What is Benjamin Franklin's purpose in suppressing his opinions for the "public good"?

On September 17, 1787, Benjamin Franklin addressed the members of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia  to put his “opinions” aside for the “greater good.” He states, in his stage of life, he is older and more experienced than most of the delegates, which gives him the opportunity to see both sides of important issues, and to modify his stance. Although he sees flaws in the Constitution being presented at the Convention, he realizes it is important for the general population, and other nations, to see a united front as the Constitution is presented to the world. He felt the country needed a central government, and based on his vast experience he sees flaws, but he is not sure that those flaws can be changed due to the disparity of the constituents being represented by the attendees of the convention. The Constitution could be the best attempt for the times, and he agrees to put his differences aside so that the United States can have a strong central government to move forward on the world stage.

Thus I consent, Sir, to this Constitution because I expect no better, and because I am not sure, that it is not the best. The opinions I have had of its errors, I sacrifice to the public good--I have never whispered a syllable of them abroad--Within these walls they were born, and here they shall die--

What are fungal infections?

Types of Fungus

The term “fungus” is a general one for plantlike organisms that do not produce their own food through photosynthesis but live as heterotrophs, absorbing complex carbon compounds from other living or dead organisms. Fungi were formerly classified in the plant kingdom (together with bacteria, all algae, mosses, and green plants); more recently, biologists have realized that there are fundamental differences in cell structure and organization separating the lower plants into a number of groups that merit recognition as kingdoms. Fungi differ from bacteria and actinomycetes in being eukaryotic, that is, in having an organized nucleus with chromosomes within the cell. One division of fungi, which is believed to be distantly related to certain aquatic algae, has spores that swim by means of flagella. These water molds include pathogens of fish and aquatic insect larvae and a few economically important plant pathogens, but none have yet been recorded as causing a defined, nonopportunistic human disease. The other division of fungi lacks flagellated spores at any stage in its
life cycle. It encompasses most familiar fungi, including molds, mushrooms, yeasts, wood-rotting fungi, leaf spots, and all fungi reliably reported to cause disease in humans.

Fungi that lack flagellated stages in their life cycles are further divided into three classes and one form-class according to the manner in which the spores are produced. The first of these, the Zygomycetes (for example Rhizopus, the black bread mold), produce thick-walled, solitary sexual spores as a result of hyphal fusion; they are a diverse assemblage including many parasites of insects. Species in the genus
Mucor cause a rare, fulminating, rapidly fatal systemic disease called mucormycosis, generally in acidotic diabetic patients. The Basidiomycetes, characterized by the production of sexual spores externally on a club-shaped structure called a basidium, include mushrooms, plant rusts (such as stem rust of wheat), and most wood-rotting fungi. There is one important basidiomycetous human pathogen (Filobasidiella neoformans) and a few confirmed opportunists. The Ascomycetes, including most yeasts and lichens, many plant pathogens (such as Dutch elm disease and chestnut blight), and a great diversity of saprophytes growing on wood and herbaceous material, produce sexual spores
in a saclike structure called an ascus. One ascomycete, Piedraia nigra, regularly produces its characteristic fruiting bodies on its human host; others do so in culture. In addition, there is a form-class Deuteromycetes consisting of fungi that produce only asexual spores. Most are suspected of being stages in the life cycle of Ascomycetes, but some are Basidiomycetes or are of uncertain affinity. Human pathogens, at least as they occur on the host or in typical laboratory culture, are mostly Deuteromycetes.

Medical mycology (the study of fungi) would occupy only a single chapter in a book on the relationship of fungi to human affairs. Relatively few fungi have become adapted to living as parasites of human (or even mammalian) hosts, and of these, the most common ones cause superficial and cutaneous mycoses (fungal infections) with annoying but scarcely life-threatening effects. Serious fungal diseases are mercifully rare among people with normally functioning immune systems.

The majority of fungi are directly dependent on green plants as parasites, as symbionts living in a mutually beneficial association with a plant, or as saprophytes on dead plant material. One large, successful group of Ascomycetes lives in symbiotic association with algae, forming lichens. Fungi play a critical ecological role in maintaining stable plant communities. As plant pathogens, they cause serious economic loss, leading in extreme cases to famine. The ability of saprophytic fungi to transform chemically the substrate on which they are growing has been exploited by the brewing industry since antiquity and has been expanded to other industrial processes. Penicillin, other
antibiotics, and some vitamins are extracted from fungi, which produce a vast array of complex organic compounds whose potential is only beginning to be explored and which constitutes a fertile field for those interested in genetic engineering.

This same chemical diversity and complexity also enable fungi to produce mycotoxins—chemicals that have an adverse effect on humans and animals. Saprophytic fungi growing on improperly stored food are a troublesome source of toxic compounds, some of which are carcinogenic. The old adage that “a little mold won’t hurt you” is true in the sense that common molds do not cause acute illness when ingested, but it is poor advice in terms of long-term health.

A mycotoxicity problem of considerable medical and veterinary interest is posed by Ascomycetes of the order Clavicipitaceae, which are widespread on grasses. Some species of grasses routinely harbor systemic, asymptomatic infections by these fungi, which produce compounds toxic to animals that graze on them. From the point of view of the grass, the relationship is symbiotic, since it discourages grazing; from the point of view of range management, the relationship is deleterious to stock. Claviceps purpurea, a pathogen of rye, causes a condition known as ergotism in humans, with symptoms including miscarriage, vascular constriction leading to gangrene of the limbs, and hallucinations. Outbreaks of hallucinatory ergotism are thought by some authors to be responsible for some of the more spectacular perceptions of witchcraft in premodern times. Better control of plant disease and a decreased reliance on rye as a staple grain have virtually eliminated ergotism as a human disease in the twentieth century.

Fungi exhibit a bewildering variety of forms and life cycles; nevertheless, certain generalizations can be made. A fungus starts life as a spore, which may be a single cell or a cluster of cells and is usually microscopic. Under proper conditions, the spore germinates, producing a filament of fungal cells oriented end to end, called a hypha. Hyphae grow into the substrate, secreting enzymes that dissolve structures to provide food for the growing fungus and to provide holes through which the fungus can grow. In an asexually reproducing fungus, some of the hyphae become differentiated, producing specialized cells (spores) that differ from the parent hypha in size and pigmentation and are adapted for dispersal, but that are genetically identical to the parent. In a sexually reproducing fungus, two hyphae (or a hypha and a spore from different individuals) fuse, their nuclei fuse, and meiosis takes place before spores are formed. Spores are often produced in a specialized fruiting body, such as a mushroom.

Fungus spores are ubiquitous. Common saprophytic fungi produce airborne spores in enormous quantities; thus it is difficult to avoid contact with them in all but the most hypersterile environments. In culture, fungi (including pathogenic species) produce large numbers of dry spores that can be transmitted in the air from host to host, making working with fungi in a medical laboratory potentially hazardous.

Fungal Diseases and Treatments

Human fungal diseases are generally placed in four broad categories according to the tissues they attack, and they are further subdivided according to specific pathologies and the organisms involved. The categories of disease are superficial mycoses, cutaneous mycoses, subcutaneous mycoses, and systemic mycoses.

Superficial mycoses affect hair and the outermost layer of the epidermis and do not evoke a cellular response. They include tinea versicolor and tinea nigra, deutermycete infections that cause discolored patches on skin, and black piedra, caused by an ascomycete growing on hair shafts. They can be treated with a topical fungicide, such as nystatin, or, in the case of piedra, by shaving off the affected hair.

Cutaneous mycoses involve living cells of the skin or mucous membrane and evoke a cellular response, generally localized inflammation. Dermatomycoses (dermatophytes), which affect skin and hair, include tinea capitis (ringworm of the scalp), tinea pedis (athlete’s foot), and favus, a scaly infection of the scalp. Domestic animals serve as a reservoir for some cutaneous mycoses. The organisms responsible are generally fungi imperfecti in the genera Microsporum and Trichophyton. Cutaneous mycoses can be successfully treated with topical nystatin or oral griseofulvin.

Candida albicans, a ubiquitous pleomorphic fungus with both a yeast and a mycelial form, causes a variety of cutaneous mycoses as well as systemic infections collectively named
candidiasis. Thrush is a Candida
yeast infection of the mouth that is most common in infants, especially in infants born to mothers with vaginal candidiasis. Vaginal yeast infections periodically affect 18 to 20 percent of the adult female population and more than 30 percent of pregnant women. Candida also causes paronychia, a nailbed infection. Small populations of Candida are normally present in the alimentary tract and genital tract of healthy individuals; candidiasis of the mucous membranes tends to develop in response to antibiotic treatment, which disturbs the normal bacterial flora of the body, or in response to metabolic changes or decreasing immune function.

None of the organisms causing cutaneous mycoses elicits a lasting immune response, so recurring infections by these agents is the rule rather than the exception. Even in temperate climates, under modern standards of hygiene, cutaneous mycoses are extremely common.

Subcutaneous mycoses, affecting skin and muscle tissue, are predominantly tropical in distribution and not particularly common. Chromomycosis and maduromycosis are caused by soil fungi that enter the skin through wounds, causing chronic localized tumors, usually on the feet. Sporotrichosis enters through wounds and spreads through the lymphatic system, causing skin ulcers associated with lymph nodes. Amphotericin B, a highly toxic systemic antifungal agent, has been used to treat all three conditions; potassium iodide is used to treat sporotrichosis, and localized chromomycosis and maduromycosis lesions can be surgically removed.

Systemic mycoses, the most serious of fungal infections, have the ability to become generally disseminated in the body. The main nonopportunistic systemic mycoses known in North America are histoplasmosis, caused by Histoplasma capsulatum; coccidiomycosis, caused by Coccidiodes immitis; blastomycosis, caused by Ajellomyces (or Blastomyces) dermatidis; and cryptococcosis, caused by Cryptococcus (or Filobasidiella) neoformans. Similar infections, caused by related species, occur in other parts of the world.

Coccidiomycosis, also called San Joaquin Valley fever or valley fever, will serve as an example of the etiology of systemic mycoses. The causative organism lives in arid soils in the American southwest; its spores are wind-disseminated. When inhaled, the fungus grows in the lungs, producing a mild respiratory infection that is self-limiting in perhaps 95 percent of the cases. The mild form of the disease is common in rural areas. In a minority of cases, a chronic lung disease whose symptoms resemble tuberculosis develops. There is also a disseminated form of the disease producing meningitis; chronic cutaneous disease, with the production of ulcers and granulomas; and attack of the bones, internal organs, and lymphatic system. A chronic pulmonary infection may become systemic in response to factors that undermine the body’s immune system. Factors involved in individual susceptibility among individuals with intact immune systems are poorly understood.

Histoplasmosis (also known as summer fever, cave fever, cave disease, Mississippi Valley fever, or Ohio Valley disease) is even more common; 90 percent of people tested in the southern Mississippi Valley show a positive reaction to this fungus, indicating prior, self-limiting lung infection. The fungus is associated with bird and bat droppings, and severe cases sometimes occur when previously unexposed individuals are exposed to high levels of inoculum in caves where bats roost. A related organism, Histoplasma duboisii, occurs in central Africa. Blastomycosis causes chronic pulmonary disease, chronic cutaneous disease, and systemic disease, all of which were usually fatal until the advent of chemotherapy with amphotericin B. The natural habitat of the fungus is unclear. Cryptococcus neoformans
occurs in pigeon droppings and is worldwide in distribution. The subclinical pulmonary form of the disease is probably common; invasive disease occurs in patients with collagen diseases, such as lupus, and in patients with weakened immune systems. It is the leading cause of invasive fungal disease in patients with
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Systemic fungal diseases are notoriously difficult to treat. Chemotherapy of systemic, organismally caused diseases depends on finding a chemical compound that will selectively kill or inhibit the invading organism without damaging the host. Therefore, the more closely the parasite species is related biologically to the host species, the more difficult it is to find a compound that will act in such a selective manner. Fungi are, from a biological standpoint, more like humans than they are like bacteria, and antibacterial antibiotics are ineffective against them. If a fungus has invaded the skin or the digestive tract, it can be attacked with toxic substances that are not readily absorbed into the bloodstream, but this approach is not appropriate for a systemic infection. Amphotericin, itraconazole, and fluconazole, the drugs of choice for systemic fungal infections, are highly toxic to humans. Thus, dosage is critical, close clinical supervision is necessary, and long-term therapy may not be feasible.

Perspective and Prospects

Medical mycology textbooks written before 1980 tended to focus on two categories of fungal infection: the common, ubiquitous, and comparatively benign superficial and cutaneous mycoses, frequently seen in clinical practice in the industrialized world, and the subcutaneous and deep mycoses, treated as a rare and/or predominantly tropical problem. Opportunistic systemic infections, if mentioned at all, were regarded as a rare curiosity.

The rising population of patients with compromised immune systems, including cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy, people being treated with steroids for various conditions, transplant patients, and people with AIDS, has dramatically changed this clinical picture. Between 1980 and 1986, more than a hundred fungi, a few previously unknown and the majority common inhabitants of crop plants, rotting vegetable debris, and soil, were identified as causing human disease. The number continues to increase steadily. Compared to organisms routinely isolated from soil and plants, these opportunistic fungi do not seem to have any special characteristics other than the ability to grow at human body temperature; however, the possibility that an opportunistic pathogen might mutate into a form capable of attacking healthy humans is worrisome.

Systemic opportunistic human infections have been attributed to Alternaria alternata and Fusarium oxysporum, common plant pathogens that cause diseases of tomatoes and strawberries, respectively. Several species of Aspergillus, saprophytic molds (many of them thermophilic), have long been implicated in human disease. Colonizing aspergillosis, involving localized growth in the lungs of people exposed to high levels of aspergillus spores (notably agricultural workers working with silage), is not particularly rare among people with normal immune systems, but the more severe invasive form of the disease, in which massive lung lesions form, and disseminated aspergillosis, in which other organs are attacked, almost always involve immunocompromised patients. Ramichloridium schulzeri, described originally from wheat roots, causes “golden tongue” in leukemia patients; fortunately this infection responds to amphotericin B. Scelidosporium inflatum, first isolated from a serious bone infection in an immunocompromised patient in 1984, is being isolated with increasing frequency in cases of disseminated mycosis; it resists standard drug treatment.

Oral colonization by strains of Candida is often the first sign of AIDS-related complex or full-blown AIDS in an individual harboring the
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Drug therapy with fluconazole is effective against oral candidiasis, but relapse rates of up to 50 percent within a month of the cessation of drug therapy are reported. Reported rates of disseminated candidiasis in AIDS patients range from 1 to 10 percent. Invasive procedures such as intravenous catheters represent a significant risk of introducing Candida and other common fungi into the bloodstream of patients.

Pneumocystis jiroveci (formely called Pneumocystis carinii), the organism causing a form of
pneumonia that is the single most important cause of death in patients with AIDS, was originally classified as a sporozoan—that is, as a parasitic protozoan—but detailed investigations of the life cycle, metabolism, and genetic material of Pneumocystis have convinced some biologists that it is actually an ascomycete, although an anomalous one that lacks a cell wall. Unfortunately, while antibiotics and corticosteroids are used to treat the illness, it does not respond to therapy with the antifungal drugs currently in use.

In general, antifungal drug therapy for mycoses in AIDS patients is not very successful. In the absence of significant patient immunity, it is difficult to eradicate a disseminated infection from the body entirely, making a resurgence likely once drug therapy is discontinued. Reinfection is also likely if the organism is a common component of the patient’s environment.

Given the increasing number of lethal systemic fungal infections seen in clinical practice, there is substantial impetus for a search for more effective, less toxic antifungal drugs. A number of compounds, produced by bacteria and chemically dissimilar to both antibacterial antibiotics and the most widely used antifungal compounds, have been identified and are being tested. It is also possible that the plant kingdom, which has been under assault by fungi for all its long geologic history, may prove a source for medically useful antifungal compounds.

Bibliography:

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Biddle, Wayne. A Field Guide to Germs. 3d ed. New York: Anchor Books, 2010.

Carlile, Michael J., Sarah Watkinson, and Graham W. Gooday. The Fungi. 2d ed. San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press, 2008.

Crissey, John Thorne, Heidi Lang, and Lawrence Charles Parish. Manual of Medical Mycology. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell Scientific, 1995.

"Fungal Diseases." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nov. 19, 2012.

"Fungal Infections." MedlinePlus, Jan. 31, 2013.

"Fungal Infections." National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Apr. 16, 2006.

Kumar, Vinay, Abul K. Abbas, and Nelson Fausto, eds. Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2010.

Mandell, Gerald L., John E. Bennett, and Raphael Dolin, eds. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 7th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2010.

Murray, Patrick R., Ken S. Rosenthal, and Michael A. Pfaller. Medical Microbiology. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby/Elsevier, 2013.

Richardson, Malcolm D., and David W. Warnock. Fungal Infection: Diagnosis and Management. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

Rippon, John Willard. Medical Mycology: The Pathogenic Fungi and Pathogenic Actinomycetes. 3d ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1988.

Shaw, Michael, ed. Everything You Need to Know About Diseases. Springhouse, Pa.: Springhouse Press, 1996.

Weedon, David. Skin Pathology. 3d ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2010.

How do Benvolio's actions change Romeo's way of thinking in the first scenes and what are Benvolio's desires, obstacles, actions and thoughts?

As his name suggests, Shakespeare wants the audience to see Benvolio as good, a peacemaker and a pragmatic character, in contrast to the dreamy Romeo and the volatile Mercutio. Benvolio attempts to be a good friend and cousin to Romeo in the beginning of the play as he discusses Romeo's depression over his unrequited love for Rosaline. Benvolio doesn't believe Romeo should focus so much on just one woman. He urges Romeo to look at other women:

By giving liberty unto thine eyes.
Examine other beauties.

Benvolio has a common sense approach to Romeo's problem. He knows that all Romeo needs is to find another woman. His biggest obstacle in convincing Romeo is his cousin's mostly melancholy attitude about any of his suggestions.

When the two men come across the illiterate servant in the street they find out that Rosaline will be at the party and Benvolio convinces Romeo that they should attend so he can show off other women who might be to Romeo's liking:

At this same ancient feast of Capulet’s
Sups the fair Rosaline whom thou so loves,
With all the admirèd beauties of Verona.
Go thither, and with unattainted eye
Compare her face with some that I shall show,
And I will make thee think thy swan a crow.

In Act I, Scene 4 as the Montague men are on their way to the party, Benvolio expresses his desire to simply have a good time and enjoy the dancing:

Come, knock and enter, and no sooner in
But every man betake him to his legs.

Romeo is mostly unreceptive to Benvolio's ideas. He is still gloomy and depressed. He refuses to dance, suggesting he is too heavy hearted over Rosaline and really won't be able to enjoy himself:

Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes
With nimble soles. I have a soul of lead
So stakes me to the ground I cannot move.

In Act V, Scene 5, however, because of Benvolio's advice (they wouldn't have been at the party if it hadn't been for Benvolio), Romeo does see another beauty and uses almost the exact same language as Benvolio had used earlier when he first sees Juliet across the room:

Beauty too rich for use, for Earth too dear.
So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows

Romeo simply replaces swan with dove, but it is the same idea. It is an obvious nod to his loyal friend and cousin who has advised him well. Romeo instantly forgets Rosaline and "that name's woe" once he finds Juliet. That Benvolio never knew how much his counsel helped Romeo is unfortunate.

What are three quotes that describe what the main character Eckels is like in "A Sound of Thunder"?

Eckels is a nervous man.

Eckels is a big game hunter.  He hires Time Safari, Inc. to take him back to the days of the dinosaurs so he can shoot a Tyrannosaurus Rex.  However, Eckels is a bit of a nervous man.  He does not feel confident in his abilities, and gets worried even before he travels back in time.  This quote demonstrates that Eckels was nervous even before facing the dinosaur.

A warm phlegm gathered in Eckels’s throat; he swallowed and pushed it down. The muscles around his mouth formed a smile as he put his hand slowly out upon the air, and in that hand waved a check for ten thousand dollars to the man behind the desk.

Eckels asks them if they will guarantee that he comes back alive.  They tell him they guarantee nothing, and yet he still goes.  He is nervous, but doesn’t back out.

Eckels is fascinated with time travel.

One of the reasons Eckels agreed to go despite his nervousness might be that he seems completely fascinated with time travel itself.  He is willing to pay the thousand dollars just for a chance to get in a time machine.  This is why he doesn’t back out, even after they won’t guarantee his safety.

“Unbelievable.” Eckels breathed, the light of the Machine on his thin face. “A real Time Machine.” He shook his head. “Makes you think. If the election had gone badly yesterday, I might be here now running away from the results. Thank God Keith won. He’ll make a fine President of the United States.”

I guess to Eckels time travel is kind of like a roller coaster.  It is so scary that it’s exciting. He has come this far, and he can’t back down.  He wants to see what will happen.

Eckels is self-centered.

When Travis goes into great detail to explain to Eckels why he can’t change the past, he seems a little dense.  He wants a longer, drawn-out explanation.  He doesn’t really seem to care about anything but himself, and certainly not small animals.

“So they’re dead,” said Eckels. “So what?”

“So what?” Travis snorted quietly. “Well, what about the foxes that’ll need those mice to survive?... Fifty-nine million years later, a cave man, one of a dozen in the entire world, goes hunting wild boar or saber-toothed tiger for food. But you, friend, have stepped on all the tigers in that region. By stepping on one single mouse …”

If Eckels had paid more attention to this explanation, maybe he would have been more careful when he stepped off the path.  Even after he wanders off, Eckels doesn’t really seem to get it.  He complains that it is just a little butterfly he stepped on.  When they return to the present, he doesn’t really have an opportunity to ponder his mistake, because Travis shoots him.

What descriptions about Zaroff's physical features serve to warn Rainsford (and the reader) about the man's brutal nature?

Zaroff is described through the eyes of Rainsford, the narrator of the story, and also through his own dialogue and description. 

Though Rainsford's first impression of Zaroff is that he is "singularly handsome," he remarks in the same phrase that there is an "original, almost bizarre quality about the general's face," which is a more negative description. Later, Zaroff declares himself "a bit of a savage" because he is a Cossack, (a person from southern Russia/Ukraine). Zaroff is later revealed to have "pointed teeth," which are ominous characteristics. Though the general starts off as a polite and gracious host, Rainsford is unnerved by the general's constant appraising stares. The general's "red-lipped smile" is also unnerving. It's clear that he is a brilliant and dangerous man from his conversations about hunting. 

Even the general's actions highlight his brutal nature. When discussing the hunting of men, the general chuckles and laughs repeatedly. He drops a walnut on the floor and crushes it with his heel to emphasize a point. Ultimately, he challenges Rainsford to the hunting game, which demonstrates his cruelty and brutality in his willingness to hunt a fellow man. 

Calculate the number of NaBr formula units formed when 50 NBr3 molecules and 57 NaOH formula units react?

The reaction between NBr3 and NaOH can be written as:

`2NBr_3 + 3NaOH -> 3NaBr + N_2 + 3HOBr`

In this reaction, 2 moles of NBr3 react with 3 moles of NaOH to produce 3 moles of NaBr.

Here, instead of moles, we are given the amounts of the reactants in terms of number of molecules and formula units. These can also be treated in the same way as moles, as long as we remember that a mole of a substance contains 6.023 x 10^23 molecules. 

2 moles of NBr3 reacts with 3 moles of NaOH.

or, 1 mole NBr3 reacts with 3/2 = 1.5 moles of NaOH.

or, 50 molecules of NBr3 will react with 50 x 1.5 = 75 molecules of NaOH.

However, we only have 57 formula units of NaOH. Thus, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is the limiting chemical and will determine how much product is formed.

Since 3 moles of NaOH results in 3 moles of NaBr

thus, 57 formula units of NaOH will result in 57 formula units of NaBr. 

Hope this helps.

How can you apply Pope's "An Essay On Criticism" to "The Rape of Lock"?

Pope's "An Essay on Criticism" is a manual for literary critics written in verse and has many elements that are applicable to his "Rape of the Lock."

First, Pope urges that his readers justly value the models of antiquity and appreciate their greatness. This means that as a student, even if you find Pope's own writing archaic or difficult, you should put in the effort to read it carefully for yourself; just as Pope learned about human nature and literary form from close study of Homer, so you can learn from reading Pope. 

Next, Pope urges critics not to judge too hastily or negatively and to understand poems in light of what the poet is setting out to accomplish. That means that as you read the "Rape of the Lock", you should focus on its nature as a mock epic and how it effectively satirizes the traditions of heroic epic.

"An Essay on Criticism" also focuses on poetic craft. You can use the "numbers" section to evaluate Pope's use of meter; Pope would suggest that you look at whether he mixes polysyllabic words with monosyllabic ones to avoid having "... ten low words oft creep in one dull line" and whether he uses metrical variations in a way appropriate to his subject matter. 

Pope also argues that it is important to use rhymes effectively. In "Rape of the Lock" he often rhymes the grand terms of traditional epic with trivial ones of everyday life for comic effect, as when he uses an extended (mock) epic simile to compare a game of cards to a war; a good example of this manner of using rhyme can be found in the following lines:

His warlike amazon her host invades,

Th’ imperial consort of the crown of Spades

How does Gatsby's facade start to fade when he comes over for tea?

Gatsby's facade starts to crack when he comes over to Nick's for tea because he is so unspeakably nervous about seeing Daisy again. He has sent someone to mow Nick's lawn and deliver inappropriately large amounts of flowers.  He is so anxious to be impressive. He clearly tries to adopt what ends up being "a strained counterfeit of perfect ease," and he almost knocks Nick's clock onto the floor with his head before he barely catches it with shaking fingers.

Further, Gatsby is trying so hard to be cool, but he knows precisely how many years it's been, to the month, since he last saw Daisy—a very uncool thing to blurt out in front of the woman he loves. When Nick tries to leave to give them a bit of privacy, Gatsby barks rudely at him, "Where are you going?" and he follows Nick out, leaving Daisy alone. Then, he is so embarrassed that all he can do is complain about what a bad mistake arranging this meeting was. His too cool, "old sport" routine fails him here.

What play do Herbert and Pip attend in Chapter XXXI of Great Expectations by Charles Dickens?

After Pip returns to London and reunites with Herbert at Barnard Inn, where they speak of the desires in their hearts, Pip pulls from his pocket a handbill which Joe has given him, and he and Herbert decide to attend Hamlet in which Mr. Wopsle stars as the Prince of Denmark.

So they "head for Denmark" and upon their arrival, Pip and Herbert find the stage and the performers very amateurish. Also, as the play progresses they realize that some of the performers are even ludicrous: the ghost of King Hamlet must carry the script with him as he cannot remember a single line, the queen is a buxom woman who has everything on her hooked together with chains, Ophelia seems to take forever to die, and Mr. Wopsle's sword fight with Laertes is absurd.
The actors are so amateurish that remarks and shouts are elicited from the audience. One man in the audience makes an incoherent remark to Ophelia which brings laughter from the entire audience. Others shout and call out to Mr. Wopsle as he tries to portray a tragic Hamlet:

Whenever that undecided Prince had to ask a question or state a doubt, the public helped him out with it. As for example; on the question whether 'twas nobler in the mind to suffer, some roared yes, and some no, and some inclining to both opinions said “toss up for it;” and quite a Debating Society arose. 

The tragedy becomes more of a farce than anything else as the audience shouts at the actors, ridiculing them and the performance. (These actions of the crowd resemble those at Vaudeville performances in the 1880's, a couple decades after the publication of Dickens's novel, at which audiences shouted and threw things at the performers.) Certainly, Pip and Herbert cannot restrain themselves from laughter.

Pip encourages Herbert to hurry after the play is over so that they will not run into Wopsle and embarrass him more, but a man stops them with word that Mr. Waldengarver--Mr. Wopsle's stage name--would like to see them. When the young men reach his dressing room, they are greeted by the former Hamlet:

“Gentlemen,” said Mr. Wopsle, “I am proud to see you. I hope, Mr. Pip, you will excuse my sending round. I had the happiness to know you in former times, and the Drama has ever had a claim which has ever been acknowledged, on the noble and the affluent.”

In this chapter, Dickens again exemplifies the pretensions of people and the desire of many to aspire to what they perceive as a superior upper class. Chapter XXXI is clearly satirical in its portrayal of Mr. Wopsle, who comes to London and changes his name to Mr. Waldengarver. Believing himself a Shakespearean actor, Mr. Wopsle reveals only that he is a pompous and rank amateur.

What are the problems caused by non renewable resources and how can we conserve them?

Non-renewable resources are those that cannot be regenerated in a reasonable enough time frame to be reused by human beings. Some examples of non-renewable resources include coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc. Since it takes millions of years for these resources to form, they are in a limited quantity. If our consumption patterns continue, we are likely to run out of them soon. Since our energy requirements are mostly fulfilled by such resources, we will be in trouble. Another, perhaps more significant concern with the use of such resources, is the generation of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane. The increased concentration of these gases in our atmosphere has been correlated to an increase in global temperature, commonly referred to as global warming.

The conservation of these resources is possible by either replacing them, minimizing their consumption and/or using such resources more efficiently. Renewable resources such as solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, etc., can be used to replace non-renewable resources. We can also use more efficient energy generation practices and more efficient devices to minimize the consumption of non-renewable resources.

Hope this helps. 

What do stars symbolize in Romeo and Juliet?

At the beginning of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, the two young lovers are described as "star-crossed." The use of the term "stars" in this context refers to an astrological interpretation of the positions and movements of the stars.

Many people believed in astrology in this period, thinking that the stars influenced or gave signs concerning the events in people's lives. Under this system, people's characters and fortunes were determined by the configuration of the stars when they were born.

Behind this was the notion that the stars and planets circled around the earth borne on crystal spheres. The lowest of the spheres was that of the moon (the lunary sphere) which divided earth from the heavens. The moon and objects farther away from earth had a unique and special connection to God and thus expressed divine will and foreknowledge.

The stars therefore symbolized fate, predestination, and the will of God. 

What are strong examples of assonance, consonance, alliteration, repetition and rhyme in "The Hamilton Mixtape"?

"The Hamilton Mixtape" could refer to a couple of things (the entire play, the forthcoming album remix), but I'll answer this question as it refers to Hamilton's opening song, "Alexander Hamilton" from Lin-Manuel Miranda's popular "Hamilton Mixtape" YouTube video (linked below, along with lyrics).

1. 
   Assonance is the repetition of a vowel sound in two or more words that are close together, but start with different consonant sounds (e.g. "Go out and mow the back yard."). In the Hamilton Mixtape, we see an example in the line: "dropped in the middle of a forgotten spot" where the "o" sound in each word is similar. Alternative: "Then a hurricane came and / Devastation reigned."


2. 
   Consonance is the repetitive sound caused by similar consonants in a phrase, frequently used to reinforce a theme or clarify imagery (e.g. came, home, and time all make use of the "m" sound). In the Hamilton Mixtape, we see an example in the line: "He would've been dead or destitute / without a cent of restitution." We get the same "s" sound in all three words.


3. 
   Alliteration is the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of words close to together. In the Hamilton Mixtape, we see an example in the line: "The brother was ready to beg steal borrow or barter" where the "b" sound is repeated.


4. An example of repetition can be found in the the repeated use of the phrase "Alexander Hamilton" by various members of the cast during the song. It's used to build tension, to introduce the character/play, and ties the entire song together around this character, telling the audience that the play is about this man.


5. 
   Rhyme, unlike consonance, generally comes only at the end of a word: "Connected it to his brain / And he wrote his first refrain / A testament to his pain".

What is Lucie's "thread"? She represents the golden thread, but what is the actual thread in A Tale of Two Cities?

The "thread" is a golden hair from Lucie's head that matches the golden hair which Dr. Manette has kept in a little rag around his neck during his eighteen-year imprisonment. It acts as a metaphorical thread to sew together his tragic past and delusions with his memories.

This "thread" of Lucie's connects the present with the past--sews time together, as it were. For, upon seeing it, Dr. Manette realizes Lucie's hair must somehow belong to the other hairs that he has kept for so long. The thread brings back some of Manette's memory: 

He took her hair into his hand again, and looked closely at it. "It is the same. How can it be! When was it! How was it!"

Then Dr. Manette relates how his lovely wife laid her head on his shoulders, fearing his departure so long ago, though he had no apprehensions. But, she was, of course, right. When Manette was incarcerated in the North Tower of the Bastille, the jailers found the long golden hairs on him. So, Manette requested that he be allowed to keep them, saying that they would help him escape in spirit, at least.

As he sits staring at her hair, Lucie comforts him and tells him that at another time her name will be revealed. She holds him and lies on the floor with him when he collapses, comforting the poor man. But, she does not yet reveal that she is his daughter.

Who is to blame for the deaths of Romeo and Juliet?

This is an often-considered question and you should definitely check out the link below for further discussion. I consider myself somewhat biased in this analysis because I always felt as though Juliet portrayed such maturity and loyalty that she did not deserve to be mixed up with such a childish young man as Romeo. She was only thirteen years old, yet the adults around her and the man she chose to love let her down. In my opinion, then (and it simply comes down to a subjective analysis), Romeo is most at fault for three reasons stemming from his inability to listen to the truth.

First, he should have listened to himself. In Act I, Scene 4 after Mercutio's narcissistic Queen Mab speech, Romeo tells the audience in an aside that he feels whatever comes next (he's on his way to Capulet's party) will lead to his death. He says,

I fear too early, for my mind misgives
Some consequence yet hanging in the stars
Shall bitterly begin his fearful date
With this night’s revels, and expire the term
Of a despisèd life closed in my breast
By some vile forfeit of untimely death.

Romeo is right. He will meet Juliet at the party and set in motion a tragic sequence of events. He does have, however, two more chances to listen and act accordingly.

In Act II, Scene 2, the balcony scene, Juliet urges Romeo to go home and think about things before going any further. She thinks she has been too forward and their love has moved too quickly. She says,

Although I joy in thee,
I have no joy of this contract tonight.
It is too rash, too unadvised, too sudden,
Too like the lightning, which doth cease to be
Ere one can say “It lightens.” Sweet, good night.
This bud of love, by summer’s ripening breath,
May prove a beauteous flower when next we meet.

Of course Romeo doesn't listen to her and jumps into his proposal of marriage. Juliet is too smitten not to agree. She is in love, probably for the first time in her life, and is easily led. Romeo has one more chance to listen as he seeks out Friar Laurence.

Three times Friar Laurence advises Romeo to slow down and not get carried away by his emotions. In Act II, Scene 3, after he has unwisely agreed to marry Romeo and Juliet, the Friar says,

Wisely and slow. They stumble that run fast.

The Friar sends mixed messages but is again pleading with Romeo for patience during the marriage scene, Act II, Scene 6. He says,

Therefore love moderately. Long love doth so.
Too swift arrives as tardy as too slow.

Romeo is deaf to the Friar's counsel. He is impetuous and carried away by his love for Juliet.

Romeo shows his true lack of maturity after the violence in Act III, Scene 1. After killing Tybalt, he hides at the Friar's cell and is distraught when he is told he has been banished. He whines and throws himself on the floor until Friar Laurence calms him down. The Friar wants Romeo to be patient, go into exile, let things get back to normal and then allow the Friar to announce the marriage. The Friar believes that all will end happily if Romeo can only show some resolve. He says in Act III, Scene 3,

But look thou stay not till the watch be set,
For then thou canst not pass to Mantua,
Where thou shalt live till we can find a time
To blaze your marriage, reconcile your friends,
Beg pardon of the Prince, and call thee back
With twenty hundred thousand times more joy
Than thou went’st forth in lamentation.

The Friar's good intentions are dashed in the end. His plot for Juliet to fake her death is foiled by circumstance (Friar John is delayed) and Romeo's typically emotional response to hearing the news of Juliet's death.

Romeo had three chances to step back, analyze the situation and act as an adult. He should have heeded his instincts and listened to his own misgivings about his future. He could have listened to Juliet and not rushed into marriage in the heat of his infatuation for her. Finally, he should have listened to the Friar and loved "moderately." Instead, he acted without thinking throughout the course of the drama, and it cost both his life and Juliet's.

Who is more evil, Macbeth or Lady Macbeth?

Shakespeare gives numerous clues throughout the text as to which character truly is the leader in the conspiracy to kill King Duncan. Even though the witches plant the seed of ambition in Macbeth's head in Scene 1, he would never have the guts to do something as black as murder the reigning king without pressure from Lady Macbeth. She, as his wife, knows him best, and says of him:

"Glamis thou art, and Cawdor; and shalt be What thou art promised: yet do I fear thy nature; It is too full o' the milk of human kindness To catch the nearest way: thou wouldst be great; Art not without ambition, but without The illness should attend it: what thou wouldst highly, That wouldst thou holily; wouldst not play false..." (Act 1 Scene 5).

She states that though Macbeth may have ambition and potential for greatness, he is too good to act in any false way to attain his goals. This is where she decides to become the influence he needs to make quick work to fulfill the prophecy. She calls upon evil spirits to fill her with evil power. Read the whole scene to get the full effect.

"Come, you spirits That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here, And fill me from the crown to the toe top-full Of direst cruelty!" (Act 1, Scene 5).

Later in the play, her dominant role is reinforced when Macbeth has second thoughts about the murder (Act 1, Scene 7). She tells him he cannot call himself a man unless he does the deed. Throughout the whole ordeal, Macbeth is clearly struggling with fear and guilt, while his wife is undaunted. After the murder is complete, Macbeth is the first to hear voices and suffer fear of being discovered--Lady Macbeth again becomes the voice of rationality,

"MACBETH:

I'll go no more: I am afraid to think what I have done; Look on't again I dare not.

LADY MACBETH:

Infirm of purpose! Give me the daggers: the sleeping and the dead Are but as pictures: 'tis the eye of childhood That fears a painted devil. If he do bleed, I'll gild the faces of the grooms withal; For it must seem their guilt" (Act 2 Scene 2).

In all of these scenes, Lady Macbeth seems to be the voice of darkness and temptation for Macbeth. Yes, he does commit the murders of Duncan and his servants, but after Lady Macbeth goads him to go through with it. After all of this, the spirits of darkness that she called upon at first seem to have abandoned her to her guilt and fear, and she dies having lost her mind.

How can improper methods, or a lack of systematic research create false beliefs about social reality?

Lack of proper research methods will inject false beliefs about the social reality through either assumption or bias.  When these influences are applied to sociological study the outcome becomes skewed in unpredictable ways and can further compound the problem by substantiating incorrect conclusions or beliefs.  The danger of relying on improper research is obfuscating the original problem with unrelated or non-existent tangents.

Assumption error occurs in research when researchers accept a key component of their model without properly verification.  Assumptions are a key part of research but need to be vetted and eliminated whenever possible.  For example, if a survey is taken of the public it may be assumed people are telling the truth.  Some research will allow for anonymous surveys to help reduce stigma attached to socially awkward questions.  The modifications is one manner the researcher can verify their assumption of truthfulness.  When a researcher fails to control for assumptions the assumptions often become confused with fact leading to false conclusions.

Bias error occurs when a bias or prejudiced is introduced into the research.  The error may be intentional or unintentional, but will result in skewed analysis based on inflated data sets.  Bias error can occur in any research step.  Once it occurs it will taint the remainder of the research.  When researching a social question, bias can limit the researchers view of the problem based on their own experience.  Narrow research will result in narrow data that can only be applied in specific circumstances rather than projected to a larger social reality. 

Bias error is one method which can also be intentionally used to create a false narrative.  When creating a survey, limiting the choices can introduce a bias and provide the researcher with information which appears to support their bias.  For example, suppose a question is aimed to determine whether you believe a transgender person should use the bathroom of their biological sex.  The answers you have to choose are "yes" or "no".  Although it seems benign, the bias is that those are the only or the best two options.   The data does not account for people who believe another restroom category should be created, or unisex bathrooms utilized, or family restrooms used.

Assumption error caused problems in research because it often creates unconnected questions or encourages research into irrelevant areas because false information was accepted as fact.  Bias error is the opposite and limits research because it forces data to conform to a predetermined belief or position.

How is Holden a liar in J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye?

Holden is a liar because he blatantly lies to people. He even admits it at the beginning of chapter three, as follows:

"I'm the most terrific liar you ever saw in your life. It's awful. If I'm on my way to the store to buy a magazine, even, and somebody asks me where I'm going, I'm liable to say I'm going to the opera. It's terrible" (16).

The interesting thing about Holden is that he generally lies to adults because he doesn't trust them. The only adult he probably doesn't lie to is Mr. Antolini, a former teacher and family friend from the Elkton Hills school. To every other adult, he lies right to their faces. Sometimes he feels guilty and other times he thinks it is hilarious. 

One of the best scenes where Holden continues to lie for an extended time is on the train to New York. He meets a classmate's mother--Ernest Morrow's--and other than telling her the truth that he goes to Pencey and knows her son, he lies the whole time. First, he tells her his name is Rudolf Schmidt, the janitor's name from the school. When he offers her a cigarette, she says, "I don't think this is a smoker, Rudolf," which amuses him because his lie has worked by her calling him Rudolf (55).

Then, she tells him that his nose is bleeding and he lies about having been hit by an icy snowball. He really had just been in a fight with his roommate, but he doesn't want to tell her that because he's starting to like her. As a result of the nice conversation, and Holden liking her, he says, "I was beginning to feel sort of sorry I'd told her my name was Rudolf Schmidt" (56).

In an effort to make up for feeling guilty about lying to Mrs. Morrow, Holden decides to lie even more by telling her only good things about her son Ernest. He tells her he is popular and turned down a nomination for class president. Finally, when Mrs. Morrow asks why he's going home earlier than Wednesday, he says he has to have an operation and she is shocked. But then Holden admits the following:

"Then I started reading this timetable I had in my pocket. Just to stop lying. Once I get started, I can go on for hours if I feel like it. No kidding. Hours" (58).

So Holden is an elaborate liar when he has a captive audience. In a way, he's like a storyteller, not unlike his brother D.B. But Holden uses lying for practical reasons--his privacy for one. Then he feels badly when he starts to like the person he's lying to. This shows that he does have a conscience, but he doesn't trust people enough to open up to strangers; so, he will resort to lying as a protective cover at first.

What are cataracts?

Causes and Symptoms

Cataracts are imperfections in the clarity of the eye lens that reduce its ability
to transmit light. They are a very common medical problem, especially among
persons over the age of fifty. Cataracts do not cause pain, redness, tears, or
other discomforts of the eye. The initial symptom is a gradual deterioration of
vision, usually in one eye at a time.
There is no known treatment other than to remove the lens surgically, with or
without the introduction of an intraocular artificial lens. After surgery, neither
the lens nor the cataracts can grow back.

In a discussion of cataracts, it is helpful to review the structure of the human
eye. The eye is often compared to a camera lens. The camera
lens, however, can be moved back and forth slightly to focus on objects at
different distances, whereas the eye lens is squeezed into a thicker shape by
muscular action to change its focus. Both camera and eye have a variable-size
diaphragm to regulate the amount of light that is admitted.

When light enters the eye, it first encounters a transparent, tough outer skin
called the cornea. There are no blood vessels in the cornea, but many
nerve cells make it sensitive to touch or other irritation. Immediately behind the
cornea is the clear aqueous fluid that carries oxygen and nutrients for cell
metabolism. Next comes the colored portion, the iris of the eye, with a
variable-size opening at its center called the pupil. The pupil has no color but
rather looks black. A person looking at his or her own eye in a mirror and then
shining a flashlight on it can see the black pupil quickly shrink in size.

Next comes the lens of the eye, surrounded by an elastic membrane called the lens
capsule. The lens is suspended by ligaments, or short
strands, which are attached to a sphincter muscle. When the muscle contracts, the
lens becomes thicker in the middle, thus increasing its focusing strength. The
transparent lens has no blood vessels, so its metabolism is provided by the
aqueous fluid. Behind the lens is the vitreous fluid, which fills about two-thirds
of the eyeball and maintains its oval shape. At the back of the eye is the retina,
where special visual cells convert light into electrical signals that travel to
the brain via nerve fibers.

The lens of the eye is not simply a homogeneous fluid, but has a unique, internal
structure and growth pattern. It continues to grow larger throughout the life of
the individual. New cells originate at the front surface of the lens, just inside
the capsule enclosure. These cells divide and grow into fibers that migrate toward
the middle of the lens. The protein molecules in the nucleus are less soluble and
more rigid than those in the outer part of the lens, becoming thicker and less
flexible. By the age of forty, in most people, the firm nucleus has enlarged until
the lens has lost much of its elasticity. Even with considerable muscular strain,
the curvature of the lens surface will no longer bulge enough to focus on nearby
objects. The eye loses its power of accommodation, and reading glasses will be
needed.

The mechanism by which cataracts form in the lens is not yet clearly understood.
Like the loss of accommodation, however, it is a normal part of the aging process.
As the tissues in the lens break down, they can clump together and create cloudy
patches that occlude the vision. One proposed biochemical explanation is the
Maillard reaction, in which glucose and protein molecules combine when heated to
form a brown product. The Maillard reaction is responsible for the browning of
bread or cookies during baking. The same process is thought to occur even at body
temperature, though very slowly over a period of years. Some scientists have
theorized that wrinkled skin, hardening of the arteries, and other normal features
of aging may be caused by this biochemical reaction. The biochemistry of aging is
an active area of research, in which the deterioration of the eye lens is only one
example.

The most common symptom of cataracts is a loss of clear vision that cannot be
corrected with eyeglasses; among the indicators of cataract-related vision loss
are reduced night vision, loss of color contrast and intensity, inability to
focus, double vision, and increased sensitivity
to glare. Brighter lighting can partially help to overcome the blockage of light
transmission. However, there is one paradoxical situation reported by some
patients, whose vision becomes worse in bright light. The explanation for this
problem is that brightness causes the pupil to become smaller. If the cataract is
centered right in the middle of the lens, it will block a larger fraction of the
incoming light. In dimmer light, the pupil opening is larger, so light can pass
through the clear periphery of the lens.

By far the most common cataracts are those attributable to normal aging, called
age-related cataracts. Secondary cataracts can also develop due to trauma, toxic
exposure, intraocular disease, or systemic disease. Exposure to x-rays or nuclear
radiation will increase the probability
of cataracts, and the eye lens seems to be particularly sensitive to the effects
of ionizing radiation. Certain medications such as steroids increase the risk of
cataracts. A blow to the eye from a sports injury or an accident can lead to a
cataract. Diabetes mellitus and hypoparathyroidism also increase the
risk of developing cataracts. Intraocular diseases such as chronic uveitis and
retinitis
pigmentosa can also lead to cataract formation. Some studies
have suggested that electric shock, ultraviolet rays, or certain environmental
pollutants may be other causes.

Some babies are born with cataracts. These congenital cataracts are frequently
associated with the mother having had German measles (rubella) during the first three months of pregnancy; they
are also commonly found with a number of genetic disorders, such as
Down syndrome and trisomy 13. Congenital
cataracts are characterized by an infant having cloudy pupils, moving the eye
rapidly, and/or appearing unable to see. For moderate and severe cases, surgery on
the infant’s eye must be done with little delay to prevent permanent
blindness due to amblyopia.

Cataracts are much more prevalent in developing nations as compared to
industrialized countries. It is not clear yet what roles genetics, diet, and life
habits may play in cataract formation. Genetic factors are thought to account for
nearly 50 percent of the variation in the severity of cataracts. The evidence is
not conclusive, and further studies are needed. What causes cataracts is much less
understood than how to treat them surgically.

Treatment and Therapy

When cataracts begin to form in the eye lens, no medication can remove them and
they will not get better on their own. The patient’s vision will continue to
deteriorate as the cataracts develop, although the process may be quite slow.
Fortunately, modern techniques of surgery for cataract removal have a success rate
of better than 95 percent.

When a patient's eye examination reveals the onset of cataracts (as a result of
aging), he or she is referred to an ophthalmologist, who assesses the need for
surgery. If surgery is not needed immediately, the ophthalmologist may recommend
more frequent, semiannual checkups. Reading or other eye-straining activities will
not accelerate cataract growth, but brighter lighting and better eyeglasses will
help the patient to see more clearly. Over the course of several years, the
cataracts slowly darken and increase in size. Eventually, distance vision may
deteriorate markedly in one or both eyes, and the ability of the patient to drive
a car or perform other normal activities becomes seriously impaired. Surgery is
then indicated. Operation on one eye while the other one is still fairly clear is
recommended.

Once the decision has been made to go ahead with surgery, it is necessary for the
patient to have a thorough physical examination. The doctor checks for possible
health problems that could complicate cataract surgery.
Among these are diabetes, high blood pressure,
kidney disease, anemia, and glaucoma (excess pressure in
the eye). Extracting the cataractous lens and implanting an artificial one may be
done at the same time. If the introduction of an artificial intraocular lens is
not possible due to other eye problems, then the lens is removed and the patient's
vision is corrected with eyeglasses or contact lenses. Before proceeding with
surgery, the ophthalmologist must determine what the proper strength of the
implant lens should be, so that light will focus properly on the retina.

On the day of the surgery, an injection is given to make the patient drowsy, and
eye drops are administered to dilate the patient's pupil. Gradually, more eye
drops are administered to produce a large dilation, so that access to the lens is
easier. In the operating room, local anesthetic is injected to keep the eyelids
from closing and to deaden the normally very sensitive surface of the cornea. To
prepare for surgery, a microscope is moved into place above the eye. Making an
incision in the cornea, removing the defective lens, inserting and fastening the
artificial lens, and finally closing the incision with a very fine needle and
thread are all performed by the surgeon while looking through the microscope. Its
magnification and focus controls are operated using foot pedals, so that both of
the surgeon’s hands are free.

A common method of cataract surgery is called extracapsular extraction, in which
the lens is removed while the capsule is left in the eye. The advantage is that
the unbroken back surface of the capsule can prevent leakage of fluid from the
rear of the eye and therefore can decrease the chances for damage to the retina. A
disadvantage is that small fragments of the lens may remain behind, causing a
slight risk of infection or irritation. The recuperation period is about one
month, during which time the patient must avoid strenuous activity to permit
thorough healing.

Another method of cataract surgery is called phacoemulsification. An ultrasonic
probe is used to emulsify, or break up, the lens. The small pieces are then
suctioned out of the capsule while fluid is washed into the opening. The main
advantage of emulsification is that the incisions can be smaller than the incision
for extracapsular extraction, because the lens is brought out in fragments, not as
a whole. This method requires specialized training, however, because surgeons must
learn to operate the microscope, the ultrasonic generator, and the suction
apparatus with their feet while manipulating the probe with their hands. After the
eye lens has been extracted, an artificial intraocular lens (IOL) may be inserted
in its place.

To complete the surgery, the incision in the cornea is closed. During the
recuperation period, the patient is instructed to avoid strenuous exercise and to
protect the eye from any hard contact. Normally, there is little pain, although
some eye irritation should be expected during the healing process. An IOL has a
fixed focal length, with no power of accommodation for different distances. It is
like a box camera that gives a good picture at a set distance, while near and far
objects are somewhat blurry. After the eye has healed thoroughly, the patient is
fitted with prescription glasses for reading and for distance vision,
respectively.

A number of minor complications can develop after cataract surgery. Between 10 and
50 percent of the patients develop a secondary cataract, which is a clouding of
the capsule membrane just behind the implant. This condition is easily corrected
with a laser beam to open the membrane, requiring no surgery. Another potential
complication is astigmatism. The eye is squeezed and
flattened slightly, and the curvature of the surface will differ between the
flattened and the more rounded regions. During surgery, the symmetry of the
corneal surface can be distorted if some sutures are tighter than others.
Astigmatism is relatively easy to correct with prescription glasses. For infants
who undergo cataract removal surgery, infection, inflammation, and bleeding pose
slight risks.

All operations have some risks, and a small percentage of cataract surgeries can
lead to serious complications. Among these are a detached
retina, glaucoma caused by
scar tissue, and hemorrhage into the vitreous fluid in front of the retina.
Fortunately, such problems are rare, and the percentage of successful eye
surgeries continues to improve.

Perspective and Prospects

In the history of medicine, surgery for cataracts has been traced back to Roman times. The method was called “couching.” The physician would insert a needle through the white of the eye into the lens and try to push the lens down out of the line of vision, leaving it in the eyeball. The procedure must have been painful, with a high chance for infection. The complete extraction of a lens from the eye was done for the first time in 1745. A French ophthalmologist named Jacques Daviel was performing a couching operation but was unable to push the lens out of the line of sight. On the spur of the moment, he decided to make a small cut in the cornea, through which he was able to extract the lens. The operation was successful. During the following ten years, he repeated his procedure more than four hundred times with only fifty failures, a much better result than with couching.

A major advance in eye surgery was the
discovery of local anesthesia by Karl Koller in 1884. Together with the famous
psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, Koller had been investigating the psychological
effects of cocaine. He noticed that his tongue became numb from the drug and
wondered if a drop of cocaine solution locally applied to the eyes might work as
an anesthetic. He tried it first on a frog’s eye and then on himself, and the
cocaine made his eye numb. He published a short article, and the news spread to
other physicians. Synthetic substitutes such as novocaine were developed and came
into common use, thereafter making eye surgery virtually painless.

When the lens of the eye is surgically removed, it becomes impossible to focus
light on the retina. A strong replacement lens is needed. For example, the French
painter Claude Monet had cataract surgery in the 1920s, and photographs show him
with the typical thick cataract glasses of that time. Today, contact lenses or
artificial lens implants are much better alternatives to restore good vision.

The recovery period after cataract surgery used to be several weeks of bed rest,
with the head kept absolutely still, because the cut in the cornea had to heal
itself without any stitches. The development of microsurgery made it possible for
the surgeon to see the extremely fine thread and needle that can be used for
closing the cut. With stitches in place, the patient can usually carry on normal
activities within a day after surgery.

In the 1960s, the cryoprobe and the ultrasound probe were developed to replace forceps for removing an eye lens. The size of the required incision was smaller and the healing time correspondingly shorter. In the 1980s, reliable lens implants became available, making near-normal vision possible again. In the future, perhaps drugs can be found that will prevent or delay the onset of cataracts, so that surgery will not be necessary. Further research is needed to obtain a better understanding of biochemical changes in the eye lens that occur with aging.

Bibliography

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What could I put in the "early life" section of a PowerPoint presentation about José Julián Martí Pérez?

The man commonly known as Jose Martí is also called "El Apóstol," or "The Apostle," among Latin American writers, historians, and pro-Cuban liberation politicians alike. His vast body of work extends to a myriad of fields. However, a good way to start out a presentation about him would be to show how he ended up in the situation that made him into such an iconic figure.

He is the son of Spanish immigrants who went to Cuba. His father was Don Mariano Martí y Navarro, from Valencia, Spain, and Doña Leonor Pérez Cabrera, from Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands. José grew up in Cuba, but did pay a couple of visits to Spain growing up. He lived in Spain from 1857 to 1859 and then returned to Cuba. As a child, he went to the Colegio de San Anacleto, directed by headmaster Rafael Sixto Casado, and then he went to the Colegio de San Pablo, with headmaster Rafael María de Mendive, who was his biggest influence. As a teenager he went to school at the Municipal School for Boys on March 19, 1869. This was essentially a lyceum where the arts and humanities would be the focus. He was always an excellent artist in every way, but he did not find success at this.

Keep in mind that José was extremely precocious. He started out really early in life, which is interesting, considering that his life ended up being very short. Many think that he was born knowing that he would be dead young, and that his spirit always told him to work fast, and work effectively.

This being said, it was not until he became a teenager that he discovered his ability to write. In 1870 he got into trouble for his anti-colonial expressions published in the press. At age 17 he was sentenced to hard labor for his views, condemned for six years. During his exile to Spain, he studied law at the Central University of Madrid and later at the University of Zaragoza. He completed his degree in 1874.

For more information on Martí, go to the link provided, and to the Cuban liberation and Spanish American War pages.

Can you help me analyse this image? I am looking for how the image highlights the internal and external factors that impact Macbeth's actions in...

I think you have a good start.  I would agree with your observations, and add to them:

The fire is very significant.  In the image, it is literally inside Macbeth.  It is consuming him from within, just as his ambition, jealousy and later paranoia consume him from within.  First, these qualities lead to his moral disintegration, and eventually his physical death.  Once a fire is started, it tends to spread out of control.  That is what happens to Macbeth.  Once he starts on the path of illicit violence, his choice sets in motion forces both within and outside of himself that he cannot control. 

Note also that the fire is burning in the background of the battle scene.  It is consuming Scotland as well as Macbeth.  This is appropriate, because Macbeth and Lady Macbeth between them manage to do a lot of damage to the whole country.  So, the fire is an internal force that eventually becomes an external one when the inner burning starts to have outer effects.  

I am not sure the battle scene is showing Macbeth's glorious past as a soldier.  It may be the final battle in which Macbeth meets his end, to the great loss of Scotland. 

Note that in the image, almost every other image is "inside" Macbeth.  I think this suggests that they are almost all internal forces.  Their influence interacts with Macbeth's secret desires to cause him to take the actions he does.  

For example, the witches give an ambiguous prophecy which turns out not to be true in the sense that it first appears.  But Macbeth, hearing it through the filter of his pride and ambition, takes the prophecy as a license to go ahead with his coup.  

Similarly, Lady Macbeth (note the cold look on her face) influences her husband by giving him a rationale or justification for acting out his darkest desires.  He would not have given in to her urging unless there was a similar desire in himself, alongside his conscience which initially held him back. 

Not having seen the movie, I am not sure whether Banquo appears in this image.  His ghost might be suggested by the ruin or graveyard that is visible behind the witches, or even by the stained-glass window at the top of the image. 

I assume that the figure on horseback looking out over a cliff is Macbeth himself, but it could possibly be Banquo.  Both are, in a sense, in a position of looking out over Scotland (either to rule or seek what is best for Scotland), and both find themselves poised on the edge of destruction.

Hope this helps. 

What factors stimulated Progressivism?

There were many factors that stimulated the growth of the Progressive Movement. The muckrakers played a big role in doing this. They wrote about abuses in various areas of society. Their writings influenced the movement to bring about changes in these areas.

Upton Sinclair wrote about the unsanitary conditions in the meat industry. His book, The Jungle, exposed the practices that existed in the meat industry. This led to changes in laws dealing with the processing of food.

Lincoln Steffens wrote about how money influenced the political system in his book, The Shame of the Cities. This book, along with feelings that the common person was not very involved in the political system, led to a series of changes designed to give the average person a greater role in the political system. The initiative, referendum, and recall were introduced into the political system. Eventually, the American people got the right to choose their senators.

John Spargo, in his book, The Bitter Cry of the Children, wrote about issues with child labor. This book eventually led to the passage of child labor laws, which required kids to attend school and limited their ability to work.

There was a feeling that the average person was being squeezed by big businesses and the wealthy. This led to the passage of the Clayton Antitrust Act in 1914. It also led to the development of worker compensation laws, as well as laws dealing with workplace safety.

There were several factors that led to the growth of the Progressive Movement.

In Animal Farm, how does Orwell use the narrative voice to portray Clover's distress in Chapter Seven?

In Chapter Seven of Animal Farm, Napoleon takes his brutal revenge on the animals who have questioned his authority. In the aftermath, Clover has a pensive moment on the knoll, prompting a change in Orwell's narrative voice.

What is most striking in this portrayal of Clover's distress is the use of setting. Using heavy description, Orwell portrays Clover in a "clear spring evening," amid the "young wheat" and the "red roofs" of the farm buildings. This idyllic world filled with beauty and equality contrasts sharply with the preceding paragraphs in which Napoleon exacts his revenge amid the "tumult" and violence.

In addition, Orwell's narrative style gives Clover a voice:

If she could have spoken her thoughts, it would have been to say that this was not what they had aimed at when they had set themselves years ago to work for the overthrow of the human race. 

In doing this, Orwell allows Clover and the reader to connect. This enables the reader to understand and empathize with Clover and the other animals as they come to the stark realization that Napoleon is just as brutal as Mr. Jones ever was.

How many moles of aluminum are required to react completely with 18 moles of H2SO4?

Step 1: Write the balanced reaction between Al and `~H_2SO_4` .

The balanced equation for this reaction is:

`~2Al` + `~3H_2SO_4` -> `~Al_2(SO_4)_3` + `~3H_2`

Step 2: Determine the given amount, unit, and substance.

The given amount, unit, and substance is: 18 moles of `~H_2SO_4` .

Step 3: Determine the final unit and substance.

The final unit and substance is: moles of Al.

Step 4: Determine the ratio of moles of Al to `~H_2SO_4` .

The ratio of moles between two substances can be described by the coefficients of the substances in the reaction. The coefficient of Al in the reaction is 2. The coefficient of `~H_2SO_4` in the reaction is 3. Therefore, the ratio of Al moles to `~H_2SO_4` is 2 to 3. 

Mole ratios can be written as fractions:

    2 moles Al/3 moles `~H_2SO_4`  OR  3 mole `~H_2SO_4` /2 moles Al

Step 5: Set up the calculation.

The calculation will take the general form:

    given amount x mole ratio

    18 mol `~H_2SO_4 ` x (2 moles Al/3 moles `~H_2SO_4`) = 12 mol of Al

Notice that the mole ratio is oriented such that moles of `~H_2SO_4` is on the bottom. This way, moles of `~H_2SO_4` cancel out and we are left with moles of Al.

Did Christianity transform Rome or did Rome change Christianity?

I think it could be said that Christianity and Rome had a significant effect on each other.  Having said that, Christianity benefited more from the relationship, with many historians believing that the religion may have had a hand in the downfall of Rome.  The upstart religion had the effect of changing the culture and tradition of the empire of Rome, which is something that some historians point to as a cause of the fall.  On the other hand, when the Roman Empire adopted Christianity — first making it legal, then christening it as the official religion — Christianity automatically gained millions of converts.  In 380 AD, Christianity gained prominence in Rome and it became illegal to worship other gods.  This allowed the church to develop an economic and political structure that permitted it to become one of the dominant forces in Europe for centuries to come.  

Who is Lady Bracknell in The Importance of Being Earnest?

Lady Bracknell is Algernon Moncrieff's aunt and the mother of Gwendolyn, Jack Worthing's love interest.  Also, at the end of the play, we find out that Jack and Algernon are actually brothers who were separated when Miss Prism, Jack's governess, accidentally abandoned him in a handbag in the cloak room at Victoria Station.  This means Lady Bracknell is actually Jack's Aunt Augusta as well as Algernon's, making Jack and Gwendolyn cousins. 

She is a member of the upper class, although it doesn't sound as though that was always necessarily the case.  She claims that though she had no money when she met Lord Bracknell, she didn't let that prevent her from marrying him.  Lady Bracknell is incredibly intimidating and overbearing, making life for Gwendolyn less enjoyable than it could be and making Gwendolyn and Jack's courtship more difficult than it should be.  She also very much values wealth, as shown by her treatment of Cecily.

What is The Brotherhood in 1984?

In 1984, the Brotherhood is first mentioned in Part One, Chapter One, and is described as a secret organization which rebels against the Party. Its head is Emmanuel Goldstein, the enemy of the state of Oceania:

He was the commander of a vast, shadowy army, an underground network of conspirators dedicated to the overthrow of the state.

Because of their secretive nature, the very existence of the Brotherhood is questioned by Winston. In Part One, Chapter Seven, for instance, he refers to it as "the legendary Brotherhood" because he does not understand how its members can assemble when the watchful eye of Big Brother seems ever present. In fact, it is only when Winston goes to O'Brien's apartment in Part Two, Chapter Eight, that he changes his mind. This is because O'Brien tells him that the Brotherhood is real and that their activities, like sabotage and blackmail, are designed to "cause demoralization" and to "weaken the power of the Party."

In addition, O'Brien informs Winston that once he has read 'the book,' he will be a full member of the Brotherhood. This book, penned by Emmanuel Goldstein, outlines the corrupt nature of the Party and provides the ideological justification for rebellion. O'Brien gives a copy of the book to Winston in the next chapter.  

Unfortunately for Winston, he has been the victim of a terrible ruse: Emmanuel Goldstein and the Brotherhood are the false creations of the Party and the book is, in fact, written by O'Brien and other Party members. For his rebellion, Winston faces imprisonment and torture in the Ministry of Truth, with no hope of The Brotherhood, or any fellow rebels, coming to save him. 

What is an example of burning (with quotes) in Fahrenheit 451?

In Fahrenheit 451, "burning" takes on literal and figurative meaning. Here is an example from Part 3 of the novel:

He burnt the bedroom walls and the cosmetics chest because he wanted to change everything. . . everything that showed that he had lived here in this empty house with a strange woman who would forget him tomorrow.

Here, Montag gladly sets fire to his own home because he is fed up with the government's control over the lives of people. Montag decides not to run and to do the "clean-up" of his own home. He wants to destroy the house because it represents the "empty" life he has lived there with Mildred, who is more content to listen to the radio and watch television shows than she is to have a relationship with Montag. For Montag, the burning is a release and a chance to start over. Beatty arrests Montag after this event, so the burning is a signal to all that Montag has been caught in possession of books, but for Montag, the burning is a step towards his intellectual freedom.

On page 115 of Lyddie by Katherine Paterson, what payment does Lyddie receive?

Lyddie receives fifty dollars from Ezekial on page 115 of Lyddie by Katherine Paterson.

Earlier in the book, Lyddie met the runaway slave Ezekial.  Moments before parting, Lyddie decided to give Ezekial the money that she got from selling the calf in chapter two.  The calf sold for twenty-five dollars.  Ezekial refuses to take the money as a gift.  He is only willing to accept the money as a loan, and he promises to pay it back with interest, after he reaches the safety of Canada.  

The money that Lyddie receives on page 115 is Ezekial's repayment of Lyddie's loan, plus interest.  Lyddie can hardly believe it.  Fifty dollars is a lot of money, and the repayment of the loan allows Lyddie to begin thinking that she just might indeed be able to pay off the rest of the family debt.  

With one piece of paper her account had bulged like a cow about to freshen. She must find out at once what the debt was.  She might already have enough to cover it. 

In Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, what is the imprisonment of Scout Finch?

Based on Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, it can be said that one way in which Scout is imprisoned is through social restrictions. Since she is a girl, society, especially society in her time period, demands she behave in a certain way. Yet, Scout, being very independent, has her own views about how she wants to behave; she wants to behave as a tomboy.

We especially see Scout feeling imprisoned by society when she is around her Aunt Alexandra. Scout reports having quarrels with her aunt about her desires to wear overalls. When Aunt Alexandra moves in with the Finches to help raise the children by providing feminine influence, at one point, when Scout hears Aunt Alexandra and her father quarreling, she fears they are quarreling about Scout's behavior. More specifically, she fears Aunt Alexandra is trying to lay down some laws about how Scout should be being raised to behave. Scout reflects her fears in the following:

Who was the "her" they were talking about? My heart sank: me. I felt the starched walls of a pink cotton penitentiary closing in on me, and for the second time in my life I thought of running away. Immediately. (Ch. 15)

Scout's reference to the "walls of a pink cotton penitentiary" shows us just how imprisoned Scout is by society's idea of her female role.

Why was Two-Bit's trick on Johnny in Chapter 2 especially cruel?

In Chapter 2, Johnny and Ponyboy were sitting with two Soc girls, Cherry and Marcia, while they were watching a movie at the drive-in. All of a sudden, Two-Bit crept up behind them and put his hands on both of their shoulders and said, "Okay, greasers, you've had it!" (Hinton 25). Ponyboy mentions that he nearly jumped out of his skin because he was so scared. Ponyboy then looked at Johnny, whose face was as white as a ghost. Johnny's eyes were closed, and he was also gasping for air. Two-Bit's joke was especially cruel because Johnny had recently been beaten badly by a group of Socs. Johnny's face was nearly unrecognizable after the beating and he had been skittish ever since. Two-Bit acting like he was a Soc who wanted to fight Pony and Johnny brought back Johnny's terrible memory of getting jumped.

What was the outcome of the Vietnam War? Why was the Vietnam War important?

The final outcome of the Vietnam War was that North and South Vietnam were united under the Communist North in 1975 despite the best efforts of American servicemen who left the area following the Treaty of Paris in 1973.  The Vietnam War was important politically because it demonstrated that America would fight against Communist aggression.  However, it also proved that American traditional warfare was not prepared to fight against insurgencies and no matter how many bombs were dropped and how much herbicide was deployed in North Vietnam, America could not win against a determined enemy fighting on his own native soil.  The Vietnam War also helped to further destabilize governments in Laos and Cambodia and led to one of the largest genocides the world has ever witnessed.  The aftermath of the Vietnam War also created a refugee crisis as people who supported the South Vietnamese government left to get away from North Vietnamese attack.

Domestically, Vietnam was important because it created a rift between people and government as the White House told the American people that the Communists were losing but the Tet Offensive of 1968 proved otherwise.  The Vietnam War also led to the 26th Amendment giving 18-year-olds the right to vote in elections--this was important as this same group of young people was also being called upon to be drafted into the war.  After Vietnam, American military forces are now volunteers, though young men still have to register for the draft.  America was hesitant to send more troops into harm's way, and there are some that still use "Vietnam" as a synonym for military quagmire.  

Does the sap vacuole serve a function?

The sap vacuole serves a few different functions, depending on the organism.

In general sap vacuoles do more in plants than they do in animals, and are also generally larger. They function as a generalized storage space, storing everything from salts to proteins to waste for the rest of the cell. They often store substances that serve a particular function unique to that particular species, such as pigments or toxins, because substances inside the cell sap are isolated from the rest of the cell. As a result of this, many substances we harvest from plants are stored in their sap vacuoles, including rubber and opium.

In non-woody plants the sap vacuole is also typically pressurized by turgor pressure, which presses against the cell wall and gives the plant cells more rigidity.