Why is the England Revolution called a bloodless revolution?

The England Revolution—also known as the Glorious Revolution—is sometimes called a bloodless revolution. While the transition of power in England was largely void of the fighting and loss of life that often accompanies revolutions, calling it a bloodless revolution perhaps is not accurate either. 

In fact, there was fighting and death in both Scotland and Ireland during this revolution. However, given the fact that this fighting occurred outside of England, history hasn't been kind in remembering the fact that lives were lost during the "bloodless revolution." Modern historians will now often simply refer to it as the Revolution of 1688.

Despite the loss of these lives, the revolution was largely a successful example of how overthrowing power can end peacefully. The revolution, which occurred in 1688, brought with it one of England's most important political documents—the Bill of Rights. Similarly, this revolution marked the beginning of a constitutional monarchy, rather than a Catholic monarchy. This meant that no single individual could hold absolute power.

What were the effects of the American Civil War?

First, let's look at the war in terms of human cost: over 620,000 people died in the Civil War. The war did improve embalming techniques in this country, and the U.S. Army adopted "dog tags" so bodies could more easily be identified and sent home. In addition to causing the deaths of many people, the war also disfigured and maimed thousands more. After the war, one quarter of the state of Georgia's budget went toward providing artificial limbs for that state's veterans.  

Politically, the war changed America. African Americans gained their freedom, citizenship, and suffrage all within five years of the war's end. The Democratic Party was associated with secession, so the decades after the war saw the growth of the Republican Party. Many war heroes went into politics, and several presidents of the nation were veterans of the war, including Ulysses S. Grant. The end of the war also brought about Reconstruction, which attempted to bind the North and South back together, although this was difficult because the South resented military occupation. There continued to be a rift between Northern and Southern politicians until 1898, when both sides found something they could agree on — an imperialistic war against Spain, known as the Spanish-American War.  

Economically, the war changed America. The mass production techniques that provided supplies for over one million Union soldiers was turned to civilian purposes; soon, people could buy more mass-produced goods than ever before. During the war, the Union also developed its railroad and telegraph lines, as these were key to keep its armies in the field informed and supplied. After the war, these technologies would be put to civilian use, binding the nation closer together economically. The North's economy grew immensely after the war. The Southern economy was in shambles after the war. What railroads existed in the South were destroyed during the war. In the Shenandoah Valley and Georgia, total war destroyed farms and towns. Ships had to be towed out of rivers and harbors, which had to be made accessible again to commerce. Since the South had a lot of land to farm and a shortage of capital, many people (both white and black) turned to sharecropping, which was actually a life of generational poverty. Many places in the South practiced sharecropping until WWII — seventy-five years after the Civil War.  

What are feet?

Structure and Functions

The anatomy of the foot is very similar to that of the hand; however, the foot is adapted to perform very different functions. The human hand has the ability to perform fine movements such as grasping and writing, while the foot is involved mainly in support and movement. Therefore, the bones and muscles of the foot tend to be heavier and function without the same dexterity as the hand.

The twenty-six bones of the foot include the tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges. The proximal portion of the foot next to the ankle is composed of seven tarsal bones: the calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, medial cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, and lateral cuneiform. The bones are rather irregular in shape and form gliding joints; these joints allow only a limited movement when compared to other joints in the body. The calcaneus forms the large heel bone, which serves as a major attachment for the muscles that are located in the back of the lower leg. Just above the calcaneus is another large foot bone called the talus. The talus rests between the tibia and the fibula, the two lower leg bones. Interestingly, the talus is the single bone that receives the entire weight of the body when an individual is standing; it must then transmit this weight to the rest of the foot below. The cuboid and the three cuneiform
bones meet the proximal end of the long foot bones, the metatarsals.

The five separate metatarsal bones are relatively long and thin when compared to the tarsal bones. Anatomists distinguish between the five metatarsals by number. If one begins numbering from the medial (or inside) part of the foot, that metatarsal is number one and the lateral (or outside) metatarsal is number five. The distal portion of each metatarsal articulates (meets) with the toe bones, or phalanges.

Humans have toes that are very similar to their fingers. In fact, the numbers and names of the toe and finger bones, phalanges, are identical. The major differences lie in the fact that the finger phalanges are longer than the phalanges that make up toes. Hinge joints are located between each phalanx and allow for flexion and extension movements only. Human toes (or fingers) are made up of fourteen different phalanges. Each toe (or finger) has three phalanges except for the big toe (or thumb), which has only two. The toes are named in a similar way as the metatarsals; that is, the big toe is number one and the little toe is number five. The three phalanges that make up each toe (except for the big toe) are named according to location. The phalanx meeting the metatarsal is referred to as the proximal phalanx. The bone at the tip of the toe is the distal phalanx, and the one in between is the middle phalanx. Since the big toe only has two phalanges, they are called proximal and distal phalanges.

Although it seems that there is only a single arch in each foot, podiatrists and anatomists identify three arches: the medial and lateral longitudinal arches and the transverse, or metatarsal, arch. The medial longitudinal arch, as the name implies, is located on the medial surface of the foot and follows the long axis from the calcaneus to the big toe. Likewise, the lateral longitudinal arch is on the lateral surface and runs from the heel to the little toe. The transverse, or metatarsal, arch crosses the width of the foot near the proximal end of the metatarsals. The bones are only one factor that maintains arches in the feet and prevents them from flattening under the weight of the body. Ligaments (which connect bones), muscles, and tendons (which attach muscles to bones) are primarily responsible for the support of the arches. The arches function to distribute body weight between the calcaneus and the distal end of the metatarsals (the balls of the feet). They also are flexible enough to absorb some of the shock to the feet from walking, running, and jumping.

While the feet seem to be composed of only bones, tendons, and ligaments, the movements of the toes and feet require an extensive system of muscles. Most of the larger muscles that act on the foot and toes are actually located in the lower leg. Anatomists divide these muscles into separate compartments: anterior, posterior, and lateral.

The muscles of the anterior compartment move the foot upward (dorsiflex) and extend the toes. These muscles include the tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus, and peroneus tertius. The tibialis anterior is attached to the top of the first metatarsal and pulls the medial part of the foot upward and slightly lateral. All of the toes except the big toe are pulled up (extended) by the extensor digitorum longus. The extensor hallucis longus moves only the big toe upward, while the peroneus tertius is attached to the fifth metatarsal and moves the foot upward.

The muscles of the lateral compartment act to move the foot in a lateral or outward direction. The peroneus longus and peroneus brevis are attached to the first and fifth metatarsal, respectively. Using these attachments, the muscles can pull the foot laterally.

The muscles of the posterior compartment are the largest group and act to flex the foot and toes. All of these muscles share a common tendon, the calcaneus (or Achilles) tendon. As the name suggests, this large tendon attaches to the calcaneus bone. The larger, more superficial muscles include the gastrocnemius, soleus, and plantaris; these powerful muscles are commonly called the calf muscles. Also in the posterior compartment are four smaller muscles located beneath the calf muscles: the popliteus (located directly behind the knee joint), flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, and tibialis posterior. The popliteus rotates the lower leg medially. The flexor hallucis longus flexes the big toe. The remaining toes are flexed by the flexor digitorum longus, while the tibialis posterior acts opposite the tibialis anterior to flex the foot.

Within the foot itself are some muscles known as the intrinsic foot muscles. All but one of these muscles are located on the bottom surface of the foot. This one muscle extends all of the toes except the little toe. The remaining intrinsic muscles are on the plantar (bottom) surface and serve to flex the toes.

The major vessels that provide blood to the foot include branches from the anterior tibial artery. This relatively large artery is located along the anterior surface of the lower leg and branches into the dorsalis pedis artery, which serves the ankle and upper part of the foot. Physicians often check for a pulse in this foot artery to provide information about circulation to the foot and circulation in general, as this is the point farthest from the heart. The bottom parts of the feet are supplied with blood by branches of the peroneal artery. At the ankle, this artery branches into plantar arteries, which supply the structures on the sole of the foot. The human toes receive most of their blood from branches of the plantar arteries called the digital arteries.

Disorders and Diseases

Even though the anatomy of the foot is resistant to the tremendous amount of force that the body places on it, it can be injured. Force injuries to the foot commonly result in fractures or breaks of the metatarsals and phalanges. Occasionally, the calcaneus may fracture from a fall on a hard surface. More commonly, patients complain of painful heel syndrome.

Because the shock-absorbing pads of tissue on the heel become thinner with age, repeated pressure on the heel can cause pain. Prolonged standing, walking, or running can add to the pressure, as can being overweight. One cause of pain is plantar fasciitis, an inflammation of the tough band of connective tissue on the sole. The inflammation occurs when the muscles located on the back of the lower leg that are attached to the connective tissue at the calcaneus pull under stress. This may even be associated with small fractures. X-rays may show small spurs of bone near the site of stress; however, these spurs are not believed to be the cause of pain.

Deformities of the foot at birth are fairly common and include clubfoot, flat foot, and clawfoot. The cause of these anomalies is abnormal development. The foot of the fetus normally goes through stages where it is turned outward and inward but gradually assumes a normal position by about the seventh month of gestation. In the case of clubfoot, arrested development in the stage when the foot is turned inward causes the muscles, bones, and joints to develop in this abnormal anatomical position. At the time of birth, the deformity is readily observable and the foot immobile. Treatment includes splints, casting, and surgery. If treatment is begun at birth, the foot may look relatively normal after approximately one year.

Almost everyone is born with feet that are flat because the arches do not begin to develop until the ligaments and muscles function normally. In most people, the arches are fully formed by the age of six. In some individuals, however, the ligaments and muscles remain weak and the feet do not develop a normal arch. Flat feet can also develop in adult life, at which time they are called “fallen arches.” Body weight moves along a precise path during walking or running, beginning with the heel touching the ground. Then, as the foot steps, the arch receives the forces pushing down on the foot. Because the bones, muscles, and ligaments form an arch in the foot, the arch can deform slightly and absorb some of the downward force. With further movement, the weight passes to the ball of the foot (the distal metatarsals). A fallen arch has lost this flexibility and shock-absorbing capability. The arch “falls” because of improper weight distribution along the foot, causing the arch to stretch excessively and to weaken with time. Without proper arch support, the foot begins to twist inward, or medially, causing the body weight to be transmitted to the inside of the foot rather than in a
straight line toward the toes. This problem often occurs in runners who have improperly fitted shoes or a poor running style (although anyone can suffer from fallen longitudinal arches, regardless of the individual’s level of physical activity). As a runner increases distance and speed without correcting his or her shoes or running form, the force applied to the feet increases. Fallen arches appear to occur particularly in runners or joggers who exercise on hard surfaces without proper technique or arch support.

A number of disorders can affect the skin of the foot. Corns are small areas of thickened skin on a toe that are usually caused by tight-fitting shoes. People with high arches are affected most because the arch increases the pressure applied to the toes during walking. If the corn becomes painful, the easiest treatment is for the person to wear better-fitting shoes. If the pain persists, a clinician can pare down the growth with a scalpel.

Plantar warts appear on the skin of the sole and are caused by a papillomavirus. Because of pressure from the weight of the body, the plantar
wart is often flattened and forced into the skin of the sole. The wart may disappear without treatment. If it persists, surgery or chemical therapy can be used to relieve the discomfort.

Athlete’s foot is a common fungal infection that causes the foot to become itchy, sore, and cracked. It is usually treated with antifungal agents such as miconazole. Preventive measures include keeping the feet dry and disinfecting areas where the fungus may live, such as shower stalls.

Another common deformity is a bunion, which is a bursa (fluid-filled pad) overlying the joint at the base of the big toe. Normal structure of the first metatarsal, first phalange, and their joint is necessary to withstand the force applied to them in everyday activities. A
bunion is caused by an abnormal outward projection of the joint and an inward projection of the big toe. Treatment involves correcting the position of the big toe and keeping it in a normal position. Sometimes surgery is necessary if the tissues become too swollen. In fact, some severe cases of bunions have required complete reconstruction of the toe. Unless treated, a bunion will get progressively worse.

Gout is a metabolic disorder, mainly found in men, which causes uric acid crystals to form in joints. Even though any joint can be affected, the big toe joint is likely the major site for gout because it is under chronic stress from walking. The joint is usually red, swollen, and very tender and painful. The first attack usually involves only one joint and lasts a few days. Some patients never experience another attack, but most have a second episode between six months and two years after the first. After the second attack, more joints may become involved. Treatment includes anti-inflammatory drugs and colchicine. These drugs help reduce the pain by decreasing the amount of inflammation around the joint. Physicians may also prescribe allopurinol to reduce the amount of uric acid that the body produces. Drugs are also available that increase the kidneys’ ability to excrete uric acid; examples of these agents are probenecid and sulfinpyrazone.

Perspective and Prospects

Even though the feet constitute a relatively small area of the body, ailments of the feet afflict more than half the world’s population. For a long time, disorders of the foot were not taken as seriously as those found in other parts of the body. It is now known, however, that poor foot health can have serious effects. For example, in children a painful foot condition not properly diagnosed and treated can result in lost school days and decreased participation in other activities. More important, an uncorrected congenital abnormality, if neglected, could have irreversible consequences. For the elderly, foot problems hinder or prevent normal activities such as taking care of personal needs, exercising, and socializing. Anything that affects the feet affects that individual’s overall health and well-being.

Because of the potentially devastating problems of improper foot care, a branch of medicine developed that specifically addresses problems of the feet. Physicians known as podiatrists practice a specialized branch of medicine called podiatry. It is the job of the podiatrist to assess the cause of the foot problem and the patient’s general medical condition in determining the need for and the course of treatment. This assessment often calls for contact with the patient’s primary care
physician for access to the patient’s medical records, as many diseases affect the whole body but present signs and symptoms in the feet. The podiatrist or other physician, such as an orthopedist, will evaluate a disorder through physical exams, laboratory tests, and anatomical tests to examine the internal structures; the latter may include X-rays, computed tomography (CT) scans, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The physician will then diagnose and begin treating the disorder using surgery, medical therapy, or physical therapy.

As more individuals become physically active throughout their lives, clinicians who practice
sports medicine are paying closer attention to problems of the foot. Many people seek to improve their health by walking, jogging, and bicycling. All these activities have proven to be excellent for maintaining cardiovascular health, but all place additional stress on the foot. Physicians who counsel patients on physical fitness programs attempt to identify individuals who may be injury-prone. Failure to recognize an anatomical anomaly of the feet could lead to an injury or series of injuries that restrict certain activities or even cause permanent damage. Occasionally, individuals are too enthusiastic about their exercise program and experience overuse injuries involving the feet. Such injuries may cause a sudden cessation of the physical activity and may have a significant demoralizing effect on individuals who finally decide to take steps to improve
their health and well-being.

People commonly neglect their feet and underemphasize the importance of the normal functional anatomy of the foot. Individuals who experience a foot injury, however, begin to appreciate the absolute importance of this rather complex but often overlooked structure.

Bibliography

"Bones, Joints, and Muscles." MedlinePlus, December 5, 2011.

Currey, John D. Bones: Structures and Mechanics. 2d ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2006.

Hales, Dianne. An Invitation to Health Brief. Updated ed. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning, 2010.

"Heel Injuries and Disorders." MedlinePlus, June 28, 2013.

Lippert, Frederick G., and Sigvard T. Hansen. Foot and Ankle Disorders: Tricks of the Trade. New York: Thieme, 2003.

Mader, Sylvia S. Human Biology. 13th ed. Dubuque, Iowa: McGraw-Hill, 2014.

Marieb, Elaine N., and Katja Hoehn. Human Anatomy and Physiology. 9th ed. San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings, 2013.

Shier, David N., Jackie L. Butler, and Ricki Lewis. Hole’s Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology. 11th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2012.

Van De Graaff, Kent M., and Stuart I. Fox. Concepts of Human Anatomy and Physiology. 5th ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown, 2000.

How does Macbeth destroy what Duncan built up during his reign? Scotland goes from thriving under a just and caring king to being ruined by a...

When Ross visits Lady Macduff, just prior to her murder, he tells her,

cruel are the times when we are traitors
And do not know ourselves; when we hold rumor
From what we fear, yet know not what we fear,
But float upon a wild and violent sea
Each way and move [...]. (4.2.22-26) 

He means that, during Macbeth's reign, people are accused of treason and have no idea why. In times like these, people believe every terrible rumor but don't even know what to really be afraid of; he says that it feels like being thrown around in the ocean and never actually getting anywhere.  This is what it is like to live in Scotland under Macbeth's reign.

When Lennox is speaking to another Lord in Act 3, scene 6, he says that Macduff has gone to England to meet with Malcolm and

warlike Siward,
That by the help of these—with Him above
To ratify the work—we may again
Give to our tables meat, sleep to our nights,
Free from our feasts and banquets bloody knives,
Do faithful homage and receive free honors.
All which we pine for now.  (3.6.36-42)

Lennox is hopeful that, with England's (and God's) aid and Malcolm on the throne, there will once again be enough food to feed everyone, that Scots will be able to sleep peacefully, that their dinners will be free from violent murders, that they will be able to once again respect and revere their king, and that subjects will again be rewarded for their loyalty and service to the crown. They have none of these while Macbeth rules.

What are five literary devices used in the poem "Preface to a Twenty Volume Suicide Note"?

Baraka uses an ellipsis in the first and fifth stanzas. The ellipsis (. . .) is used to mark the omission of a word or words. It is also used to allow a jump from one statement or topic to another. In the first stanza, the ellipsis might indicate other routine things that the speaker leaves out. The ellipsis then digresses to the conclusion "Things have come to that." 

In the third stanza, the speaker uses anaphora (repetition of a word or phrase) to emphasize how introspective he is on a daily basis. He repeats "And" and "each night." 

In the third stanza, the speaker says he counts the stars. There are too many stars to count. This is an example of hyperbole: an exaggeration. Counting all of the stars, an impossible task, suggests the speaker is trying to do something impossible. Perhaps this is his way of suggesting a search for meaning in the infinite.

The line "Nobody sings anymore" is also hyperbolic. It suggests the speaker notes a loss of joy in the world. Clearly, there are still people who sing. The poet is exaggerating to make a melancholy point. The tone in the poem is introspective and melancholy.

In The Great Gatsby, why is it odd that Tom wants Nick to meet his mistress?

Assuming that it is odd that Tom wants Nick to meet his mistress, Myrtle, it would be because Daisy, Tom's wife, is a "second cousin once removed" (Fitzgerald 10) to Nick. So there is a question of family solidarity, the idea being that Tom would more likely want to conceal his philandering than to brag about it to Daisy's cousin.

But in addition to Daisy being Nick's relative, Tom and Nick knew one another in college, they are both males, and Tom is clearly quite a braggart.  Male solidarity seems to trump any notion of family obligation for Nick, and he does become aware during his first dinner at the Buchanans that Daisy knows Tom has a mistress.  I think that Nick chalks Tom's behavior up to a form of conspicuous consumption and the cruelty that is clearly inherent within Tom. 

What kind of suspence is used in Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven?"

In his most well-known poem, The Raven, Edgar Allan Poe builds suspense through the gradual descent of the narrator into greater and greater depths of madness. It is a type of suspense built upon both the fear of the unknown--in effect, what is the meaning of this late-night intruder (the bird)--and the terror inherent in an encounter with a strange creature that seemingly arrives with purpose but the purpose of which remains a mystery. 

As The Raven begins, the narrator sits alone in his library or study, the walls lined with books, mourning the absence of "the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels name Lenore." He is distraught and lonely. It is midnight, the "witching hour" during which manifestations of the supernatural are prone to appear, including demons. In Poe's literature, those demons tended to be internal, his narrators on or just-past the line separating sanity from its antithesis. The narrator has no reason to expect a visitor this late at night, so the tapping he hears outside his chamber door is wholly unexpected and discomfiting. The effects of this unanticipated development are apparent in the following passage:

"And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain Thrilled me—filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before; So that now, to still the beating of my heart, I stood repeating  ’Tis some visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door— Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door; This it is and nothing more'.”

The visitor, of course, is the titular raven, a large black bird that enters the narrator's chamber, precipitating the latter's descent into madness. Poe continues to build tension as the narrator describes this intruder in malevolent terms intended to evoke horror: "Ghastly grim and ancient Raven wandering from the Nightly shore . . ." As the narrator continues to plead with the bird for some indication of its meaning or significance, he becomes increasingly incensed with the bird's silence save for the repeated utterance of that one famous word, "nevermore." Note, for instance, in the following passage that narrator's exasperation and terror at the presence of the raven:

“Prophet!” said I, “thing of evil!—prophet still, if bird or devil!— Whether Tempter sent, or whether tempest tossed thee here ashore, Desolate, yet all undaunted, on this desert land enchanted— On this home by Horror haunted—tell me truly, I implore— Is there—is there balm in Gilead?—tell me—tell me, I implore!” Quoth the Raven, “Nevermore.”

The full meaning of the intruder is never revealed. The poem ends with the narrator exhausted and seemingly defeated. All of his attempts at drawing out of the bird the reason for its presence have failed. The raven remains perched on the bust of the mythological figure of Pallas, goddess of wisdom, while continuing to repeat the "nevermore" in response to the protagonist's queries. The reader is left to ponder the metaphysical significance of the bird, which may or may not represent Satan. There is, after all, no reason to suspect that the narrator is a particularly venal or vile person, or that the absence of Lenore is due to any violent act on his part. Yet, Poe noticeably leaves lying out there allusions to demonic presence and the uncertain fate of the narrator's soul. 

The suspense in The Raven is the kind built upon fear of the unknown and of the evil that comes in the night. It was surely no mistake that Poe sets his poem at midnight, long associated with the appearance of ghastly and horrible creatures. And, the use of a large black bird only adds to the foreboding prevalent throughout this poem. The poem, after all, would not have succeeded if titled "The Parakeet," and featuring a tiny, brightly-colored bird such as those kept as pets by myriad innocent children. The solitude of the protagonist, the time of night, the darkness, the melancholy tone as he laments the absence of Lenore, and the intrusion of a large black, and presumably menacing, bird all establish a solid foundation for the suspense that Poe did succeed in injecting into his poem.