Did Friar Laurence rely on logic or emotion when making the decisions to marry Romeo and Juliet, to help Juliet devise a plan to fake her death,...

To look at the other side of the above argument, one could say Friar Laurence approached the situation of Romeo and Juliet with a logical frame of mind, but things outside of his control interfered. In the first situation, when he decides to marry Romeo and Juliet, he does so to try to end the feud between their families, saying:

"For this alliance may so happy prove
To turn your households' rancor to pure love" (2.3.91-2)

It is not so illogical that this would work. Both the Capulets and Montagues love their respective children and might be more likely to stand by the decision rather than disown them (though Capulet would be a hard sell). Friar Laurence does have an ultimate plan and it is driven by logic. 

As for Friar Laurence's second decision to decide to help Juliet fake her own death, he is still acting in accordance with his own internal logic, though the audience is beginning to worry about his judgment. Recall that Juliet has threatened to kill herself rather than marry Paris. In order to save her life (as well as his own reputation), Friar Laurence chooses to do something drastic and he frames it as such:

"I do spy a kind of hope,
Which craves as desperate an execution
As that is desperate which we would prevent" (4.1.70-3)

Friar Laurence knows this plan is dangerous, but he weighs it against the other dangers and considers it the best choice. 

For his third decision, to run out of the tomb without Juliet, I have little defense. He seems to let his emotions get the better of him there, with both his fear of the supernatural and his likely fear of judgment from the community for his previous actions.

In which way did Rosa Parks have an impact on American society? Is Rosa Parks the reason for equality in the United States?

The answer to this really depends on whether you subscribe to the “great man” (or, in Parks’s case, “great woman”) view of history.  If you do subscribe to that point of view, you could say that equality exists in the US (to the extent that it actually does) because of her.  If you do not subscribe to this school of thought, Parks is much less important.

The great man view of history holds that important individuals drive historical events.  These individuals cause these events to happen.  In this view, for example, we might say that Hitler caused WWII and that Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King brought about equality in the United States.  People who follow this school of thought would argue that Parks really sparked the Civil Rights Movement by refusing to give up her seat on the bus.  If not for her, the movement would not have begun and we would not have as much racial equality as we do.

To others, Parks herself is not that important in that she did not cause the Civil Rights Movement to happen.  In this view, if Parks had not started the movement, someone else would have.  This is because forces greater than any one individual drive historical events.  In other words, the Civil Rights Movement did not start because Rosa Parks remained seated.  Instead, it occurred because of large historical forces like the legacy of WWII, the Cold War, the increase in American prosperity, and the fact that the rhetoric of American independence emphasizes equality and justice.  It is those larger forces, and not the actions of any single individual, that cause important things to happen.

I tend to subscribe to this second point of view.  Rosa Parks, as an individual, was admirable.  She was willing to fight for what she believed was right.  She helped to begin a movement that made the US a better place.  However, I do not believe we can say that whatever equality we have today exists because of her.  I believe that the Civil Rights Movement would have occurred more or less as it did even if Parks had not been on that bus on December 1, 1955.

Are Odysseus's actions in dealing with the suitors consistent with his actions in earlier episodes of the epic?

Absolutely, Odysseus's actions in dealing with the suitors are consistent with his earlier behavior in the poem.  He deals with them cleverly and definitively, refusing to feel guilty for the action he feels he was required, by honor, to take.  Consider his treatment of Polyphemus, the Cyclops.  That monster disobeyed the rules of ancient Greek hospitality, choosing instead to entrap the men and make meals of them.  Odysseus shrewdly tells him that his name is "Nobody" and then gets him drunk; once the Cyclops has passed out, Odysseus and his men blind him with a stake they'd sharpened in the fire.  Then, when other monsters come to his aid, Polyphemus tells them that "Nobody" is hurting him, and so they leave!  It's very smart.  Further, Odysseus feels that the action he takes is justified by the Cyclops's own behavior.

Likewise, when Odysseus returns home, he comes up with another clever plan to avenge the suitors' terrible behavior toward his family and punish them for their absolute disregard of the rules of hospitality.  Although, in this case, instead of failing to offer hospitality, they have taken advantage of it.  He, then, deals with them swiftly and decisively, killing all those who behaved unscrupulously in his absence.  Odysseus is capable of terrible violence when he feels it is deserved, and those who disregard the gods' laws about hospitality seem, to him, to be especially deserving.  We see this, first, in his treatment of Polyphemus, and again in his treatment of the suitors; thus, he is consistent in his actions.

What are brain and central nervous system cancers?

Related conditions:

Seizures, psychiatric symptoms (including abnormal personality and behavioral characteristics), loss of memory and cognition

Definition:
Brain and central nervous system (CNS) cancers are masses of abnormal cells (malignant tumors) in the brain and central nervous system that grow rapidly and can invade surrounding normal tissue. Brain tumors are named for both the type of cell from which they arose and their location in the brain. For example, schwannomas are named after the Schwann cells, astrocytomas after astrocytes, oligodendrogliomas after oligodendrocytes, meningiomas after the meninges or brain membranes, and pineoblastomas after the pineal gland. Exceptions are medulloblastomas, which are undifferentiated neuroectodermal tumors of the cerebellum, and central neuroblastomas, which affect the brain cortex. The naming system for pediatric brain tumors is still evolving and remains controversial.

Risk factors: Chemicals such as vinyl chlorides, aromatic hydrocarbons, and N-nitroso compounds in cigarettes; ionizing radiation; electromagnetic fields; and viral infections have been suggested as possible environmental risk factors. Some brain cancers appear to be more common in people working with radiation and chemicals, such as employees of nuclear plants and oil refineries. However, none of these environmental factors have been conclusively shown to cause brain cancer. Genetic risk factors include inherited diseases such as tuberous sclerosis and von Hippel-Lindau disease.

Etiology and the disease process: The causes of brain and CNS cancers are still unproven. Environmental, genetic, medical, and lifestyle factors may all play a role in causing these cancers. Brain tumors can be primary or secondary. Primary tumors originate in the brain and are rarer than secondary brain tumors. Once they occur, primary brain tumors rarely metastasize to other tissues beyond the spinal cord. Examples of primary brain tumors are schwannomas, astrocytomas, medulloblastomas, meningiomas, and oligodendrogliomas. Secondary or metastatic tumors originate elsewhere in the body and migrate or metastasize to the brain. The types of cancer most likely to metastasize to the brain are breast cancer, lung cancer, melanoma, and colon cancer. Nasopharyngeal cancer can also metastasize to the brain via the cranial nerve or through openings in the bone at the base of the skull, called foramina.

Incidence: The annual incidence of CNS tumors in the United States between 2007 and 2011 was 6.4 per 100,000 people, with an estimated 4.3 deaths per 100,000 people annually, according to the National Cancer Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program. Approximately 23,380 new cases of brain and central nervous system cancers occurred in the United States in 2014, as well as an estimated 14,320 deaths from these cancers. Brain tumors account for 85 to 90 percent of all primary CNS tumors. Incidence rates of primary brain tumors are highest in people of Caucasian descent and are higher in men (7.6 per 100,000) than in women (5.4 per 100,000). Brain tumors are most common in people older than fifty-five, with a median age at diagnosis of fifty-seven. However, they can occur at any age.

Primary brain tumors are rarer than secondary brain tumors. The ratio of secondary to primary brain tumors is thought to be at least 3:1, although precise statistics are unavailable. According to the Central Brain Tumor Registry of the United States (CBTRUS) 2013 statistical report, the most common primary brain tumors are meningiomas and glioblastomas, which together make up 51.4 percent of all primary brain tumors. The next most common are pituitary tumors (14.7 percent), nerve sheath tumors (8.1 percent), and astrocytomas (6.1 percent). The most common primary spinal tumors are schwannomas, meningiomas, and ependymomas, accounting for approximately 79 percent of primary spinal tumors, as reported by the National Cancer Institute.

Secondary brain tumors occur in approximately one-fourth of all metastatic cancers. About 85 percent of secondary tumors occur in the cerebrum and 15 percent in the cerebellum, according to the American Brain Tumor Association in 2012. Multiple metastases in the brain are more common than solitary metastases, occurring in more than 80 percent of cases.

Symptoms: Symptoms of brain tumors include persistent headaches that become more intense and frequent, seizures, problems walking and speaking, vision problems (including blurred vision, double vision, or loss of peripheral vision), loss of memory and cognition, personality or behavioral changes, abnormal breathing rates, dizziness, nausea or vomiting, loss of hearing, and hormonal disorders.

In one study of brain tumors and seizures, seizures were observed in more than 38 percent of patients with primary brain tumors and in 20 percent of patients with cerebral metastases. Oligodendrogliomas are more likely than other types of CNS tumors to be associated with seizures.

Screening and diagnosis: The first step of brain-tumor screening involves a neurological exam to test vision, hearing, balance, coordination, and reflexes. If the neurological exam results warrant further testing, the doctor may order brain-imaging scans, such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, which produce pictures of the brain in which tumors can be distinguished by means of dyes or magnetic fields. Computed tomography is better at detecting bone calcification and skull lesions; magnetic resonance imaging is better for detecting soft-tissue and spinal cord tumors. Other possible tests include an angiogram, in which a dye is injected into the blood to highlight the blood vessels in and around the brain; x-ray scans of the head and skull to reveal changes to skull bones and calcium deposits associated with brain tumors; and positron emission tomography (PET), which identifies areas of abnormal brain metabolism. The discovery of genetic mutations (changes in specific genes) that are linked to different types of cancers has opened the door to future genetic screening for at-risk individuals. A genetic screen involves taking a blood sample and analyzing the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in the sample for genetic mutations that are known to cause a specific type of cancer.

When a tumor is detected on a brain scan, a biopsy is usually performed to make a diagnosis. A biopsy involves taking a sample of the tumor; this can be done in a separate procedure or during surgery to remove the tumor. The tumor can be biopsied by open craniotomy, in which the cranium or skull is opened to expose the brain, allowing a sample of the tumor to be surgically removed. Hard-to-reach tumors can be sampled by means of a needle biopsy. A small hole, known as the “burr” hole, is drilled in the cranium, and tumor cells are extracted with a narrow-bore needle. The tumor sample is frozen and cut into very thin slices, which are then examined under a microscope. This allows the medical team to confirm the presence of a tumor and determine the specific type of tumor. Additional tests may also be performed to help pinpoint the tumor type.

There is no standard method for staging brain tumors. A brain tumor is classified according to the tumor grade, the type of cell from which it originated, and its location in the central nervous system. The World Health Organization (WHO) grades CNS tumors on a scale from I to IV. Grade I tumors grow slowly and rarely spread to other tissues. The following types of brain tumors are classified as grade I: pilocytic astrocytomas, grade I meningiomas, and grade I ependymomas. Grade II tumors typically grow slowly but may spread to other tissues. These include diffuse astrocytomas, grade II meningiomas, oligodendrogliomas, grade II ependymomas, oligoastrocytomas (made up of a mixture of oligodendrogliomal and astrocytomal cells), pinealcytomas, and craniopharyngiomas. Grade III tumors contain fast-growing cells that often spread to other tissues and include anaplastic astrocytomas, anaplastic oligodendrogliomas, anaplastic ependymomas, anaplastic oligoastrocytomas, and pinealoblastomas. Grade IV tumors grow rapidly, spread aggressively, and contain cells that appear very different from normal cells. Grade IV tumors include gliobastomas and medulloblastomas, which usually occur in children and adults aged twenty-one to forty.

Treatment and therapy: The most common treatment for brain and central nervous system cancers involves surgery to remove as much of the tumor as possible without disrupting neurological function. Surgery usually does not result in the removal of all tumor tissue. In addition, some tumors are located deep in the brain and cannot be reached without considerable damage to the surrounding tissue. These tumors are sometimes diagnosed without conducting a biopsy and treated by nonsurgical means. Radiation treatment and chemotherapy can be used to remove cancer cells remaining after surgery and to treat deep-seated tumors that are not amenable to surgical removal. Radiation therapy is effective for a wider range of brain and spinal cord tumors than chemotherapy. Radiation can enhance the cure rate and prolong disease-free survival. A common type of radiation treatment is external beam radiation therapy (EBRT). Chemotherapy has been shown to prolong disease-free survival in patients with gliomas, medulloblastomas, and some germ-cell tumors. Chemotherapy agents include dexamethasone, mannitol, furosemide, and nitrosourea. Anticonvulsants are also used to treat cancer patients with seizures.

The majority of brain tumors are accompanied by multiple metastases. These can be treated with a combination of surgery or radiosurgery and whole-brain radiation therapy (WBRT). Radiosurgery is useful for lesions that have a diameter smaller than three centimeters. Corticosteroids and anticonvulsants can also be used as needed. Chemotherapy is not as widely used for metastatic brain tumors but may be effective for brain metastases from chemosensitive primary tumors.

New therapies being tested include tyrosine kinase receptor inhibitors, farnesyl transferase inhibitors, viral-based gene therapy, and oncolytic viruses. Patients with tumors that do not respond well to the commonly used treatments can look into clinical trials using novel therapies combined with EBRT.

Surgery to remove brain tumors can sometimes result in damage to normal brain tissue, which can cause partial paralysis, changes in sensation, muscle weakness, and defects in thinking and language function. These patients may be referred for physical and speech therapy to regain muscle and language functions, respectively. Follow-up visits are an important part of patient care and usually occur every three to four months for the first two to three years after treatment, then once or twice a year after that. The doctor will discuss treatment side effects, review medical history, and conduct various tests to determine if the cancer has recurred or metastasized to other parts of the body.

Prognosis, prevention, and outcomes: A cancer patient’s prognosis depends on age (whether younger or older than sixty), the number and location of tumors in the brain and spinal cord, the rate of tumor growth and metastasis, and the tumor’s response to treatment. The prognosis is better for brain metastases from breast cancer and worse for brain metastases from colon cancer. When doctors discuss survival rates, they are referring to the percentage of people with a specific type and stage of cancer who survive for a predetermined period of time after their diagnosis. A common statistic is the five-year survival rate. Doctors may talk about the percentage of people who are alive, the percentage who are symptom-free, or the percentage who are disease-free five years after diagnosis. These numbers are averages for large groups of people and do not predict the specific outcome for an individual patient.

Because the causes of brain and central nervous system cancers are not well established, prevention strategies are still evolving. As with other cancers, quitting smoking, maintaining a healthy diet, and exercising are likely to have beneficial and preventive effects. A novel therapy that is undergoing clinical trials is DCVax-L, a treatment for glioblastoma multiforme that involves vaccination with dendritic cells that recognize molecules on an individual patient’s tumor cells.

When examining outcomes for brain cancer survivors, it is important to also consider their quality of life. A survivor’s quality of life has been directly linked to cognitive impairment, especially defects in speech and language.

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I need help writing an essay responding to the following prompt: Explain your point of view in not less than 10 pages. Is politics a dirty game?...

The first thing you should do in responding to this prompt is to narrow your topic. There is no possible way to know if politics in every human culture over several thousand years was somehow a "dirty game", even assuming there is some clear definition of what is meant by that colloquial phrase. Instead, the first thing you should do is to narrow your topic to discuss politics in one specific country and region.

Next, you need to define your concept of "dirty game". One of the best starting points would be the work of Transparency International, an NGO that has pioneered the efforts to study, quantify, and reduce corruption across the globe. You might want to look at such issues as whether bribery is common in the nation about which you are writing, the degree to which laws and regulations are rigged to benefit the wealthy and powerful, and the degree to which holders of political office benefit from misuse of power. 

The main body of your essay should be a factually based analysis of the evidence for specific forms of corruption in the region you have selected. You should begin this section with general statistical evidence and then analyze specific examples, perhaps using materials in the Panama Papers for evidence if relevant.

You should conclude with a comparative analysis, looking at whether your selected nation or region is more or less corrupt than other regions at a similar stage of economic development. 

`sum` (2^n)/n!

Hello!

I assume the sum is from `n=0` to infinity. This series is (absolutely) convergent, which is simple to check by the Ratio test.

Consider the exponential function `e^x.` Its Taylor series is `sum_(n=0)^oo x^n/(n!),` and `e^x` is equal to the sum of this series for all real (and complex) `x.` The sum in question is therefore `e^2,` which is approximately `7.39.`

What does the title A Northern Light mean, and why did Jennifer Donnelly choose this?

Unfortunately, Jennifer Donnelly has never shared explicitly why she chose this title or the meaning behind it. As with all parts of a text, they are open to interpretation!

A Northern Light is a work of young-adult historical fiction, set in the year 1906 in Upstate New York. The story follows Mattie Gokey as she struggles with her obligation to work on her father's farm and her dream of becoming a writer. Along the way, Mattie takes up work at a nearby hotel where out-of-town people like to spend their summer vacations. Mattie is pulled into the mysterious death of a young woman named Grace Brown, and she is the only person who can really find out what happened to her. The bulk of the book takes place over just a few days, but Donnelly stretches out the story with intimate details of people's thoughts and feelings. This coming-of-age story is a truly powerful read!

The title, A Northern Light, plays off of a phrase many people are familiar with-- the northern lights. This is another name for the aurora borealis: the electron activity that takes place in the night sky near the poles of Earth, creating beautiful displays of light and color. However, light need not be taken so literally; it can also mean a source of inspiration or hope. Mattie's life can seem pretty dark and dreary at times. She is responsible for much of the work on the farm, as well as the care of her younger sisters, and she's studying for exams! With so much on her plate, she feels overwhelmed and trapped. When Grace Brown comes into her life and Mattie comes to know her posthumously through her letters, Mattie realizes the importance of the opportunity that has been offered to her. The book ends with Mattie saying, "I have to, because she can't." Though she doesn't say explicitly who can't do what, one can interpret that Mattie feels a sense of duty to Grace Brown's memory. Mattie identifies with the dead Miss Brown, who was also young, plain, and in love with a handsome boy. Mattie, like Grace, felt trapped by the possibilities of her life-- did she really want to be a wife and mother with no time to read and write? Or worse, an unwed mother? I think that Mattie was inspired to go to college and become a writer in honor of this girl's life. She would not participate in the legacy of young women having their dreams squashed by societal obligations.

Northern refers very much to the setting of the book. The Adirondack region of Upstate New York is referred to as the North Woods in the book.