What are paraphilias?

Background

A paraphilia can be centered on a particular object (animals, clothing, etc.) or on a particular act (inflicting pain, exhibitionism, etc.). A paraphilia is characterized by a preoccupation with the object or behavior to the point of dependence on that object or behavior for sexual gratification. Most paraphilias are much more common in men than in women.

Paraphilias are divided into three categories: sexual arousal and preference for nonhuman objects (as in fetishes and transvestism); sexual arousal and a preference for situations that involve suffering and humiliation (such as in sadism and masochism); and sexual arousal and preference for non-consenting partners, behaviors that include exhibitionism and voyeurism.

Specific Types of Paraphilia

Fetishism
. Fetishism involves sexual urges associated with nonliving, or inanimate, objects, including clothing items.

Frotteurism . Frotteurism is characterized by a man rubbing his genitals against a non-consenting, unfamiliar person.

Pedophilia
. Pedophilia is characterized by fantasies or behaviors that involve sexual activity with a child.

Sadomasochism
. Sexual masochism is a paraphilia in which one incorporates his or her sexual urges into suffering to achieve sexual excitement and climax. Sexual sadism involves persistent fantasies in which sexual excitement results from inflicting suffering on a sexual partner. Extreme sadism may involve illegal activities such as rape, torture, and murder.

Transvestism . Transvestism refers to the practice of dressing in clothes associated with the opposite sex to produce or enhance sexual arousal. Note that transvestic disorder only occurs when an individual's cross-dressing causes distress.

Voyeurism . Voyeurism involves achieving sexual arousal by observing an unsuspecting and non-consenting person who is undressing or unclothed or engaged in sexual activity. The voyeur does not seek contact with the person that he or she is observing.

Other paraphilias. Some paraphilias are relatively rare, and include apotemnophilia (sexual attraction to amputations), coprophilia and urophilia (sexual excitement derived from contact with human waste), zoophilia (sexual attraction to nonhuman animals), and necrophilia (sexual attraction to corpses).

Symptoms

A person with paraphilias is distinguished by the insistence and relative exclusivity with which his or her sexual gratification focuses on the acts or objects in question. For many, orgasm is not possible without the paraphilic act or object. Such individuals often have difficulty developing personal and sexual relationships with others and frequently exhibit compulsive behavior. Although it is not known for certain what causes paraphilia, some experts have theorized that paraphilias may develop in response to childhood trauma, such as sexual abuse.

Screening and Diagnosis

The American Psychiatric Association’s
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
lists two basic criteria for diagnosing paraphilia: one, the unusual sexual behavior should occur over a period of six months and, two, the sexual behavior causes a clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

The second criterion differs for some disorders. For pedophilia, voyeurism, exhibitionism, and frotteurism, the diagnosis is formulated if acting out on these urges or if the urge itself causes a significant distress or interpersonal difficulty. For sadism, a diagnosis is made if these urges involve a non-consenting person. For the other paraphilias, a diagnosis is made when the sexual behavior, urges, or fantasies cause substantial distress or disability in important areas of life.

Treatment and Therapy

Most cases of paraphilia are treated with counseling and therapy in an effort to help patients modify their behavior. Research suggests that cognitive-behavioral models are especially effective in treating persons with paraphilias. Group therapy involves breaking through the denial associated with paraphilias by surrounding the affected person with other people who share their disorder. Once they begin to admit that they have a sexual deviation, a therapist can address individual issues, such as past sexual abuse, that may have led to the disorder. Many physicians and therapists refer persons with paraphilias to twelve-step programs designed for sexual addicts. The programs incorporate cognitive restructuring with social support to increase awareness of the problem.

Also used in treatment are drugs called antiandrogens, which drastically lower testosterone levels in men temporarily. These medications help to decrease compulsiveness and reduce deviant sexual fantasies. In some cases, hormones such as medroxyprogesterone acetate (Depo-Provera) and cyproterone acetate (Androcur) are prescribed for persons who exhibit dangerous sexual behavior. These medications work by reducing one’s sex drive. Antidepressants such as fluoxetine (Prozac) work in a similar manner but have not been shown to effectively target sexual fantasies.

Bibliography

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Washington: APA, 2013. Print.

Bhugra, D. “Paraphilias across Cultures: Contexts and Controversies.” Journal of Sex Research 47.2–3 (2010): 242–315. Print.

Bradford, John M. W., and A. G. Ahmed, eds. Sexual Deviation: Assessment and Treatment. Philadelphia: Elsevier, June 2014. Digital file.

Laws, R. D., and W. T. O’Donohue, eds. Sexual Deviance: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford, 2008. Print.

Lehmiller, Justin J. The Psychology of Human Sexuality. Malden: Wiley, 2014. Print.

Wilson, Glenn, ed. Variant Sexuality. New York: Routledge, 2014. Digital file.

In J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye, how does Holden Caulfield's lack of self-discipline cause him to be an outcast?

One example of Holden feeling like a social outcast is at the beginning of The Catcher in the Rye. Holden is standing on a hill alone watching the school's Friday night game. He says that he's there because he forgot the fencing team's foils on the train that day while he was looking for their exit on a map. He claims that the team ostracized him the whole way back to the school because they missed their tournament. Consequently, he doesn't feel like joining them or the rest of the student body down at the game. What seems like an innocent accident could also be considered a lack of organization or self-discipline on Holden's part. 

Another example of Holden's lack of self-discipline is when he is on a date with Sally Hayes in Chapter 17. The couple has a great time enjoying each other's company until Holden starts thinking negative thoughts about Sally and a boy she talks to for a minute. He doesn't lose control until the end of the date when he asks Sally to run away with him. When she declines, based on logical reasoning, he feels rejected and says the following:

"C'mon, let's get outa here. . . You give me a royal pain in the ass, if you want to know the truth" (133).

Holden's impatience seals the fate of another friendship. Sally leaves in a huff and probably won't date him again.

One final example of Holden messing things up because he lacks self-control is when he meets Carl Luce, a former schoolmate from Whooton, at the Wicker Bar. This is a bar that serves a higher class of people. Holden goes to see if he will fit in with the very intelligent former student adviser. He hasn't see Luce in years and doesn't account for the fact that Luce has probably matured since being in high school. As a result, Holden bases his conversation on what Luce always talked about years ago--girls. Luce isn't impressed and Holden ends up saying the following about him: "Old Luce. He was strictly a pain in the ass, but he certainly had a good vocabulary" (149). 

Ultimately, Holden is still immature and seeking out ways to feel accepted among different types of people. His main problem is that he gets impatient, acts irrationally, and destroys the relationship before it has a chance to really take off. 

What are finals? Do they enable a student to pass? In college, if a student passes his or her finals, does this mean they will be getting a...

Simply put, finals are final examinations, tests, in a course.  They can be given at the middle school, high school, college level, and graduate level.  Elementary schools can have them, although some do not.  How much they matter and what you obtain from them depends on how the teacher or professor sets up the course.  I will go over some of the variations.

As a teacher is setting up a course, the teacher can decide how much the final exam score will count toward a final grade. For example, the finals I give count for 15% of a student's grade. This means it is an important test, but a student could actually do poorly on a final and have enough other good grades, for quizzes, papers, participation, projects, or mid-term (half-way through the course) exams to be able to pass the course and receive credit for it.  In some graduate schools, for example, in law school, there is only one exam, the final exam, and the student must pass that to pass and receive credit for that course. 

Finals can be what is called "cumulative." This means that the final exam includes everything you have learned from the beginning of the course, all the way through the course.  A final that is not cumulative will be one on which you are tested on just the most recent material covered, toward the end of the course. Most finals are cumulative.  We want to know that the student has mastered everything from beginning to end.

Finals can come in many forms, just like any other tests taken in school. They can ask questions that require short essay answers, they can be multiple choice, or they can be true/false.  Some finals are "closed book," meaning that you do not have access to your notes or your textbook. Others are "open book," meaning you do have access, usually to the textbook and your notes, to help you answer the questions. Open book finals are usually more difficult than closed book exams because the focus is on seeing how you think, rather than on what you have memorized.  What kind of final a person has for a course is usually up to the individual teacher. 

It is important to understand that when you take a final in a course, you pass just that course and receive your credit for it.  In high school and in college, you could pass some courses and not others, and that would mean you would not get your diploma. Each school has its own requirements on how many and which courses you need to take to get a diploma. 

Finals are not something to make you anxious, honestly.  When you are in a course that has a final, if you do your work all along, your reading assignments, class discussions, and homework, you should be able to handle a final with no difficulty.  Also, eating a good breakfast and getting a good night's sleep go a long way towards doing better on exams.  It is those students who do not do their work all along, those who try to learn everything at the end by staying up all night, who are the anxious ones! 

Which character is most to blame for all of the witchcraft hysteria that breaks out in Salem in The Crucible?

Abigail Williams is the most to blame for the witchcraft hysteria that takes hold of Salem.  She participates in witchcraft rituals in the woods, theoretically causing her cousin (and Ruth Putnam) to become ill from guilt and fear and allowing her uncle to find her and the other girls dancing and conjuring.  Her actions begin the entire problem.  Betty Parris wakes for a few moments in Act One to scream, "You drank blood, Abby!  You didn't tell [Reverend Parris] that! [....] You drank a charm to kill John Proctor's wife!"  Clearly, Betty is stressed out about their activities in the forest, and she is anxious about her father finding out.  If Abigail hadn't actually been engaging in these illegal and immoral activities, the hysteria would never have even begun.

Further, Abigail makes the first accusation when she names Tituba as a witch.  Once Abigail becomes the subject of Mr. Hale's questions, she panics.  In order to redirect suspicion away from herself, she cries out, "She made me do it!  She made Betty do it!" and she blames Tituba for "mak[ing] [her] drink blood," laugh during prayer, and sleepwalk naked.  Putnam and Parris then clamor to hang or beat Tituba to force her to confess, and she does what Abigail did before her: accuse someone else, someone who the town will believe could be a witch.  Thus, Abigail starts the chain of accusations that ignited the hysteria.

Finally, Abigail turns Tituba's attempt to save her own life into an opportunity to accuse others in the town and create her position of authority in the trials.  By the end of Act One, Hale is blessing Tituba and calling her "God's instrument," one who has been specially selected by God to "help [them] cleanse [their] village."  Tituba has become the center of attention, has acquired a position of authority (at least, relative to her position before), and Abigail wants this too.  She "rises, staring as though inspired" and she yells out, "I want to open myself!" and she repeats the names of the women Tituba named, adding one more.  Indeed, she has been inspired; she seems to realize that she will be believed if she falsely accuses others, and we might imagine that she now sees her opportunity to accuse Elizabeth Proctor.  She proceeds to falsely accuse three more women before the end of the act.

What is the function and importance of a watershed?

A watershed is an area that serves to drain precipitation to a body of water. Watersheds collect and store precipitation and release it as runoff. Precipitation can come in the form of rainwater and/ or snow — watersheds drain water from rain and/ or snow to lakes, rivers, ponds, wetlands, and streams.

Watersheds are important because they support water supplies, which are used for agriculture, manufacturing, and personal use (drinking water, recreation). Additionally, watersheds support the habitats of animals that depend on the water supply and the land surrounding bodies of water.

Watersheds are vital components of an area's hydrology, and thus, ecology. For more information on watersheds, check out the link below, which will open the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Introduction to Watershed Ecology guide.

What's the theme of "The Gift of the Magi" by O. Henri?

"The Gift of the Magi" is a Christmas story evidently intended to be published in the Christmas issue of a New York newspaper. As such, the story has a Christmas theme related to the spirit of giving. The theme hearkens back to one of the stories in the New Testament which is to be found in the King James Version of the Bible in Mark 12:41-44.

41 And Jesus sat over against the treasury, and beheld how the people cast money into the treasury: and many that were rich cast in much.

42 And there came a certain poor widow, and she threw in two mites, which make a farthing.

43 And he called unto him his disciples, and saith unto them, Verily I say unto you, That this poor widow hath cast more in, than all they which have cast into the treasury:

44 For all they did cast in of their abundance; but she of her want did cast in all that she had, even all her living.

The story of "The Widow's Two Mites" is also told in Luke 21:1-4.

In other words, it is the spirit behind the gift and not the gift itself that is important. Della and Jim Young illustrate this moral when they express their love for each other by giving everything they have at Christmas time. Della sacrifices her long, beautiful hair, and Jim sells his treasured pocket-watch in order to get enough money to buy each other Christmas presents. It is ironic that Jim no longer has a watch for the platinum fob Della gives him and Della no longer has the long hair to be held in place by the ornate tortoise-shell combs he buys for her. But what is important is that they love each other, and their gifts really only serve as symbols and proofs of their love, which is far more precious than any material objects.

What special knowledge was John taught as a priest's son in By the Waters of Babylon?

John learned basic first aid.  He tells readers in paragraph five that he was taught how to stop a person from bleeding out.  

l was taught how to stop the running of blood from a wound and many secrets.

A second skill that John learned was how to read and write.  As a priest, he needs to know how to do both, because he has access to books left over from the great burning.  His ability to read will help John transform his society and bring back some of the lost knowledge.  At the end of the story, he vows to return to the city and begin educating his people.  

Nevertheless, we make a beginning. it is not for the metal alone we go to the Dead Places now— there are the books and the writings. They are hard to learn. And the magic tools are broken—but we can look at them and wonder.

Lastly, as the son of a priest, John was taught the ways of the dead houses.  This means that he was allowed to go into the homes located in the Dead Places.  He studied their layout and the remains of the people in those houses, but John doesn't elaborate on any specifics of what he learned from those houses.  

What does this statement, "Surely thou didst so little contribute to this great kingdome . . . cave and grot," mean?

In this poem, Herbert creates an extended metaphor (conceit) about how money is the root of all evil. Herbert personifies evil and this makes the conceit more effective because he/speaker can blame this personified money. He says that money came from poor parents and this means that money such as gold came from the earth, the dirt, or a mine. While he blames "money" for causing so much suffering, he adds that it is actually humans who have made money rich and powerful. Therefore, any evil that results from money is actually the fault of humanity. Money is an inanimate thing. It is as foolish to blame money itself as it is to praise money for its worth. Herbert is criticizing people for praising money instead of praising God. 

In the second stanza, the speaker notes that money did little (or nothing) to contribute to God's kingdom. But, since humans have given money so much power, money seems to own the kingdom. Humanity was "fain" (pleased) when they dug money out of the cave and "grot" (ground or cavern). Man (humanity) has dug money out of the dirt and made it valuable. Herbert concludes the poem with the statement that digging money out of the ground, making it valuable and then praising it is a path towards destruction: 

Man calleth thee his wealth, who made thee rich;
And while he digs out thee, falls in the ditch. 

How do Jem and Scout treat the Radleys with compassion in To Kill a Mockingbird?

In chapter one, Boo Radley's father becomes ill on his deathbed and Atticus tells his children to be quiet while playing outdoors. He says that he gave Calpurnia permission to discipline them if they were caught playing too loudly for Mr. Radley's comfort. Scout says, "He took his time about it," and that she and Jem were as quiet as possible because they "crept around the yard for days" (12). Even though the children were threatened with a beating if they played loudly, they were still compassionate enough to respect the last days of a man's life.

In chapter 8, Jem finally gets the courage to put all the pieces of the Boo Radley puzzle together and tells his father about what he's learned. Jem used to think that Boo Radley's existence was deadly, but after a few experiences with Boo showing compassion towards Jem, he tells Atticus the following:

". . . Atticus, I swear to God he ain't ever harmed us, he ain't ever hurt us, he coulda cut my throat from ear to ear that night but he tried to mend my pants instead. . . he ain't ever hurt us, Atticus--" (72).

This scene shows Jem sticking up for Boo because he thinks that Atticus might be mad for giving Scout a blanket during the house fire that night. Atticus wouldn't do that because he doesn't judge Boo Radley like most of Maycomb does, but it is very sweet for Jem to defend Boo the way he does.

Finally, Scout shows compassion to Boo Radley on the night that he saves her and her brother from Bob Ewell's attack. She speaks to him very sweetly and politely; she shows him where to sit; and, she  in front of her father and Sheriff Tate. In chapter 31, Scout is very attentive to her guest and what he wants to do.

"Once more, he got to his feet. He turned to me and nodded toward the front door. 'You'd like to say good night to Jem, wouldn't you, Mr. Arthur? Come right in.' I led him down the hall" (277).

Scout and Jem certainly never participated in any of the superstitious legends, myths, or rumors associated with Boo Radley after that. They learned that he is a good man and shouldn't be treated like a verbal punching bag for the town gossips.

What is aversion therapy?

Introduction

Aversion therapy, or the use of stimuli to change unwanted behavior, derives from the experiments of Nobel Prize–winning Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
in the early 1900s, wherein dogs exhibited a learned response by first salivating in the presence of the attendant who regularly fed them and later salivating at the sound of the bell that rang to announce the attendant bringing their food. Classical conditioning, as illustrated by Pavlov, involves an unconditioned response (salivating) to an unconditioned stimulus (food), accompanied by an emotional reaction of pleasure. Exposed to a neutral stimulus (bell) that sounded immediately before the food was served, the dogs, in time, exhibited a conditioned response (salivating) to the sound of the bell rather than the serving of the food, resulting in the neutral stimuli becoming the conditioned stimuli (bell) and eliciting a conditioned response (salivation).

In 1920, another early practitioner of behaviorism, John B. Watson, demonstrated classical conditioning in the case of Little Albert, a child who was fond of playing with rabbits. When Albert made contact with a rabbit, Watson produced a loud clash behind Albert’s head, frightening the boy, who came to associate the sound with the rabbit. Eventually, he became terrified of animals.

Classical conditioning, through which one develops an aversion to food thought to have caused illness, was explored by John Garcia in an experiment involving irradiated rats that avoided sweetened water because they associated it with nausea. The Garcia effect differed from Pavlov’s behavioral finding in that although Pavlov’s stimulus required repeated applications, Garcia found taste aversion occurred after only one stimulus.

Taste aversion was first used in the 1930s as a cure foralcohol addiction. Individuals were given emetics (substances that induce vomiting) before they drank alcohol, eventually leading to their associating alcohol with nausea. In later years, persons participating in aversive therapy for alcohol addiction have been hospitalized to undergo an extended process of conditioning, and other programs advocate the use of electric shock rather than emetics. Classic conditioning techniques are also used as curatives for overeating, smoking, and substance abuse.

Other Behaviors

Aversion therapy figured prominently during the 1950s and 1960’s in efforts to “treat”
homosexuality. Believing homosexuality to be a mental illness, those trying to “cure” homosexuality frequently required homosexuals to look at “inappropriate” images of sexuality while emetics were being administered, with the aim of conditioning the individuals to associate homosexual acts with nausea. Later, electric shocks replaced the emetics. Similarly,
transvestites were made to stand barefoot in an electrified area, where they continued to receive electric shocks until they removed all vestiges of gender-inappropriate clothing. “Treatment” for exhibitionism worked in the reverse; exhibitionists were shocked until they stopped exposing themselves. Aside from being inhumane, aversion therapy for sexual deviance did not produce the desired results. In fact, many homosexuals became asexual and some became suicidal. The use of aversion therapy on homosexuals declined after the rise of the gay rights movement in 1969, although its decline is attributed not as much to the movement as to the American Psychiatric Association’s removal in 1973 of homosexuality from the list of mental illnesses. This change suggested that homosexuality is not an illness and therefore not something to be cured, but something that develops over an individual’s lifetime and involves little if any choice.

Individuals with stronggambling urges frequently undergo aversion therapy wherein small electric shock devices are strapped to their wrists and used to shock them whenever they view gambling paraphernalia, such as betting forms or written material that appeals to their interest in gambling.

Intense fears or phobias are treated by a process known as systematic desensitization, developed by South African psychiatrist Joseph Wolpe, in which the individual systematically moves from the least-feared situation or object to the most-feared. Using relaxation techniques, the individual with the phobia undergoes a gradual process, coping with successively more frightening situations or objects, until the fear is gone.

Initially designed to help children lose their fear of animals, the desensitization process has also been used to help children and adults cope with fears such as an intense aversion to spiders. Over a period of time, people progress from seeing spiders at a distance, to coping with being in the same room with them, to touching them, and finally to allowing them to crawl up their arm and onto their faces. Each step reduces the fear by proving that what the person feared the most does not happen. This process has worked well in overcoming a fear of flying. Individuals gradually, in a relaxed manner, progress from paralyzing fright to flying without fear, and in some instances to flying their own planes. Occasionally, in an attempt to eliminate a fear of heights, individuals are subjected to flooding; instead of undergoing a gradual process, individuals are immediately taken to a high location to bring home the fact that nothing bad has really happened to them.

Bibliography

Antony, Mark, and Mark Watling. Overcoming Medical Phobias: How to Conquer Fear of Blood, Needles, Doctors, and Dentists. Oakland: New Harbinger, 2006. Print.

Dodes, Lance M. The Heart of Addiction: A New Approach to Understanding and Managing Alcoholism and Other Addictive Behaviors. New York: Harper, 2002. Print.

Fritz, Julia, and Gesine Dreisbach. "Conflicts as Aversive Signals: Conflict Priming Increases Negative Judgments for Neutral Stimuli." Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 13.2 (2013): 311–317. Print.

Jenk, S. P. K. Behaviour Therapy: Techniques, Research, and Application. London: Sage, 2008. Print.

McCown, William G., and William A. Howatt. Treating Gambling Problems. New York: Wiley, 2007. Print.

Rice, Deanna K., and Patty Kohler. "Aversive Intervention: Research and Reflection." Education 132.4 (2012): 764–770. Print.

Saunders, Barbara R. Ivan Pavlov: Exploring the Mysteries of Behavior. Berkeley Heights: Enslow, 2006. Print. .

Volman, Susan F., et al. "New Insights into the Specificity and Plasticity of Reward and Aversion Encoding in the Mesolimbic System." Journal of Neuroscience 33.45 (2013): 17569–17576. Print.

Why is there tension between the Necessary and Proper Clause and the Tenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution?

Perceived tension between the so-called Necessary and Proper Clause and the Tenth Amendment of the United States Constitution is largely illusory. The perception that such tension exists comes from a misconstrual of the scope of the clause.

The United States Constitution forms a federal government of enumerated powers. What this means is that the powers of the federal government are limited to those powers granted to the federal government by the Constitution itself. Thus, every clause of the Constitution is constrained by the very nature of the document itself, and thus each clause must be understood within the limitations of the powers granted under the document. The so-called Necessary and Proper Clause is no exception.

At the time the Constitution was in the process of being ratified, the clause in question raised concerns regarding its seemingly sweeping nature. However, the Federalists argued that the clause was merely a catch-all to make sure that the U.S. Congress, and by extension the federal government, could effectively wield the powers enumerated in the Constitution. Given the actual language of the clause itself, the Federalist position proved to be persuasive.

The Necessary and Proper Clause (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 18) reads:

[Congress shall have the power] To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

The clause does not, nor was it ever intended to, give the Congress the power to pass laws it feels are necessary and proper in a general sense. Rather, the clause gives Congress the power to make laws that are “necessary and proper” to exercise “the foregoing Powers” and “all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States”. Thus, the clause is constrained by the powers listed above Clause 18 in Section 8 of Article 1, as well as the powers, and restrictions, of the rest of the Constitution.

One such restriction is the Tenth Amendment. The Tenth Amendment reads:

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

The Tenth Amendment serves to strengthen the already existing grants of powers and limitations thereof as provided in the rest of the Constitution. It helps ensure that the principle of enumerated powers is held strictly against the federal government so that it does not exceed its power. With regard to the Necessary and Proper Clause, the Tenth Amendment becomes part of the constraints of that clause, namely that the clause allows congress to pass laws necessary and proper for the exercise of powers granted under the Constitution.

In "Their Eyes Were Watching God," how does Zora Neale Hurston use the conventions of storytelling to produce a new genre?

Zora Neale Hurston is famous for defying traditional folklore and storytelling conventions and in her famous work, "Their Eyes Were Watching God," she merges feminism with folklore and the classic "coming-of-age" story with an African-American twist. She accomplishes all of this and more by expressing a deep appreciation of African-American cultural roots and tradition in the US, and by celebrating the joy of being black in her writing.

Hurston really does a lot to further the genre of the African-American "bildungsroman." For example, she gives the main character, Janie, a very human fallibility while also giving her very admirable qualities. This is done to show both the humanity and the wisdom of being black in America. In the dialogue, her characters speak with regional, black dialects that one would have found during that time period in the south. This is done to show both the method and the importance of black storytelling, and to show the ways in which black Americans carry their cultural roots around with them. 

The author has a very unique tone and writing style. Throughout the story, Hurston takes the time to give detailed descriptions of each character's motivation for their actions. Her tone is often compassionate toward even the least likable characters. Although Janie, the main character, sometimes criticizes those people and holds others to a higher standard, the reader is able to empathize with the choices that those characters make - often, we see how fate forces their hand. Hurston uses multiple voices in order to achieve this; the voice of Janie, for instance, is often lofty and philosophical, while the other voices lend perspective and cover the various aspects of "being black" that Hurston wants us to look upon with admiration. 

What are some important things to know about workplace communication?

How can messages be adapted for various audiences in the workplace?

You need to focus on the interests of different audiences, making sure only to include information directly relevant to the specific audience. Also, you should use the appropriate tone and language for each group, paying attention to different elements of work culture, age, and educational level. Certain audiences may need very detailed explanations of material that is directly relevant to them and others only brief summaries. 

How can understanding your audience inform or help in identifying the tools and types of media that are appropriate for communicating in the workplace?

Different audiences and situations require different media. While a short, informal announcement to a fairly young, tech savvy group of workers might be sent out as text messages, formal or contractually important information (such as salary changes, important policies) might be best done in hard copy. 

Why are grammar and word choice important for effective communication in the workplace? How can a writer achieve accuracy and the appropriate tone?

There are many different aspects to word choices and tone. First, you should always use gender neutral language and be careful to avoid terms that might be offensive to various groups of colleagues. Avoid slang and excessive informality as it appears unprofessional. Errors in grammar and spelling make you appear slipshod and unreliable, an ethos you do not wish to project. Therefore, as well as using spellchecking software, you should proofread carefully. 

What is a quote from A Separate Peace by John Knowles that shows that Gene is proud?

In the first few chapters of A Separate Peace, Gene shows how jealous he is of his best friend's charisma and athleticism. Gene is so jealous of Phineas that he searches his mind for examples of how he could possibly be better than Finny's charming talk, breaking the school's swimming record, or creating the game of Blitzball. Gene is tired of feeling like his best friend's shadow, so he clambers for success in any way he can find it. When Gene does find it, he also finds pride to accompany his successes--and all this in an effort to make himself feel better in Finny's presence. Gene realizes that he is a better student than Phineas, so he sets his sights on beating Chet Douglas, the top of their class, at every test and assignment during the summer semester. Gene, therefore, shows how proud he is in the following passage:

"I was more and more certainly becoming the best student in the school; Phineas was without question the best athlete, so in that way we were even. But while he was a very poor student I was a pretty good athlete, and when everything was thrown into the scales they would in the end tilt definitely toward me. The new attacks of studying were his emergency measures to save himself. I redoubled my effort" (55).

This passage also seems sad because Gene has to pull his friend down in order to feel better about himself. After comparing both of the boys' strengths and weaknesses, Gene feels proud that the "scales" would favor him over Phineas. 

In The Things They Carried, what was it that the soldiers carried and what did each thing mean?

The list of items that the men carried is pretty vast, and makes up much of the content of the first chapter.  O'Brien divides the things into various categories: what all of the soldiers carried (i.e. "one large compress bandage" and "a green plastic poncho"), what some of the individuals chose to carry (Kiowa carried "an illustrated New Testament," for example), and what they carried as "a function of rank" or "field specialty," such as medic Rat Kiley's "satchel filled with morphine."  He writes that other things were determined by the mission; in the mountains, for example, they carried "mosquito netting, machetes, canvas tarps, and bug juice."

The individually chosen items probably have the most significance. Lt. Jimmy Cross carries a picture of his girlfriend and a pebble from a beach that she sent him, illustrating his obsession with her virginity and faithfulness. Before he was killed, Ted Lavender carried several ounces of "premium dope," indicating his fear, as well as his desire to escape the war. Norman Bowker carried a diary, ostensibly to document his exploits, in hopes of satisfying his father's expectations that are later discussed in the chapter "Speaking of Courage." 

More telling, however, are the intangible things that O'Brien mentions. On page 21, he writes, "[t]hey carried all the emotional baggage of men who might die." He goes on to say that they carry their "reputation," "grief, terror, love, [and] longing," and their "shameful memories."  A close examination of this chapter will probably allow you to link the physical items the men carried to these "intangibles" on a character-by-character basis, but the larger point that O'Brien makes is that the physical weight of their supplies, as great as it is, was still far less than the emotional and psychological weight that each soldier was saddled with. As made evident in "The Man I Killed," the burden of guilt was greater than anything O'Brien had to "hump" across the landscape of Vietnam.

What was the Trojan War?

Helen, the most beautiful woman in the world and daughter of Aphrodite, was the wife of King Menelaus of Sparta; however, Aphrodite promised Helen to Paris, prince of Troy.  Paris abducted Helen, so Menelaus called on Helen's old suitors to help him retrieve her, since they had taken an oath to defend her honor.  Odysseus had taken this oath, and so he had to go and help Menelaus win back his wife.  Thus, the Trojan War was fought over a woman.

The first nine years of the war consisted of fighting.  The Greeks could not break down the walls that surrounded the city of Troy.  Odysseus came up with a plan: he ordered his men to build a large, hollow, wooden horse, and, when it was finished, Odysseus and many other warriors hid inside while the rest of the Greeks' ships sailed away.  One man stayed behind and claimed to have been deserted.  The Trojans celebrated their victory and pulled the horse inside the walls.  That night, the man who claimed to have been deserted let the Greek warriors out, and they slaughtered the Trojans.  Helen was retrieved and she returned to Sparta with Menelaus.

This was how Odysseus spent his first ten years away from Ithaca.  The story of the following ten years comprises the whole of The Odyssey.

I need to make a Venn diagram comparing and contrasting Calpurnia from To Kill a Mockingbird and Aibileen from The Help.

Calpurnia from To Kill a Mockingbird and Aibileen from The Help are similar (the intersecting part of the Venn diagram) in that they both care for the children they watch (Scout and Jem in Calpurnia's case and Mae Mobley in Aibileen's case). They also function as surrogate mothers, as Scout's and Jem's mother has died, and Mae Mobley's mother, Elizabeth Leefolt, basically neglects her daughter. When Elizabeth does pay attention to Mae Mobley, it is mainly to subject her daughter to criticism, so Aibileen is the source of maternal care and affection for Mae Mobley. 

The ways in which Calpurnia and Aibileen are different (the non-intersecting parts of the Venn diagram) is that Calpurnia has a positive relationship with Atticus Finch, her employer and Scout's and Jems' father. Aibileen, through no fault of her own, has a troubled relationship with Elizabeth Leefolt because Elizabeth is essentially harmful towards her daughter and treats Aibileen with disrespect. Elizabeth fires Aibileen when her friend Hilly pushes her to do so, while Atticus would likely never fire Calpurnia. Another way they are different is that Calpurnia speaks her mind more freely, perhaps because Atticus allows her to do so, while Aibileen is more reluctant to voice her true feelings to Elizabeth Leefolt. 

What is referred to as the death's head in Night?

In section one of Elie Wiesel's memoir Night, the Germans arrive in the Jewish town of Sighet in Transylvania, expressly to round up the Jewish residents and send them to the concentration camps in Poland and Germany. The German troops who were responsible for gathering the Jews and administering the camps were the SS, or "Schutzstaffel", which is German for "Protective Echelon". They were originally the bodyguards of Hitler and owed their allegiance only to him. The insignia they wore both on their helmets and their shoulders was a silver skull, in German the "totenkopf", called the "death's head." Wiesel writes,

Anguish, German soldiers—with their steel helmets, and their emblem, the death's head.

It was, of course, a fitting emblem for the organization which was responsible for mass atrocities throughout Europe between 1939-1945. In Night, the Jews are in a state of denial about the Germans to the very end, and even the presence of the "death's head" doesn't keep them from thinking all would work out. Wiesel writes,

The Germans were already in the town, the Fascists were already in power, the verdict had already been pronounced, yet the Jews of Sighet continued to smile.

Not long after the appearance of the "death's head", Elie and his family are deported to Auschwitz.

How is the censorship of "Game of Thrones" warranted in foreign countries? Please elaborate in depth and provide evidence to support the argument.

There are two main reasons why we can say that foreign countries ought to censor ”Game of Thrones” due to its excessive portrayals of violence, nudity, and sex.  First, we can say they ought to censor the show because it can help lead to higher levels of violence in their countries.  Second, we can say that they ought to censor it because (or if) it goes against traditional values in their country.

One reason to censor “Game of Thrones” would be because it is so violent.  Practically every episode features people being killed or tortured, often in graphic ways.  Studies have shown that it can be bad for people to watch depictions of violence on television.  The studies do not show that a person who sees a violent TV show will certainly go out and act violently.  However, they do show that people who see a lot of violence in the media will be more likely to behave in aggressive ways.  It is not good for societies to have a lot of people who are prone to committing acts of violence.  Many societies might look at US society, say that we have too much violence, and want to reject things like TV violence that would make them more likely to suffer from the problems that we suffer.

A second reason to censor “Game of Thrones” is to preserve the values of the particular country.  In addition to violence, “Game of Thrones” has a great deal of sexual content.  There is a lot of nudity.  There are many episodes in which people are shown engaging in sexual behavior.  Even many Americans argue that the nudity and sex in the series are excessive.  Some Americans think this even though the US is one of the most sexualized cultures in the world.

Even here in the US, “Game of Thrones” would not be able to air as it does on free TV.  If this show were on a network like NBC, it would not be able to show as much sex and nudity as it does because we think that children should be protected from seeing such things.  If a movie had as much sex as “Game of Thrones” it would at least have an R rating and would not be legal for young people to see.  In other words, we are willing to censor shows in order to protect our cherished values.

If we can censor TV shows to protect our values, so can other countries.  In many other countries (particularly in Asia and in the Muslim world), values are much more traditional than they are here.  Many people would be shocked and horrified to see the sex and nudity that appear on “Game of Thrones.”  Because the show would be offensive to many of their citizens, it is appropriate for foreign countries to censor it just as we would censor it if it were on free TV.  Every country has a right to prohibit things that are offensive to its values.

Thus, we can argue that it is appropriate for other countries to censor this show.  They should do so in part because it would make their citizens more likely to engage in violent behavior and they should do so because the show depicts things that would be offensive to the traditional values held by most of their people.

What does the scene of bathing in the river accomplish?

When the three men go river bathing, the point-of-view changes. Up until this point, we have seen Ivanich and Bourkin as more or less an undifferentiated unit: they do have a conversation but it doesn't reveal much about them as separate individuals. In the first paragraph, they are described as sharing the same thoughts: they are both tired, the fields seem endless "to them" and they both love the beauty and grandeur of the countryside.

Once they are bathing, however, Ivanich emerges as a distinct personality. He swims and dives gleefully, swims out to the mill and talks to the peasants, floats on his back, lets the rain hit his face and calls the bathing "delicious." He is able to thoroughly enjoy engaging with his environment in a way Bourkin, and their host, Aliokhin, do not. In this scene, we see Bourkn and Aliokhin grouped together, telling Ivanich it is time to get out of the water.

This scene helps characterize Ivanich: he will tell a depressing story, but is the most alive of them (we learn that it is a long time since Aliokhin has bathed). The scene also underscores that people are isolated from one another, once you scratch below the surface: Ivanich, after all, enjoys the water alone.

What are childhood cancers?

Related conditions:
Leukemia, lymphoma, brain cancer, osteosarcoma

Definition:
Childhood cancers are cancers that occur in a person from infancy through age nineteen. The twelve major types of childhood cancers vary by type of histology, site of origin, race, sex, and age. They are leukemias, lymphomas, brain and spinal tumors, sympathetic nervous system tumors, retinoblastomas, kidney tumors, liver tumors, bone tumors, soft-tissue sarcomas, gonadal and germ-cell tumors, epithelial tumors, and other and unspecified malignant tumors. The most common types are leukemias and lymphomas.

Risk factors: Childhood cancers result from noninherited mutations or changes in the genes of developing cells. Some risk factors have been associated with different types of childhood cancers such as acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) and acute myelogenous leukemia (AML). If a child has an identical twin who was diagnosed with ALL or AML before the age of six, the child has a 20 to 25 percent greater risk of developing the illness. Nonidentical twins and other siblings of children with leukemia have two to four times the average risk of developing the illness. Children with Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, or other genetic syndromes and those who have received drugs following organ transplants also are at greater risk of developing leukemia. Children who have received radiation therapy or chemotherapy for other types of cancer have an increased risk of developing leukemia within an eight-year period following treatment.

Etiology and the disease process: In childhood leukemia, an abnormal amount of white blood cells, or leukocytes, is produced in the bone marrow; these cells invade the bloodstream and deplete the body’s ability to fight infection. As the disease progresses, it affects the body’s ability to produce red blood cells and platelets, resulting in anemia, bleeding disorders, and continued risk of infection from the overproduction of white blood cells.

Lymphocytes are infection-fighting white blood cells that are made and stored in the lymph nodes (organs in the neck, groin, abdomen, chest, and armpits), spleen, thymus, tonsils, and bone marrow. In lymphoma, the white blood cells of the lymphatic system grow abnormally, producing cancerous cells called Reed-Sternberg cells. Although Hodgkin disease is most often seen in children aged fifteen or older, nodular lymphocyte predominance (LP) is more common in younger children, accounting for about one-fifth of the incidence of most Hodgkin disease in children. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) occurs more often in boys than girls and most often between the ages of two and ten. Unlike the non-Hodgkin lymphoma seen in adults, most cases of NHL in children are of the fast-growing, aggressive type (such as Burkitt lymphoma, non-Burkitt lymphoma, and lymphoblastic lymphoma).

Another common type of childhood cancer, neuroblastomas (solid tumors), often begins in one of the adrenal glands above the kidneys; the tumors can also can arise in nerve tissues in the neck, abdomen, pelvis, or chest. While the cause of neuroblastomas is unknown, they are believed to arise from anomalies during the normal development of the adrenal glands.

Incidence: Childhood cancer is the leading cause of death in the United States in children from infancy to fourteen years of age. However, childhood cancer is relatively rare; each year 1 to 2 children per 10,000 children in the United States will be diagnosed with cancer. Childhood cancer is estimated to occur at the rate of 17 per 100,000 children through the age of nineteen. Incidence is higher for boys than girls, and cancer rates are higher for children under five years of age and those between the ages of fifteen and nineteen. The National Cancer Institute (NCI) estimates that, in 2014, 15,780 children and adolescents up to nineteen years old in the United States will be diagnosed with cancer and 1,980 will die of the disease.

According to an NCI study from 1975 to 1995, 25 to 30 percent of cancers occurring in childhood were leukemias. Of these, 60 percent were cases of ALL, and 38 percent were acute AML. The next most common type was miscellaneous intracranial and intraspinal neoplasms (mostly solid, typically brain tumors involving the cerebellum or brain stem) at 16.7 percent, followed by lymphomas at 15.5 percent. Leukemias are the most common cancer in those under age five (and decrease proportionally in those over age five), and lymphomas are most common in those fifteen to nineteen years old. Hodgkin disease occurs at a rate of 12.6 per 1 million children, while non-Hodgkin lymphoma occurs at a rate of 10.5 per 1 million children.

NCI's SEER Cancer Statistics Review 1975–2011 reported that from 2007 to 2011, the incidence of leukemia (except for myelodysplastic syndromes) was 49.4 cases per million for individuals from zero to nineteen years old. For the same age group and time period, the incidence of Hodgkin lymphoma was 12.4 per million and the incidence of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (except Burkitt lymphoma) was 8.6 per million. For the same age group and time period, the incidence of CNS and miscellaneous intracranial and intraspinal neoplasms was 45.1 per million.

Other types of childhood cancer include Wilms’ tumor, affecting one or both kidneys and seen in children between two and three years of age; neuroblastoma, the most common form of solid tumor occurring outside the brain in children, often diagnosed by one year of age; retinoblastoma, or eye cancer; rhabdomyosarcoma, developing in cells that become mature voluntary muscle (the most common soft-tissue sarcoma seen in children); and primary bone cancer (osteosarcoma).

The NCI reported in 2014 that mortality for childhood cancers declined more than 50 percent between 1975–1977 and 2007–2010, largely because of early detection and advances in treatment. However, the incidence of all types of invasive cancer in children has increased from 11.5 cases per 100,000 children in 1975 to 14.5 cases per 100,000 in 2004.

The reasons for this increase in incidence are unclear. However, the increase in the incidence of childhood brain tumors may be attributed to advances in early detection, as technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allow more accurate and differential diagnosing of tumors, and advances in neurosurgical techniques allow for biopsies of brain tumors. These advances in detection methods have resulted in an increase in discovery and diagnosis of malignant tumors.

Symptoms: The symptoms of childhood cancer vary by type, may mimic symptoms of other illnesses, and may include unexplained weight loss; headaches and vomiting; increased swelling or pain in bone, joints, back, or legs; a detectable lump or mass in the abdomen, pelvis, chest, armpit, or neck; unusual bleeding, bruising, or rash; recurring infections; sudden and persistent eye or vision changes; nausea or vomiting without nausea; a whitish color behind the pupil; tiredness or pallor; and recurring and persistent fevers. A child in the early stages of leukemia may not have these symptoms but may exhibit other changes in behavior, such as lacking the usual energy to engage in activities.

A painless swelling of the lymph nodes, fever, and fatigue are often symptoms of both Hodgkin disease and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. The type of Hodgkin disease most often seen in young adults ages fifteen and older is associated with these symptoms: swollen lymph node in the neck, groin, or armpit; lethargy and weakness; facial swelling; night sweats; unexplained fever and weight loss; abdominal pain or swelling; difficulty breathing; and pain. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma may progress quickly in children, with many initially diagnosed at Stage III or IV, so these children may first complain of abdominal pain, fever, or constipation or decreased appetite originating from an abdominal mass.

Neuroblastoma, or a cancer of the sympathetic nervous system, the most common type of cancer in infants, is usually seen as a lump or mass in the abdomen causing swelling, discomfort, pain, or a feeling of fullness. A neuroblastoma can also occur in the pelvis, neck, or eye. Often the neuroblastoma may spread to bone, causing pain, limping, weakness, numbness, or inability to walk. In about one-quarter of cases, the child may develop fever; less common symptoms include rapid heartbeat, flushed skin, sweating, irritability, high blood pressure, and diarrhea.

Screening and diagnosis: There are no tests that screen for childhood cancers such as leukemia or lymphoma; however, there are standard tests for diagnosing. Typically, a parent notices a change in a child’s behavior and brings the child to the doctor, who will conduct a complete physical and examine the child for enlargement of the lymph nodes, liver, or spleen. If a blood cancer such as leukemia is suspected, the doctor will order a complete blood count (CBC) with differential. A fraction of patients with leukemia may have a normal blood test result when diagnosed. Suspicious cases must have a bone marrow test to confirm the diagnosis of leukemia.

If Hodgkin disease or non-Hodgkin lymphoma is suspected, the doctor will do a thorough exam and order a CBC and a chest x-ray. If the diagnosis of lymphoma is confirmed, the doctor may refer the child to a specialist, such as a pediatric hematologist or oncologist, for further diagnostic tests such as a biopsy of the tumor to differentially diagnose the type of lymphoma, a bone marrow aspirate, or an imaging test such as a computed tomography (CT) scan.

Neuroblastomas are relatively rare, and screening for them in children with no symptoms is not believed to decrease mortality from the disease, so no screening test is conventionally used. Most neuroblastomas are detected within the first six months of life. A doctor who suspects an infant of having a neuroblastoma will order a urinalysis, which will reveal a higher-than-normal concentration of metabolites from the body’s breakdown of catecholamine neurotransmitters. If the physical exam and urine chemistry results indicate a neuroblastoma, the doctor will proceed to order other tests, such as an x-ray, CT scan, abdominal ultrasound, CBC, blood test of liver and kidney function, bone scan, metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) scan, and bone marrow aspiration.

Staging is used to describe the disease at the time of diagnosis and to help the doctor determine the type of therapy, its course, and its prognosis. Leukemia, unlike other childhood cancers, is staged based on its presence and proliferation in organs other than its presence in the bone marrow and blood. Other factors in staging include sex, race, organ spread, types of leukemic cells, presence of abnormal chromosomes, and response to treatment within seven to fourteen days of inception. Staging to assess a child’s prognosis seems to be more important in children with ALL than in those with AML. Age and white blood cell count (WBCC) are important factors in staging ALL, with children younger than one and older than ten at highest risk (having a high white blood cell count of 50,000 cells per cubic millimeter).

Lymphoma is staged based on the extent of the disease. Stage I lymphoma is limited to one primary area of the lymph node or organ, while Stage IV indicates the lymphoma has spread to one or more tissues or organs outside the lymphatic system.

Neuroblastomas are staged I to IV-S, with Stage I being a tumor that is visible, is localized, and can be removed, and Stage IV being a cancer that has spread to distant lymph nodes or other parts of the body. In Stage IV-S, limited to a child under one year of age, the cancer has spread to skin, liver, or bone marrow but not to bone. Alternatively, neuroblastomas may be staged on the basis of low, intermediate, and high risk, depending on the features of the cancer cells, the age at which the child is diagnosed, and the stage of the disease.

Treatment and therapy: Childhood cancers are treated with surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of two or more therapies. Cancers in children, unlike those in many adults, typically are fast growing and respond well to chemotherapy. Children are often treated in children’s cancer centers, which tend to offer new therapies and the latest treatment with clinical trials. The NCI recommends that children with cancer be treated by a multidisciplinary team consisting of a pediatric oncologist and other specialists and that all children be considered for clinical trials to test the effectiveness of existing treatments and evaluate the benefits and side effects of experimental treatments. The American Cancer Society (ACS) recommends that parents ask their pediatric cancer team about the potential side effects of treatment before the regimen begins. Side effects include hair loss, fatigue, risk of infection, easy bruising or bleeding, vomiting, diarrhea, bone marrow changes leading to anemia, lower white blood cell counts leading to reduced ability to fight infections, and a reduction in platelet production leading to easy bleeding and bruising.

Treatment for the most common forms of cancer seen in children, acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) and acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), consists of three phases: induction, consolidation, and maintenance. Once the cancer is staged by risk group, induction therapy is designed to induce remission such that leukemic cells are no longer present in bone marrow, normal cells return, and blood counts return to normal. The month-long treatment, often performed in the hospital, is intense because of the risk of serious infection, but more than 95 percent children with ALL who receive this treatment experience remission. Although the cancer is in remission, consolidation treatment lasting four to six months and maintenance therapy lasting at least two years are required to destroy all cancerous cells. These intravenous chemotherapies are coupled with intrathecal chemotherapy (drugs injected into the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord) to destroy cancer cells that may have spread to the central nervous system. In addition, radiation therapy may be directed at the brain or spinal cord if the leukemia was present in cerebrospinal fluid at the time of diagnosis; however, the side effects and long-term effects of radiation to the brain are such that this type of radiation therapy is avoided whenever possible. Low-risk ALL has the highest cure rate, 85 to 95 percent of all cases.

The three main types of therapy for Hodgkin disease are radiation therapy to decrease tumors and destroy cancerous cells; chemotherapy or systemic drug therapy; and bone marrow and peripheral blood transplants, particularly for those whose disease recurs. The four types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma seen in children (Burkitt, lymphoblastic, anaplastic large-cell lymphoma, and large B-cell lymphoma) may be localized in a swollen lymph node, but often the disease has spread to other organs at the time of diagnosis.

Some neuroblastomas go away without treatment, while others commonly require surgery. Approximately half of the tumors spread to bone and bone marrow, requiring chemotherapy, radiation therapy, stem cell transplantation, or immunotherapy. The location of the tumor, age of the child, and diffusion of the tumor are factors in determining the recommended treatment.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: Overall, death rates have declined and five-year survival rates have increased for most types of childhood cancers. In 2014 the NCI reported that between 2004 and 2010, more than 80 percent of children diagnosed with cancer before the age of twenty survived at least five years, up from a survival rate of just over 50 percent in 1975. The increase in survival rates is attributable to new treatments resulting in cures or long-term remission for many children with cancer. Although the majority of cancers respond well to treatment, some will recur and require the child’s doctor to develop a new treatment plan. The most commonly reported longevity statistic is the five-year survival rate, or the percentage of children with cancer who live at least five years after diagnosis. According to the SEER Cancer Statistics Review 1975–2011, from 2004 to 2010 the five-year relative survival rate for cancer patients ages zero to nineteen was 82.5 percent for all International Classification of Childhood Cancer groups combined , 82.1 percent for leukemia, 96.4 percent for Hodgkin lymphoma, 86.5 percent for non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and 78.6 percent for neuroblastoma and other peripheral nervous cell tumors.

Children with cancer respond to chemotherapies and tolerate treatment better than adults do, making their prognoses bright. However, children who survive cancer may have long-term effects that require lifelong follow-up. These late or delayed effects can include hormonal disturbances in the endocrine system causing short stature, problems in puberty, thyroid or fertility disturbances, secondary learning difficulties, and other health consequences of the disease or treatment. Published data on long-term survivors of childhood cancers indicate that those most at risk of developing secondary sarcomas (cancers of connective or supportive tissue such as in bone, fat, or muscle) are children whose primary cancer was in soft tissue, bone, or renal tissue, or was Hodgkin disease. Because sarcomas can occur anywhere in the body and are more difficult to detect, long-term aggressive follow-up of childhood cancer patients is critical to their staying healthy.

Eiser, Christine. Children with Cancer: The Quality of Life. 2004. N.p.: Routledge, 2014. Print.

Fromer, Margot Joan. Surviving Childhood Cancer: A Guide for Families. Oakland: New Harbinger, 1998. Print.

Keene, Nancy. Chemo, Craziness, and Comfort: My Book About Childhood Cancer. Washington, DC: Candlelighters, 2002. Print.

Langton, Helen. The Child with Cancer: Family-Centred Care in Practice. Edinburgh; New York: Baillière, 2000. Print.

MedlinePlus. "Cancer in Children." MedlinePlus. US NLM/NIH, 18 Sept. 2014. Web. 25 Sept. 2014.

Natl. Cancer Inst. "Cancer in Children and Adolescents." Cancer.gov. NCI/NIH, 12 May 2014. Web. 25 Sept. 2014.

Natl. Cancer Inst. SEER Cancer Statistics Review 1975–2011. N.p.: NCI, 2011. Web. 25 Sept. 2014.

What is inflectional morphology and how does it differ from derivational morphology?

The core of this answer is really about how the semantic meaning of the word changes after it has been altered. Inflectional morphemes don't undergo the same kind of drastic change that derivational morphemes do. By this, I mean that a word like 'cat' can be inflected for plural form by simply adding the suffix -s to the end (i.e. 'cats'). When you do this, you are still dealing with 'cat' as a noun and simply adding more of it to the count. Likewise, the infinitive 'to dance' can be inflected for person (he DANCES) and tense (he DANCED).

However, with a derivational morpheme, you are altering the class or category of the word entirely. For instance, if I gave you the infinitive 'to inform', we could transform it into a noun by adding the suffix -ation, which would give us 'information' (after you deleted the 'to' infinitizer). If you took the noun 'love' and transformed it into an adjective, it would be 'lovable' with the addition of the suffix -able.

Hopefully this clears up some of those differences for you!

What are birth defects?

Causes and Symptoms

As the human embryo develops, it undergoes many formative stages from the simple to the complex, most often culminating in a perfectly formed newborn infant. The formation of the embryo is controlled by genetic factors, external influences, and interactions between the various embryonic tissues. Because genes play a vital role as the blueprint for the developing embryo, they must be unaltered and the cellular mechanisms that allow the genes to be expressed must also work correctly. In addition, the chemical and physical communications between cells and tissues in the embryo must be clear and uninterrupted. The development of the human embryo into a newborn infant is infinitely more complex than the design and assembly of the most powerful supercomputer or the largest skyscraper. Because of this complexity and the fact that development progresses without supervision by human eye or hand, there are many opportunities for errors that can lead to malformations.

Errors in development can be caused by both genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors include chromosomal abnormalities and gene mutations. Both can be inherited from the parents or can occur spontaneously during gamete formation, fertilization, and embryonic development. Environmental factors, called teratogens, include such things as drugs, disease organisms, and radiation.

Chromosomal abnormalities account for about 6 percent of human congenital malformations. They fall into two categories, numerical and structural. Numerical chromosomal abnormalities are most often the result of nondisjunction occurring in the germ cells that form sperm and eggs. During the cell division process in sperm and egg production, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is duplicated so that each new cell receives a complete set of chromosomes. Occasionally, two chromosomes fail to separate (nondisjunction), such that one of the new cells receives two copies of that chromosome and the other cell none. Both of the resulting gametes (either sperm or eggs) will have an abnormal number of chromosomes. When a gamete with an abnormal number of chromosomes unites with a normal gamete, the result is an individual with an abnormal chromosome number. The missing or extra chromosome will cause confusion in the developmental process and result in certain structural and functional abnormalities. For
example, persons with an extra copy of chromosome number 21 suffer from Down syndrome, which often includes mental deficiency, heart defects, facial deformities, and other symptoms and can be caused by nondisjunction in one or more cells of the early embryo. Abnormal chromosome numbers may also result from an egg’s being fertilized by two sperm, or from failure of cell division during gamete formation.

Structural chromosomal abnormalities result from chromosome breaks. Breaks occur in chromosomes during normal exchanges in material between chromosomes (crossing over). They also may occur accidentally at weak points on the chromosomes, called fragile sites, and can be induced by chemicals and radiation. Translocations occur when a broken-off piece of chromosome attaches to another chromosome. For example, an individual who has the two usual copies of chromosome 21 and, as the result of a translocation, carries another partial or complete copy of 21 riding piggyback on another chromosome will have the symptoms of Down syndrome. Deletions occur when a chromosome break causes the loss of part of a chromosome. The cri du chat syndrome is caused by the loss of a portion of chromosome number 5. Infants affected by this disorder have a catlike cry, are intellectually and developmentally disabled, and have cardiovascular defects. Other structural chromosomal abnormalities include inversions (in which segments of chromosomes are attached in reverse order), duplications (in which portions of a chromosome are present in multiple copies), and isochromosomes (in which
chromosomes separate improperly to produce the wrong configuration).

Gene mutations (defective genes) are responsible for about 8 percent of birth defects. Mutations in genes occur spontaneously because of copying errors or can be induced by environmental factors such as chemicals and radiation. The mutant genes are passed from parents to offspring; thus certain defects may be present in specific families and geographical locations. Two examples of mutation-caused defects are
polydactyly (the presence of extra fingers or toes) and microcephaly (an unusually small cranium and brain). Mutations can be either dominant or recessive. If one of the parents possesses a dominant mutation, there will be a 50 percent chance of this mutant gene being transmitted to the offspring. Brachydactyly, or abnormal shortening of the fingers, is a dominantly inherited trait. Normally, the parent with the dominant gene also has the disorder. Recessive mutations can remain hidden or unexpressed in both parents. When each parent possesses a single recessive gene, there is a 25 percent chance that any given pregnancy will result in a child with a defect. Examples of recessive defects are the metabolic disorders
sickle cell disease and hemophilia.

Environmental factors called
teratogens are responsible for about 7 percent of congenital malformations. Human embryos are most sensitive to the effects of teratogens during the period when most organs are forming (organogenetic period), that is, from about fifteen to sixty days after fertilization. Teratogens may interfere with development in a number of ways, usually by killing embryonic cells or interrupting their normal function. Cell movement, communication, recognition, differentiation, division, and adhesion are critical to development and can be easily disturbed by teratogens. Teratogens can also cause mutations and chromosomal abnormalities in embryonic cells. Even if the disturbance is only weak and transitory, it can have serious effects because the critical period for the development of certain structures is very short and well defined. For example, the critical period for arm development is from twenty-four to forty-four days after fertilization. A chemical that interferes with limb development, such as the drug thalidomide, if taken during this period, may cause missing arm parts, shortened arms, or complete absence of
arms. Many drugs and chemicals have been identified as teratogenic, including alcohol, aspirin, and certain antibiotics.

Other environmental factors that can cause congenital malformations include infectious organisms, radiation, and mechanical pressures exerted on the fetus within the uterus. Certain infectious agents or their products can pass from the mother through the placenta into the embryo. Infection of the embryo causes disturbances to development similar to those caused by chemical teratogens. For example, German measles (rubella virus) causes cataracts, deafness, and heart defects if the embryo is infected early in development. Exposure to large doses of radiation—such as those released by the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986 or by the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, during World War II—can result in death and damage to embryonic cells. There was an increase of about 10 to 15 percent in birth defects in children born to pregnant women exposed to atomic bomb radiation in Japan. Diagnostic X-rays are not known to be a cause of birth
defects. Some defects such as hip dislocation may be caused by mechanical forces inside the uterus; this could happen if the amnion is damaged or the uterus is malformed, thus restricting the movement of the fetus. About 25 percent of congenital defects are caused by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors (multifactorial), and the causes of more than half (54 percent) of all defects are unknown.

Treatment and Therapy

Because many birth defects have well-defined genetic and environmental causes, they often can be prevented. Preventive measures need to be implemented if the risk of producing a child with a birth defect is higher than average. Genetic risk factors for such defects include the presence of a genetic defect in one of the parents, a family history of genetic defects, the existence of one or more children with defects, consanguineous (same-family) matings, and advanced maternal age. Prospective parents with one or more of these risk factors should seek
genetic counseling in order to assess their potential for producing a baby with such defects. Also, parents exposed to higher-than-normal levels of drugs, alcohol, chemicals, or radiation are at risk of producing gametes that may cause defects, and pregnant women exposed to the same agents place the developing embryo at risk. Again, medical counseling should be sought by such prospective parents. Pregnant women should maintain a well-balanced diet that is about 200 calories higher than normal to provide adequate
fetal nutrition. Women who become anemic during pregnancy may need an iron supplement, and the U.S. Public Health Service recommends that all women of childbearing age consume 0.4 milligram of folic acid (one of the B vitamins) per day to reduce the risk of spina bifida and other neural tube defects. Women at high risk for producing genetically defective offspring can undergo a screening technique whereby eggs taken from the ovary are screened in the laboratory to select the most normal appearing ones prior to in vitro fertilization and then returned to the uterus. Some couples may decide to use artificial insemination by donor if the prospective father is known to carry a defective gene.

The early detection of birth defects is crucial to the health of both the mother and the baby. Physicians commonly use three methods for monitoring fetal growth and development during pregnancy. The most common method is ultrasound scanning. High-frequency sound waves are directed at the uterus and then monitored for waves that bounce back from the fetus. The return waves allow a picture of the fetus to be formed on a television monitor, which can be used to detect defects and evaluate the growth of the fetus. In
amniocentesis, the doctor withdraws a small amount of amniotic fluid containing fetal cells; both the fluid and the cells can be tested for evidence of congenital defects by growing the cells in tissue culture and examining their chromosomes. Amniocentesis generally cannot be performed until the sixteenth week of pregnancy. Another method of obtaining embryonic cells is called
chorionic villus sampling and can be done as early as the fifth week of pregnancy. A tube is inserted into the uterus in order to retrieve a small sample of placental chorionic villus cells, identical genetically to the embryo. Again, these cells can be tested for evidence of congenital defects. The early discovery of fetal defects and other fetal-maternal irregularities allows the physician time to assess the problem and make recommendations to the parents regarding treatment. Many problems can be solved with therapy, medications, and even prenatal surgery. If severe defects are detected, the physician may recommend termination of the pregnancy.

Children born with defects often require highly specialized and intense medical treatment. For example, a child born with
spina bifida may have lower-body paralysis, clubfoot, hip dislocation, and gastrointestinal and genitourinary problems in addition to the spinal column deformity. Spina bifida occurs when the embryonic neural tube and vertebral column fail to close properly in the lower back, often resulting in a protruding sac containing parts of the spinal meninges and spinal cord. The malformation and displacement of these structures result in nerve damage to the lower body, causing paralysis and the loss of some neural function in the organs of this area. Diagnostic procedures including X-rays, computed tomography (CT) scans, and urinalysis are carried out to determine the extent of the disorder. If the sac is damaged and begins to leak cerebrospinal fluid, it needs to be closed immediately to reduce the risk of meningitis. In any case, surgery is done to close the opening in the lower spine, but it is not possible to
correct the damage done to the nerves. Urgent attention must also be given to the urinary system. The paralysis often causes loss of sphincter muscle control in the urinary bladder and rectum. With respect to the urinary system, this lack of control can lead to serious urinary tract infections and the loss of kidney function. Both infections and obstructions must be treated promptly to avoid serious complication. Orthopedic care needs to begin early to treat clubfoot, hip dislocation, scoliosis, muscle weakness, spasms, and other side effects of this disorder.

The medical treatment of birth defects requires a carefully orchestrated team approach involving physicians and specialists from various medical fields. When the abnormality is discovered (before birth, at birth, or after birth), the primary physician will gather as much information as possible from the family history, the medical history of the patient, a physical examination, and other diagnostic tests. This information is interpreted in consultation with other physicians in order to classify the disorder properly and to determine its possible origin and time of occurrence. This approach may lead to the discovery of other malformations, which will be classified as primary and secondary. When the physician arrives at a specific overall diagnosis, he or she will counsel the parents about the possible causes and development of the disorder, the recommended treatment and its possible outcomes, and the risk of recurrence in a subsequent pregnancy. Certain acute conditions may require immediate attention in order to save the life of the newborn.

In addition to treating the infant with the defect, the physician needs to counsel the parents in order to answer their questions. The counseling process will help them to understand and accept their child’s condition. To promote good parent-infant bonding, the parents are encouraged to maintain close contact with the infant and participate in its care. Children born with severe chronic disabilities and their families require special support. When parents are informed that their child has limiting congenital malformations, they may react negatively and express feelings of shock, grief, and guilt. Medical professionals can help the parents deal with their feelings and encourage them to develop a close and supportive relationship with their child. Physicians can provide a factual and honest appraisal of the infant’s condition and discuss treatments, possible outcomes, and the potential for the child to live a happy and fulfilling life. Parents are encouraged to learn more about their child’s disorder and to seek the guidance and help of professionals, support groups, family, and friends. With the proper care and home environment, the child can develop into an individual who is able to interact positively with family and community.

Perspective and Prospects

Birth defects have been recognized and recorded throughout human history. The writer of the Old Testament book of 2 Samuel (21:20) describes the defeat of a giant with six fingers and six toes. Defects were recorded in prehistoric art, and the cuneiform records of ancient Babylon considered birth defects to be omens of great significance. Aristotle described many common human birth defects such as polydactyly. Superstitions about birth defects abounded during the Middle Ages. People believed that events occurring during pregnancy could influence the form of the newborn; for example, deformed legs could be caused by contact with a cripple. Mothers of deformed children were accused of having sex with animals. In a book written about birth defects in 1573, Monstres et prodiges, Ambroise Paré describes many human anomalies and attempts to explain how they occur. Missing body parts such as fingers or toes were attributed to a low sperm count in the father, and certain characteristics such as abnormal skin
pigmentation, body hair, or facial features were said to be influenced by the mother’s thoughts and visions during and after conception.

With advances in science and medicine these superstitions were swept aside. Surgery for cleft palate was performed as early as 1562 by Jacques Honlier. William Harvey, a seventeenth-century English physician, recognized that some birth defects such as cleft lip are normal embryonic features that accidentally persist until the time of birth. The study of embryology, including experiments on bird and amphibian embryos, blossomed as a science during the nineteenth century, leading to a better understanding of how defects arise. At the same time, physicians were developing improved ways to treat birth defects. By 1816, Karl von Graefe had developed the first modern comprehensive surgical method for repairing cleft palate. The modern technique for repairing congenital pyloric stenosis (narrowing of the junction between the stomach and small intestine) was developed by Conrad Ramstedt in 1912. The principles of genetic inheritance developed by Gregor Mendel in the mid-nineteenth century were rediscovered by biologists at the beginning of the twentieth century and soon were applied to the study of human heredity, including
the inheritance of birth defects. Geneticists realized that defects such as hemophilia and Down syndrome are inherited diseases. Beginning in the 1930s, other scientists began to show that congenital defects could be induced in experimental animals by such factors as dietary deficiencies, hormone imbalances, chemicals, and radiation. In some cases, a lack of complete testing of environmental factors such as drugs has led to tragedies but also a better understanding of the nature of birth defects. The tranquilizer
thalidomide caused limb malformations in more than seven thousand children in Europe before it was withdrawn from the market in 1961. Pregnant women treated for cervical cancer in the 1960s with large doses of radiation bore children with defects and developmental disabilities.

Indeed, much of the medical and environmental health research today centers on the effects of drugs, toxic chemicals, radiation, and other factors on human health and development. Genetic counseling and testing of parents at risk for inherited defects has become an accepted part of medical practice. In addition, there have been many advances in the treatment of congenital defects since the 1950s. Modern orthopedic and plastic surgery is used to correct such problems as clubfoot and cleft palate. Transplants are used to correct deficiencies of the liver, kidneys, and other organs. Biomedical engineers have developed improved prosthetic devices to replace lost limbs and to aid in hearing, speaking, and seeing. An understanding of metabolic disorders such as phenylketonuria (PKU) has led to better treatment that utilizes special diets and medications. Because it is difficult to undo the damage of congenital defects fully, the most promise seems to be in the areas of prevention and protection. Prospective parents and their medical care providers need to be alert to potential hereditary problems, as well as to exposure to hazardous
environmental agents. Pregnant women need to maintain a healthy diet and check with their physicians before taking any drugs. With advances in preventive medicine, diagnosis, and treatment, the future is much brighter for reducing the health toll of congenital malformations.

Bibliography:

"Birth Defects." MedlinePlus, May 2, 2013.

"Birth Defects: Overview." National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Apr. 3, 2013.

"Birth Defects: What They Are and How They Happen." March of Dimes, 2013.

"Facts about Birth Defects." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Feb. 24, 2011.

Heyman, Bob, and Mette Henriksen. Risk, Age, and Pregnancy: A Case Study of Prenatal Genetic Screening and Testing. New York: Palgrave, 2001.

Moore, Keith L., and T. V. N. Persaud. The Developing Human. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2008.

Nixon, Harold, and Barry O’Donnell. The Essentials of Pediatric Surgery. 4th ed. Boston: Butterworth Heinemann, 1992.

Sadler, T. W. Langman’s Medical Embryology. 12th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2012.

Sherwood, Lauralee. Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems. 8th ed. Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole/Cengage Learning, 2013.

Stray-Gundersen, Karen, ed. Babies with Down Syndrome. Rev. ed. Kensington, Md.: Woodbine House, 1995.

What kind of beast is presented in William Blake's "The Tyger"? How it is related to the main theme of the poem?

The tyger is a "fearful" beast. In the first stanza, the speaker asks what "immortal hand or eye" (God) could have created him. In the fourth stanza, the speaker uses the metaphor of God as a blacksmith creating the tyger (tiger). Being born of fire and steel, the tiger is, in Blake's descriptions, something strong and fierce. In the following stanza, the speakers asks if the tiger's creator was happy about his creation: 

Did he smile his work to see? 

Did he who made the lamb make thee? 

The speaker asks if God ("he"), who made the lamb, also made the tiger. The lamb represents peace and love. The lamb is often symbolically synonymous with Christ in Christian theology. So, the speaker is asking if God could create something so loving (the lamb) and yet also create something so dangerous and ferocious. There are no answers to the speaker's questions. This leaves the poem open to different interpretations. Perhaps God did make both peaceful and dangerous things in the world to create a balance and an analogue with the good/evil dichotomy. Perhaps the tiger (or other dangerous and evil things the tiger represents) was created by a fallen angel, a demiurge, or a devil. The speaker can only ponder. 

Consider a gross simplification. The speaker asks who created the tiger and why. This echoes similar questions such as: If God is loving, why did he create suffering? Blake goes much deeper in terms of theological and philosophical questions. But the general idea concerns how and why the world contains love and hate, good and evil, peace and destruction. 

How does divorce affect children?

Nearly half of all marriages in America end in divorce. This legal ending of a marriage is considered one of life’s most stressful events. It can be especially traumatic for children. Observing the breakup of their parents’ marriage, dealing with one parent’s absence, and adjusting to life in two households can be incredibly challenging for children.

According to child psychologists, children of divorce tend to be at risk of emotional, psychological, and social problems, especially during the year or two immediately following the event. However, the degree to which any individual child is affected varies according to several factors. The home situation prior to the divorce makes a difference, as does the child’s age and personal characteristics. Additionally, the amount of ongoing conflict, the stability of the home environment, and the availability of a support network impact the child’s experience as well.

Overview

Divorce tends to be a turning point in the lives of children because life after a divorce is markedly different than life before. Sometimes this change is a positive one. For example, divorce may be beneficial to children who live in homes with domestic violence or for those with parents who often fight. But for most children, divorce is a negative event. These children may feel a great deal of pain, loneliness, anxiety, and emotional upheaval. As a result, they may act out in problematic ways although these behaviors are short-term in nature, as research suggests that most children adjust to their post-divorce lives within 24 to 36 months. However, for some children, these behaviors can last for the long-term.

Child’s Age

According to psychologists, a child’s age at the time of divorce makes a difference in the child's experience. Young children and adolescents experience divorce much differently. In general, during and after a divorce, younger children feel and act more dependently toward the parents. Very young children, such as infants and toddlers, tend to feel confused. They may not understand what is happening but recognize that they are experiencing a loss. They may respond with anger that emerges in unforeseen ways. For example, some children experience intense separation anxiety. They whine, cry, throw temper tantrums, and act out with rage. Some children may revert to earlier behaviors by wetting the bed or otherwise disrupting their toilet training. Even children who are a little older, such as those in early elementary years, experience these feelings of anger and helplessness. They may become angry and withdrawn. They may be temporarily unable to engage in everyday self-care skills, such as dressing themselves.

Older children such as preteens and adolescents may respond in the opposite way. While these children may also experience feelings of abandonment and anger, they may become disillusioned with the idea of family. They become more independent and less engaged with their parents and siblings. Children in this age group are at high risk for extreme behaviors, such as skipping school, shoplifting, smoking, or experimenting with sex, drugs, or alcohol.

Of course, not all older children respond this way. Some older children may instead attempt to become “perfect” in an effort to bring their family back together. These children sometimes repress their feelings of anger and loss for a short time.

Child’s Resiliency

Resiliency is the ability to adapt to stress and adversity. For children of divorce, resiliency means demonstrating the ability to adapt positively to the stress of their new situation. It means being able to bounce back from the divorce without suffering long-term effects.

Resiliency is an important factor in how well children do after divorce. It impacts how quickly children are able to process the situation and deal with their feelings. Parents can help their children build resiliency by providing a supportive, protective environment in which children feel safe and loved. They can teach their children to have a strong, positive view of themselves.

Conflict and Stability

The behavior of the divorcing parents and the quality of the parenting they are able to offer greatly influences their children's experience. If the divorcing parents engage in ongoing conflict and tension, the children tend to have a more difficult time. This is especially true if the parents are in a heated custody battle or try to force the children to take sides or turn against the other parent. Children should be shielded as much as possible from the struggles occurring between the adults.

Another issue that affects the long-term consequences of divorce involves the stability of the home life offered by the custodial parent, the parent with whom the child primarily lives. Unfortunately, divorce often results in serious economic problems for families. The reduction in income and the custodial parent's need to enter the workforce or work additional hours can dramatically change the children's home life. Whenever possible, parents should work to make sure their children live in a home where they feel adequately safe. They should have shelter, nutritious food, and clean clothing.

Additionally, children do better with routine. Parents should work to restore their child's sense of security by establishing routines, so the children know what to expect on a daily basis. Children should not have to guess about what is going to happen as they move from one home to the other.

Finally, a strong support system can make a huge difference. A professional counselor can offer children an outlet for their feelings. A counselor can also be a source of positive strategies for handling change. Extended family members, teachers, and peers can also provide a strong support system that allows children to overcome the initial stress and anxiety of the divorce and avoid long-term problems.

Bibliography

DeBord, Karen. “Focus on Kids: The Effects of Divorce on Children.” North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. <http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/fcs/pdfs/fcs471.pdf>

Hopf, Sarah Marie. “Risk and Resilience in Children Coping with Parental Divorce.” Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. < http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/spring-2010/risk-and-resilience-in-children-coping-with-parental-divorce#.VE6e9_l4p-I>

Pickhardt, Carl. E. “The Impact of Divorce on Young Children and Adolescents.” From Surviving Your Child’s Adolescence. Published in Psychology Today. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. <http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/surviving-your-childs-adolescence/201112/the-impact-divorce-young-children-and-adolescents>

Utah State University. “What are the possible consequences of divorce for children?” Utah Divorce Orientation. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. <http://www.divorce.usu.edu/files/uploads/Lesson5.pdf>