective treatment, they report improvement, regardless of the nature of the treatment.

Magnet therapy. In the one reported double-blind,
placebo-controlled study of magnet therapy for CTS, thirty people
with CTS received treatment with either a real or a fake static magnet. Dramatic,
long-lasting benefits were seen with the magnet treatment. However, identical
dramatic and long-lasting benefits were seen with placebo treatment too. This
study underscores the need for a placebo group in studies; had there not been one
in this trial, magnet therapy would have shown itself quite effective for CTS. In
two more small, randomized trials, researchers again found that there were no
differences between the treatment and the placebo groups. Both groups experienced
an improvement in symptoms.

Other treatments. Bromelain and other proteolytic enzymes are sometimes recommended for the treatment of CTS, but there is no evidence that they are effective. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of thirty-seven people undergoing surgery for CTS, an ointment made from the herb Arnica (combined with homeopathic Arnica tablets) proved slightly more effective than placebo for relieving pain after surgery.

People who have a stroke that renders one hand paralyzed may develop CTS from overuse of the remaining functional hand. One poorly designed study found preliminary evidence that mecobalamin, a form of vitamin B12, might provide some benefit. Another study failed to find low-level laser therapy helpful for CTS.

Bibliography

Carter, R., C. B. Aspy, and J. Mold. “The Effectiveness of Magnet Therapy for Treatment of Wrist Pain Attributed to Carpal Tunnel Syndrome.” Journal of Family Practice 51 (2002): 38-40.

Colbert, A. P., et al. “Static Magnetic Field Therapy for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome.” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 91 (2010): 1098-1104.

Hui, A. C., et al. “A Randomized Controlled Trial of Surgery vs. Steroid Injection for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome.” Neurology 64 (2005): 2074-2078.

Irvine, J., et al. “Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Trial of Low-Level Laser Therapy in Carpal Tunnel Syndrome.” Muscle and Nerve 30 (2004): 182-187.

Jeffrey, S., and J. Belcher. “Use of Arnica to Relieve Pain After Carpal-Tunnel Release Surgery.” Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 8 (2002): 66-68.

Ly-Pen, D., et al. “Surgical Decompression Versus Local Steroid Injection in Carpal Tunnel Syndrome.” Arthritis and Rheumatism 52 (2005): 612-619.

Why and how did Shakespeare use the sonnet form?

There is more than one form of the sonnet. Shakespeare popularized the English sonnet. It has three quatrains (four-line stanzas) and a rhymed couplet (two-line stanza) at the end. The rhyme scheme is fairly easy: abab, cdcd, efef, gg. The fourteen lines are written in iambic pentameter, a type of meter in which each line has ten syllables and the stress alternates between unstressed and stressed syllables.

This type of sonnet develops an idea in the first twelve lines. The final lines complete the poem, providing a conclusion, a reversal, or perhaps a deepening of the poem's theme.

Why Shakespeare chose this form is a more difficult question to answer because he didn't reveal in notes or letters what his intentions were. Sonnets, in various forms, were already an established style when he began writing his. Shakespeare scholars are divided in their theories, but one idea that is common to read about is that the poems are meant to be read together as a cycle, with many of them addressed to a single person.

What effects did the Seminole Wars have on the residents of Miami?

The Second Seminole War (which lasted from 1835 until 1842) had a significant impact on Miami and the Miami area.  William S. Harney was a U.S. Army major who led his troops on many raids in the area that is now the City of Miami.  At the time, the area was mostly populated by Native Floridians and U.S. Army soldiers.  Fort Dallas, which is located in what is now downtown Miami, was the temporary home of many of the soldiers.  There was also a small population of settlers.

Buildings and structures were damaged and destroyed during the course of the war.  One of those structures was the Cape Florida Lighthouse (located on an island close to Miami), which was attacked by the Seminoles as part of the Second Seminole War.  They burned it, which caused damage but did not destroy the lighthouse.  Other structures were abandoned.  Richard Fitzpatrick was an early settler who established a plantation in Miami.  During the Second Seminole War, he abandoned his plantation and left the area.

By the end of the war, many settlers had left.  Almost all the Seminoles who lived in the area were killed or fled.

Why didn't Elie want to give his father water?

In section eight of Elie Wiesel's memoir Night, Elie's father has been badly weakened by virtual starvation and the forced march from Buna to Gleiwitz. At Buchenwald, he has been stricken with dysentery. Dysentery is an intestinal problem which causes severe diarrhea and blood to be evident in the feces. Weak and on the verge of death, Elie's father begs for water, which Elie writes was worst thing he could have:

I knew he must not drink. But he pleaded with me for so long that I gave in. Water was the worst poison he could have, but what else could I do for him? With water, without water, it would all be over soon anyway....

Elie labels water as poison for two reasons. First, the water, which was probably contaminated, most likely had been the cause of his father's dysentery in the first place. Second, since water passes through the system quickly, Elie believes that it will only cause his father more discomfort in the form of continued diarrhea. In reality, of course, replacement of fluids was precisely what Elie's father needed, but not the contaminated water which was available in the camp. A little later in the chapter, Elie is deaf to his father's pleas for water as he becomes paralyzed by the fear of receiving a blow from the SS guards. That night, his father dies, and when Elie wakes up he is gone.

What are fields of specialization in psychology?

Introduction

Because the fields of specialization within psychology are so numerous, the science must first be examined as an entity unto itself. This involves defining psychology, exploring the reasons for its existence, reviewing its history, and surveying the diverse specialists who assist various populations. Although the semantics of defining psychology differ from text to text, the actual explanation remains constant: It is the science of human behavior as it relates to the functions of the mind. More specifically, it provides evidence for why people experience a gamut of emotions, think rationally or irrationally, and act either predictably or unpredictably.

The discipline’s very existence justifies humankind’s need to plumb the depths of its interior to search for the self, to process conflict, to solve problems, and to think critically as well as act pragmatically. Its challenge is to assist people in understanding themselves. Humans have a natural curiosity; it moves them to try to determine their relationship to the world in which they live. With this comes the inclination to observe and compare the ideas, behavior patterns, and abilities of other people. These analyses and comparisons, which people cannot help but make, involve the self as well as others. People may be either overly harsh or selectively blind when examining themselves; both these situations can be a handicap and both can be helped by psychology.

At times, people’s anxiety levels may peak uncontrollably. Through the science of the mind, people seek to temper their agitation by becoming familiar with and acknowledging vague fears and uncomfortable feelings. Thus, they learn about the source of their tension. From this, experts learn how behavior originates. They assist people in learning to cope with change; people discover how to make adequate adjustments in daily living. The fast pace that humans in industrialized society keep requires them, more than ever before, to have a working knowledge of people—their thought processes and behavior patterns. From all of this, experts are able to arrive at reasonable predictions and logical conclusions about humankind’s future behavior.

History and Systems of Psychology

Psychology did not become accepted as a formal discipline until the late nineteenth century. Before then, even back to antiquity, questions were directed to philosophers, the wise men of the time. Though they were versed in reasoning, logic, and scholarship, only a few of these thinkers could deal with the complexities of the human mind. Their answers were profound and lengthy, but these scholars frequently left their audiences bewildered and without the solutions they sought. Some of these logicians used the Socratic method of reasoning; they often frustrated those who questioned them and expected realistic replies. Inquires were redirected to questioners, whose burden it was to arrive at their own solutions.

Gustav Fechner, a nineteenth century philosopher and physicist, postulated that the scientific method should be applied to the study of mental processes. It was his contention that experimentation and mathematical procedures should be used to study the human mind. From the mid-nineteenth century onward, many disciplines contributed to what was to become the science of psychology. Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener were the leaders of the structuralist school, which identified the elements and principles of consciousness.

Other early giants of the field included William James and John Dewey. They inaugurated the study of functionalism, which taught that psychological knowledge should be applied to practical knowledge in fields such as education, business law, and daily living. A champion of behaviorism, John B. Watson, advocated that the study of psychology should concentrate on observable behavior; he urged that objective methods be adopted. The Gestalt movement was originated by Max Wertheimer. In concert with Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler, Wertheimer embraced the premise that the whole may be different from its parts studied in isolation.

Psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud. He studied the unconscious using techniques of free association, hypnosis, and body language. The neobehaviorist model, in contrast, defended the behaviorist position that complicated phenomena such as mental and emotional activities cannot be observed. Love, stress, empathy, trust, and personality cannot be observed in and of themselves. Their effects, however, are readily apparent.

Carl R. Rogers and Abraham Maslow pioneered the area known as humanism in the 1950s and 1960s. Areas of interest to humanistic psychologists
are self-actualization, creativity, transcendence, the search for meaning, and social change. Its goals are to expand and to enrich human lives through service to others and an increased understanding of the complexity of people, as individuals, in groups, organizations, and communities.

In the mid-twentieth century, with the development of cognitive psychology, mental processes such as attention, memory, and reasoning became the focus of direct study. This approach to understanding human thought analyzes cognitive processes into a sequence of ordered stages; each stage reflects an important step in the processing of information. In the 1980s and 1990s, the fields of cognitive science and cognitive neuroscience emerged. Psychologists began working with computer scientists, linguists, neurobiologists, and others to develop detailed models of brain and mind relationships.

Major Fields in Psychology

Psychology is both a theoretical and an applied science with more than a dozen major fields. The American Psychological Association has more than fifty divisions, representing psychologists working in settings as diverse as community mental health clinics and large corporations, and with interests ranging from adult development and aging to the study of peace, conflict, and violence. Academic and research psychologists use observational and experimental methods to reach a greater understanding of the human mind and human behavior. Psychologists in the clinical specialties then use this knowledge to help people in their daily lives.

For example, children who are abused or neglected, or who experience difficulties as a result of being members of dysfunctional families, require the services of child psychologists, who evaluate, diagnose, and treat youngsters; this usually occurs in a clinical setting. Thus, child psychologists are considered clinical practitioners. More than one-half of the doctoral degrees awarded in 1999 were in either clinical or counseling psychology. In 2006 the National Science Foundation reported that, of all psychology doctoral degrees awarded between 1996 and 2005 in the United States, 37 percent were for clinical psychology and 14 percent were for counseling psychology.

Many psychologists also work in the area of education. Educational psychologists develop and analyze materials and strategies for effective educational curricula. School psychologists design instructive programs, consult with teachers, and assist students with problems.

Genetic psychologists study the activities of the human organism in relation to the hereditary and evolutionary factors involved; functions and origin play a central role. Physiological psychologists examine the biological bases of behavior. They are often interested in the biochemical reactions underlying memory and learning. Engineering psychologists design and evaluate equipment, training devices, and systems. The goal is to facilitate the relationship between people and their environment. Industrial and organizational (I-O) psychologists
research and develop programs that promote on-the-job efficiency, effectiveness, challenge, and positive disposition. They study ability and personality factors, special training and experience, and work and environment variables, as well as organizational changes.

Personality psychologists study the many ways in which people differ from one another; they are instrumental in analyzing how those differences may be assessed and what their impact is. Criminal psychologists study the complexities of a perpetrator’s thought process. They are keenly interested in a criminal’s habits, idiosyncrasies, and possible motives. Developmental psychologists
study changes in people as they age and mature. Their work may be protracted over the span of an individual’s life; their theories may be advanced several years after they were first conceived.

Social psychologists
study how people influence one another. They may be interested, for example, in the concept of leaders and followers. Environmental psychologists
monitor the physical and social effects of the environment on behavior. They are interested in how elements such as heat, noise, health, and activity affect the human condition. Their contributions are in the areas of urban planning, architecture, and transportation.

Consumer psychologists
determine factors that influence consumer decisions, exploring such issues as the effect of advertising on purchasing decisions, brand loyalty, and the rejection or acceptance of new products. Experimental psychologists
design and conduct basic and applied research in a variety of areas, including learning, sensation, attention and memory, language, motivation, and the physiological and neural bases of behavior. Comparative psychologists
study the behavior, cognition, perception, and social relationships of diverse animal species. Their research can be descriptive as well as experimental and is conducted in the field or with animals in captivity.

Tests and Measures of Individual Differences

The scope of psychology’s fields of specialization is great. The professionals who work in these areas strive to help people know, understand, and help themselves. To accomplish this, psychologists use numerous tests to help them ascertain specific information about an individual, a group of people, or a particular population. Ability tests measure multiple aptitudes, creativity, achievement, and intelligence levels. Psychologists may perform occupational and clinical assessments. Also included in the area of assessment are personality tests, which encompass self-report inventories, measures of interests, attitudes and values, projective techniques, and performance and situational evaluations.

An example of a multiple-aptitude test is the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), first published in 1947, then revised in 1963, 1973, and 1991. Its primary purpose is to counsel students in grades eight through twelve in educational and vocational matters. Creativity tests have received much attention from researchers and practitioners alike. The Aptitudes Research Project (ARP) was developed by the University of Southern California. It is a structure-of-intellect (SI) model, which encompasses all intellectual functions. Though its initial platform was reasoning, creativity, and problem solving, its base was expanded to divergent production. Until the ARP, research resources in this area were very limited.

Achievement tests, which differ from aptitude tests, measure the effects of specific instruction or training. Some of the most respected tests are the California Achievement Tests, the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, the Metropolitan Achievement Test, and the Stanford Achievement Test. Their significance lies in reporting what the individual can do at the time of test administration. Aptitude instruments, on the other hand, make recommendations about future skills. Intelligence tests measure forms of intelligence; however, the scores given by the Stanford-Binet test and the various Wechsler intelligence scales are only part of a big picture about any given human being and should be evaluated accordingly.

Personality tests measure the emotional, motivational, interpersonal, and attitudinal characteristics of an individual. The Kuder Interest Inventories list occupations according to a person’s interest area. The Rorschach Inkblot Projective Technique investigates the personality as a whole. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) researches personality and attitude. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is a widely used measure of personality dispositions and interests based on Carl Jung’s theory of types.

Psychology and Society

Psychology as a formal discipline is still relatively new; of its many specializations, some have found their way to maturity, while others are still in their early stages. The development of diverse fields has been justified by the changing nature of social and psychological problems as well as by changing perceptions as to how best to approach those problems. For example, because more people live closer together than ever before, they must interact with one another to a greater degree; finding ways to deal with issues such as aggression, racism, and prejudice therefore becomes crucial. Several divisions of the American Psychological Association reflect the diverse groups that interest psychologists: the Society of Pediatric Psychology, the Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues, and the Society for the Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Issues.

Economic conditions require most parents to work—whether they are single parents or parents in a two-parent family—thus depriving children of time with their parents. This has created a need for daycare centers; the care and nurturing of young people is being transferred, to a significant degree, to external agents. Moreover, older children may be expected to assume adult responsibilities before they are ready. All these issues point to an increasing need for family counseling. Educational institutions demand achievement from students; this can daunt students who have emotional or family problems that interfere with their ability to learn. The availability of school counselors or psychologists can make a difference in whether such children succeed or fail. Businesses and organizations use psychologists and psychological testing to avoid hiring employees who would be ineffective or incompatible with the organization’s approach and to maximize employee productivity on the job.

The specialized fields of psychology have played both a facilitative and a reflective role. Therapists and counselors, for example, have enabled individuals to look at what they have previously accomplished, to assess the present, and to come to terms with themselves and the realities of the future. The future of psychology itself will hold further developments both in the refining of specializations that already exist and in the development of new ones as inevitable societal changes require them.

Bibliography

Butler, Gillian, and Freda McManus. Psychology: A Very Short Introduction. 2d ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2014. Print.

Colman, Andrew M. What Is Psychology? 3d ed. New York: Routledge, 2000. Print.

Helms, Jeffrey L., and Daniel T. Rogers. Majoring in Psychology: Achieving Your Educational and Career Goals. Malden: Wiley, 2010. Digital file.

Johnson, W. Brad, and Nadine Kaslow, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Education and Training in Professional Psychology. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2014. Digital file.

Koch, Sigmund, and David Leary, eds. A Century of Psychology as Science. Washington, DC: APA, 2009. Digital file.

Neimeyer, Greg J., et al. "The Diminishing Durability of Knowledge in Professional Psychology: A Second Look at Specializations." Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 45.2 (2014): 92–98. Print.

Passer, Michael W., and Ronald E. Smith. Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior. 4th ed. Boston: McGraw, 2009. Print.

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Schreiber, Katherine. "Careers in Psychology." Psychology Today 47.2 (2014): 81–89. Print.

Simonton, Dean Keith. Great Psychologists and Their Times: Scientific Insights into Psychology’s History. Washington, DC: APA, 2009. Digital file.