Based on the reading of the Narrative of Frederick Douglas An American Slave, what does Douglas have to say about the consequences of slavery for...

Frederick Douglass' argument throughout the book is clear: slavery is dehumanizing for both blacks and whites, slaves and slaveholders. He makes his argument best by providing examples of the dehumanizing effects of slavery.

For blacks, he points to the separation of families, the selling of very small children, the beating of slaves of all ages, and the inhumane treatment of the slaves by slaveowners and those who work for them to oversee the slaves. One specific example of this is Mr. Gore in Ch. 4 who is ruthless in his treatment of the slaves under his control. 

"Mr. Gore was proud, ambitious, and persevering. He was artful, cruel, and obdurate. He was just the man for such a place, and it was just the place for such a man. It afforded scope for the full exercise of all his powers, and he seemed to be perfectly at home in it. He was one of those who could torture the slightest look, word, or gesture, on the part of the slave, into impudence, and would treat it accordingly. " (Ch. 4).

Mr. Gore's behavior demonstrates his unwillingness to view slaves as human beings and he relishes in abusing them. Clearly this type of dehumanizing treatment of anyone can lead to dire consequences, and Douglass argued that this treatment broke many slaves mentally and physically, and many others (like Douglass) did all they could to escape it.

For whites, the act of slaveholding has, as Douglass pointed out in the case of Mrs. Auld, the ability to turn otherwise good people into bad ones. Mrs. Auld is critical to young Frederick's education by teaching him the alphabet, but once her husband warns her about the consequences of doing so, she stops. Her behavior from that point forward is cold and distant. The act of holding slaves has the consequence here of turning an otherwise caring woman into one who sees her slaves as less than human.

Douglass' narrative is a clear indictment of slavery due to its dehumanizing effects on everyone involved, whether black, white, Northern, Southern, slave, or slaveholder. His point is that anyone involved in such a dehumanizing enterprise is at risk of losing their own humanity.

What are methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections?

Causes and Symptoms

Staphylococcus aureus is a bacterium commonly found on skin, especially in the nose, axilla (underarm), groin, and rectal areas. Methicillin resistance is the genetically acquired ability of some strains to withstand exposure to a class of antibiotics designed to treat staphylococci. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections occur when a visible or microscopic break in the skin allows these bacterial organisms to enter the body. Such points of entry may be the result of injury, such as an abrasion sustained wrestling or playing football, or surgical, as in a cesarean section or a joint replacement. Needles used to inject medication or illicit drugs can also introduce these bacteria. Sometimes the source is as innocuous as a hair follicle. Occasionally the source of a bloodstream infection is never identified.

Many strains of MRSA are virulent and destructive. Infections are characterized by fever and pain as well as redness and swelling at the site. Pus may drain from the area or may build up as an abscess within infected tissue. MRSA may be invasive, meaning that it spreads deep into tissues and into the bloodstream and travels through the body infecting other sites. The most common site of infection is the skin where MRSA may cause cellulitis (infection of the skin layers), folliculitis (infection of hair follicles), or boils (abscesses complicating folliculitis). It is a common cause of foot and leg infections in patients with diabetes. Osteomyelitis (bone infection) can occur by direct invasion from an overlying skin infection or through trauma (fracture or foreign body such as shrapnel). When bacteria enter the bloodstream they may find a focus in any organ or tissue and infect that area, sometimes even forming abscesses in these secondary sites. The spine, spleen, and kidneys are common secondary sites. Bacterial endocarditis, or infection of the heart valves and linings, is a particularly dangerous form of MRSA infection and is very difficult to treat. MRSA infections can complicate surgical procedures, causing infection of the incision and sometimes invading deeper tissues or spreading systemically. MRSA infection of surgically placed foreign bodies (artificial joints, bone plates and pins, heart valves) sometimes occurs. MRSA pneumonia can occur in hospitalized patients who require respirators and is a rare but sometimes fatal complication of influenza.

Treatment and Therapy

Treatment of MRSA infections is challenging both because of the organism’s resistance to antibiotics and because of its aggressive and persistent nature. When possible, laboratory testing of the infecting organism can help guide the selection of antibiotics most likely to be effective. Specimens from the infected site (pus, infected tissue, blood) can be cultured for bacterial growth and the bacteria subjected to testing for susceptibility to a variety of antibiotics. Antibiotics that are shown in the laboratory to kill or inhibit growth of the cultured bacteria are the ones most likely to be effective in treating the infection.

The antibiotics most commonly used for treating MRSA infections are vancomycin, linezolid, daptomycin, quinupristin/dalfopristin, clindamycin, and various forms of sulfa drugs and tetracyclines. Intravenous (IV) treatment is necessary for severe infections. Some infections such as bacterial endocarditis and osteomyelitis require antibiotic treatment for six weeks or more, and relapse is not unusual. Surgical debridement to remove diseased or dead tissue or surgical drainage of an abscess may be necessary in addition to antibiotics. MRSA infection involving a foreign body (for example, a prosthetic joint) is particularly difficult to eradicate; removal of the foreign body is often recommended in addition to antibiotics.

Perspective and Prospects

Since the discovery of microorganisms as a cause of disease, Staphylococcus aureus, a common inhabitant of normal skin, has been shown capable of causing severe, life-threatening infection under some conditions. The introduction of antibiotics proved it able to adapt rapidly through mutation, as some strains became resistant first to penicillin and later to the semi-synthetic penicillins (such as methicillin) designed to treat penicillin-resistant staphylococci. Initially, these antibiotic-resistant strains were found almost entirely in hospitals and nursing homes where exposure to antibiotics and evolutionary pressure favored their development. Since the 1990s, MRSA has become widespread outside these settings. Some of these “community-acquired” strains, or CA-MRSA (as distinguished from hospital-acquired or HA-MRSA), have caused severe infections and even death in young, otherwise healthy people who became infected through minor sports injuries or following influenza. Public health authorities have instituted more stringent guidelines for cleaning athletic equipment, requiring athletes to immediate shower after practices and competitions, excluding infected athletes from participation, covering open wounds with bandages, and so on. Education and public awareness of appropriate hygiene and infection control measures are important in reducing the spread of the infection through communities. Efforts to reduce unnecessary or inappropriate antibiotic use (overprescription or premature discontinuation of a prescription) may help to prevent the further development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Research and development of more effective antibiotics are essential for improving cure rates for severe MRSA infections.

Bibliography

Boyer, Anthony F., and Marin H. Kollef. "Prevention and Treatment of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Colonization in the ICU: A Process of Care That Should be Considered Mandatory." Critical Care Medicine 42.2 (2014): 477–80. Print.

Bowman, M. C., D. A. Wohl, and A. H. Kaplan. “Staphylococcal Infections.” In Netter’s Internal Medicine, edited by M. S. Runge and M. A. Greganti. 2d ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2009. Print.

Brooks, G. F., et al., eds. Jawetz, Melnick, and Adelberg’s Medical Microbiology. 25th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010. Print.

Drebes, Julia, et al. "MRSA Infections: From Classical Treatment to Suicide Drugs." Current Medicinal Chemistry 21.15 (2014): 1809–19. Print.

"Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)." Natl. Inst. of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. NIH, 24 Jan. 2014. Web. 26 Aug. 2014.

"Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) Infections." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC, 28 May 2014. Web. 26 Aug. 2014.

Weston, Debbie. Fundamentals of Infection Prevention and Control: Theory and Practice. Chichester: Wiley, 2013. Print.

Woods, Michael. "Methicillin-Resistant Staph Infection." Department of Medicine. New York U, Aug. 2014. Web. 26 Aug. 2014.

Yok, Q. al-, and P. Moreillon. “Staphylococcus aureus (Including Staphylococcal Toxic Shock).” In Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, edited by G. L. Mandell, J. E. Bennett, and R. Dolin. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2010. Print.

Where else do we see the relationship between French and English life played out in Paul’s experiences of Paris? What are we to conclude about...

In the first chapter of the roman à clef, "Septembre," Paul and his colleagues are discussing possible names for their new tea room.

Bernard, one of his colleagues, offers, "My Tea Is Rich." This makes no sense to Paul. Jean-Marie, another co-worker, explains that it is a play on a humorous expression that was common in English-language textbooks: My tailor is rich. This, too, makes no sense to Paul who also insists that, regardless of its perceived humor among the French, it is still an awful name for a tea room.

This launches the group into a discussion on the ways in which both the English, who really stand in for all Anglicized peoples in the novel, and the French appropriate aspects of each other's cultures and get things wrong.

Still on the subject of the name of the tea room, Marc, another member of the team, offers "Tea's Café." Names with apostrophes are considered very "English" in France, a notion that baffles Paul who insists that when the French do such things, it is not really English. Marie counters that the English are just as guilty of doing such things to French products—strawberry crème brûlée, for example, or orange juice in champagne to make mimosas.

Jean-Marie finally insists on making a list of their suggestions and doing a market survey to see which name would appeal most to the French public. He deems their meeting very "constructive" and "Anglo-style," for they were "taking decisions." Paul quietly disagrees; they hadn't made any decisions other than agreeing to pay a consultant "who's going to be bribed into agreeing with the guy with the crappest ideas."

This meeting, Paul's first, is a foreshadowing of what will come in other French meetings: bantering back and forth, no decision-making, and ultimately, fobbing off responsibility to someone else. This scene illuminates certain key differences between the French and the English regarding work ethic and humor.

A second area in which we see key cultural differences between the French and the English is in expectations regarding restaurant service. Paul remarks on how a server takes his and Jean-Marie's order without ever writing anything down. When he brings their lunch, Jean-Marie asks for his frites, or French fries, and the waiter responds politely, but rather abruptly, "I only have two hands, sir." This strikes Paul as rude, while Jean-Marie insists that the waiter only feels a bit hurried due to the lunch rush. From the English perspective, there is never any excuse to be abrupt with a customer. From the French perspective, it is understood that servers are still people and are, thus, entitled to feeling a bit peeved in stressful moments. Still, Jean-Marie notes that the French server, like the English one, will ensure that the customer is happy, in the interest of getting a tip.

There is a similar scene later in the book, in which Paul and Jake, an American expatriate, are in a café. Jake instructs Paul on the nuances of ordering coffee like a native: not a café au lait, but un crème; not an espresso, but un express; an espresso with a bit of coffee is une noisette, and a weak black coffee is un allongé. Saying anything else makes one look like a tourist, therefore subjecting the customer to a rip-off.

From these examples, we can conclude that the French are more laissez-faire when it comes to matters such as work and service, while the English prefer to stick to a certain protocol. Secondly, French language is far more nuanced than what a native English speaker would expect. Very much is said in far fewer words.

What is a low-carbohydrate diet?

Overview

Mainstream groups such as the American Heart Association and the American Dietetic Association traditionally endorse a unified set of dietary guidelines for people who wish to lose weight: Eat a low-fat diet and cut calories. However, many popular weight-loss and diet books take a very different approach. The Atkins diet, the Zone diet, Protein Power, and numerous other dietary approaches reject the low-fat guideline. Instead, these methods recommend cutting down on carbohydrates. According to proponents of these theories, when a person reduces the carbohydrates in his or her diet (and, correspondingly, increases protein or fat, or both), that person will find it much easier to reduce calorie intake and may even lose weight without cutting calories.

The controversy over these contradictions has been heated. Proponents of the low-fat diet claim that low-carbohydrate (low-carb) diets are ineffective and even dangerous, while low-carb proponents say much the same about the low-fat approach. However, an article published in the Journal of the American Medical Association suggests that neither side has a strong case. Researchers concluded, essentially, that a calorie is a calorie, regardless of whether it comes from a low-carb or a low-fat diet. They did not find any consistent evidence that the low-carb diet makes it easier to lose weight than the low-fat diet, but neither did they find any consistent evidence for the reverse. Furthermore, the authors of the review did not find any compelling reason to conclude that low-carb diets are unsafe, although they did point out that the long-term safety of such diets remains unknown.

Subsequent studies confirmed these findings for a variety of low-carb diets. In some studies, one particular diet method may do better than others, but in other studies a different diet will stand out. Researchers reviewing thirteen studies comparing low-carb with low-fat/low-calorie diets in overweight participants for a minimum of six months concluded that the low-carb diets tended to perform better at reducing weight and cardiovascular disease factors for up to one year. Nevertheless, a consensus has yet to emerge among nutrition scientists as to what diet performs better overall. Many of the foregoing studies suggest that if a diet causes weight loss, cholesterol will improve regardless of the diet used to achieve that weight loss. However, the manner of change in a person’s cholesterol profile differs between the two approaches. Low-fat diets tend to improve total and LDL (low-density lipoprotein, or bad) cholesterol levels, but they tend to worsen HDL (high-density lipoprotein, or good) cholesterol and triglyceride levels; low-carb, high-fat diets have the opposite effect.

The Mediterranean diet, which is relatively high in fiber and monounsaturated fats (such as olive oil) has also attracted the attention of nutrition researchers. There is good evidence that it is as effective as low-carb diets for weight reduction and probably more effective than low-fat diets. It also seems to have the added advantage of benefiting persons with diabetes more than the other two diets.

However, if a person undertakes a low-carb (or low-fat) diet that does not cause weight loss, that person’s cholesterol profile will probably not improve significantly. In addition, there is little to no evidence that the low-carb approach improves blood sugar control except insofar as it leads to weight loss. However, there is some evidence that a low-carb diet that is high in monounsaturated fats reduces blood pressure to a slightly greater extent than does a high-carb, low-fat diet. Contrary to claims by some low-carb proponents, low-fat, high-carb diets do not seem to backfire metabolically and promote weight gain.

Based on this information, it seems that the most sensible course to take to lose weight is to experiment with different diets and determine which one cuts the most calories (and keeps them cut). If the low-carb diet approach works, one should continue with it. However, if it does not help one lose weight, it should not be continued indefinitely. Additionally, most health experts suggest that dieting according to fads is ineffective, as any immediate weight loss is typically not sustained long term. Instead most recommend that following a balanced diet in combination with regular exercise and other healthy habits is the best way to manage weight and promote overall well-being.

Risks

Any form of extreme dieting can cause serious side effects or even death. All people who intend to adopt an unconventional diet should first seek medical advice. Furthermore, people with kidney failure should not use low-carb, high-protein diets, as high protein intake can easily overstress failing kidneys. (High-protein diets are probably not harmful for people with healthy kidneys.)

In addition, people who take the blood thinner warfarin (Coumadin) may need to have their blood coagulation tested after beginning a high-protein, low-carb diet. Two case reports suggest that such diets may decrease the effectiveness of warfarin, requiring a higher dose. Conversely, a person who is already on warfarin and a high-protein, low-carb diet and then goes off the diet, may need to reduce his or her warfarin dose.

Bibliography

Berglund, L., et al. “Comparison of Monounsaturated Fat with Carbohydrates as a Replacement for Saturated Fat in Subjects with a High Metabolic Risk Profile: Studies in the Fasting and Postprandial States.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 86 (2007): 1611-1620.

Dansinger, M. L., et al. “Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone Diets for Weight Loss and Heart Disease Risk Reduction.” Journal of the American Medical Association 293 (2005): 43-53.

Ebbeling, C. B., et al. “Effects of a Low-Glycemic Load vs Low-Fat Diet in Obese Young Adults.” Journal of the American Medical Association 297 (2007): 2092-2102.

Gardner, C. D., et al. “Comparison of the Atkins, Zone, Ornish, and LEARN Diets for Change in Weight and Related Risk Factors Among Overweight Premenopausal Women: The A to Z Weight Loss Study.” Journal of the American Medical Association 297 (2007): 969-977.

Hession, M., et al. “Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials of Low-Carbohydrate vs. Low-Fat/Low-Calorie Diets in the Management of Obesity and Its Comorbidities.” Obesity Reviews 10 (2009): 36-50.

Howard, B. V., J. E. Manson, et al. “Low-Fat Dietary Pattern and Weight Change over Seven Years: The Women’s Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial.” Journal of the American Medical Association 295 (2006): 39-49.

Howard, B. V., L. Van Horn, et al. “Low-Fat Dietary Pattern and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: The Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial.” Journal of the American Medical Association 295 (2006): 655-666.

"Low-Carb Diet: Can It Help You Lose Weight?" Mayo Clinic. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 20 Sept. 2014. Web. 27 Jan. 2016.

"Low-Carbohydrate Diets." Nutrition Source. Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, 2016. Web. 27 Jan. 2016.

Luscombe-Marsh, N. D., et al. “Carbohydrate-Restricted Diets High in Either Monounsaturated Fat or Protein Are Equally Effective at Promoting Fat Loss and Improving Blood Lipids.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 81 (2005): 762-772.

Nordmann, A. J., et al. “Effects of Low-Carbohydrate vs Low-Fat Diets on Weight Loss and Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.” Archives of Internal Medicine 166 (2006): 285-293.

Shai, I., et al. “Weight Loss with a Low-Carbohydrate, Mediterranean, or Low-Fat Diet.” New England Journal of Medicine 359 (2008): 229-241.

Tay, J., et al. “Metabolic Effects of Weight Loss on a Very-Low-Carbohydrate Diet Compared with an Isocaloric High-Carbohydrate Diet in Abdominally Obese Subjects.” Journal of the American College of Cardiology 51 (2008): 59-67.

Wal, J. S., et al. “Moderate-Carbohydrate Low-Fat Versus Low-Carbohydrate High-Fat Meal Replacements for Weight Loss.” International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 58 (2007): 321-329.

What are compulsions?

Compulsive Behavior

Compulsions are repetitive behaviors or mental acts to prevent or reduce anxiety rather than to provide pleasure or gratification. The most common compulsive behaviors include washing and cleaning, hoarding, checking, requesting or demanding assurance, and ordering. The acts can last a few minutes or an entire day, often disrupting the compulsive person’s work, family, or social roles. Some compulsive acts also can cause physical harm. For example, harm can occur when a person repetitively washes his or her hands so that they become raw or when a person repetitively bites his or her fingernails.

Compulsions Versus Habits

Although people normally perform tasks repetitively, these tasks are not necessarily compulsive. Daily routines and practices are not compulsions; instead, they are normal habits. The difference between compulsions and habits can be recognized contextually. Habits bring efficiency to one’s life and compulsions tend to disrupt one’s life.

Researchers sometimes distinguish between habits and compulsions as normal compulsions and abnormal compulsions; habits are considered normal compulsions. As such, normal and abnormal compulsions are often similarly diagnosed as compulsive behavior and are distinguished only contextually. That is, if the behavior is detrimental, it is considered an abnormal compulsion.

Compulsion Versus Addiction

The use of both compulsion and
addiction
in everyday language is the most likely cause of confusion between the terms. Common and analogous use has led to the terms compulsion and addiction being both misused and misunderstood. A history of the change in the use of the word addiction can also be to blame, as compulsion was sometimes substituted for addiction to add legitimacy to the treatment of addiction.

Since the 1990s, research by scientists and clinicians has looked into differentiating and disentangling these behaviors. The American Psychological Association, for example, substitutes the term dependency for addiction to reflect the change in the definition of addiction to include behavioral addiction. Nevertheless, the difference between compulsion and addiction can be simplified. Compulsion is the repetitive behavior or mental act that prevents or reduces anxiety; addiction is a repetitive compulsive condition. Compulsion, or repetitive behavior, is a part of addiction, or repetitive compulsion. Although new research is expanding the definition of the two terms, the complexity of these disorders makes it difficult to propose a single model that could account for all their characteristic features.

Compulsive Disorders

The basic mechanisms underlying compulsive and addictive disorders overlap in their phenomenology, their genetics and family history, and in their co-morbidity and pathophysiology. Compulsion is most often coupled with obsession to form obsessive-compulsive disorder
(OCD).

OCD is characterized by obsessions and compulsions. Obsessions are unwanted persistent thoughts that produce distress and compulsions are repetitive behaviors that prevent or reduce distressing situations. Persons with OCD often use compulsive behaviors to rid themselves of obsessive thoughts; however, the relief is often temporary.

Symptoms of OCD include excessive washing or cleaning, extreme hoarding, repetitive checking, and preoccupation with limited but specific thoughts, such as sex or violence. According to the Anxiety and Depression Association of America in 2014, approximately 1 percent, or 2.2 million adults, in the United States have the disorder. Many people with OCD often remain undiagnosed because of their ability to cope with and function with the disorder.

There is considerable overlap in the co-occurrence of compulsion and addiction. Addiction is a recurring and persistent compulsive condition in which a person engages in a specific activity or uses a substance despite its negative or dangerous effects. Moreover, compulsion is the behavioral aspect of addiction, while further characterization of addiction includes dependency and changes in brain chemistry. A person becomes initially addicted to a substance or behavior as it provides pleasure. Through continued use of the substance or performance of the behavior, the person develops a dependency. Soon after, involvement with the substance or procedure is necessary for the person to provide relief, thereby developing a compulsion. Studies have found that 27 percent of people under treatment for OCD also met the criteria for substance abuse disorder.

Multiple studies have linked compulsive behavior to dysregulation of frontostriatal neurocircuitry in the brain and the associated monoamine systems. The pathological neurochemistry underlying these disorders is caused by dysfunction in serotonin-, dopamine-, and glutamate-dependent neurotransmission. Therefore, first-line pharmacologic treatment involves the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and clomipramine. Cognitive behavioral therapy is another popular approach. It is being extensively investigated for dealing with different aspects of this disorder. However, the clinical picture for persons with compulsive disorder is complex, as it is marked with wide heterogeneity of the presenting symptoms.

Bibliography

Abramowitz, Jonathan S., Dean McKay, and Steven Taylor, eds. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Subtypes and Spectrum Conditions. Boston: Elsevier, 2008. Print.

“Facts & Statistics.” Anxiety and Depression Association of America. ADAA, Sept. 2014. Web. 28 Oct. 2015.

Fontenelle, Leonardo F., et al. “Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Impulse Control Disorders, and Drug Addiction.” Drugs 71 (2011): 827–40. Print.

Franklin, Martin E., and Edna B. Foa. “Treatment of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder.” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 7 (2011): 229–43. Print.

Hyman, Steven E., and Robert C. Malenka. “Addiction and the Brain: The Neurobiology of Compulsion and Its Persistence.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2 (2001): 695–703. Print.

Markarian, Yeraz, Michael J. Larson, and Mirela A. Alde. “Multiple Pathways to Functional Impairment in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.” Clinical Psychology Review 30 (2010): 78–88. Print.

What is a lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) test?

Cancers diagnosed: Malignancies causing effusions, germ-cell tumors, and other tumors with high cell turnover

Why performed: Serum LDH is elevated in many non-neoplastic diseases. In oncology, its concentration may be determined to estimate the stage of disease and prognosis in several cancers, such as non-Hodgkin lymphoma, myeloma, disseminated melanoma, and metastatic prostate carcinoma. The ratio of serum LDH to LDH concentration in pleural, peritoneal, or pericardial effusions can help distinguish benign from malignant processes; high LDH concentrations in effusion fluid suggest the presence of cancer. Because the five isoenzymes have characteristic relative abundances in different tissues, determination can assist in the diagnosis of several tumors.

Patient preparation: No fasting or other special preparation on the part of the patient is necessary for this simple blood test.

Steps of the procedure: After the blood sample is collected, serum is isolated by centrifugation and the activity of the enzyme is measured in either the forward direction (oxidation of lactate and NAD+ to pyruvate, NADH, and H+) or the reverse direction. In the forward reaction, the rate of appearance of NADH can be followed spectrophotometrically because it strongly absorbs ultraviolet (UV) light at 340 nM; NAD+ does not. The enzyme activity is calculated by comparing the rate of NADH appearance in the patient sample to rates obtained from standard preparations. If the cause of elevated LDH cannot be determined by other means, then the isoenzymes can be separated by electrophoresis, with LDH-1 (all H subunits) migrating fastest, followed in order by LDH-2 through LDH-5. LDH can also be visualized in tissue sections by immunohistochemistry.

After the procedure: No special aftercare is required other than monitoring the blood collection site for signs of infection until healed.

Risks: There are no risks to the patient. High false positive rates are seen in patients with other systemic illnesses.

Results: Abnormally high LDH values and abnormal isoenzyme patterns are seen in many different diseases and must be interpreted in the light of the clinical history and other laboratory results. Results for enzyme activity obtained with different methods are not interchangeable. In oncology, abrupt increases in LDH indicate an unfavorable prognosis in terminally ill patients. The LDH-1 isoenzyme is reliably elevated in germ-cell tumors (teratoma, seminoma, or ovarian dysgerminoma) and can serve as a tumor marker. In leukemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma, LDH-3 and LDH-4 are often elevated. Elevated LDH-5 in colorectal cancer is strongly associated with poor survival.

Girgis, Hala, et al. "Lactate Dehydrogenase A Is a Potential Prognostic Marker in Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma." Molecular Cancer 13.1 (2014): 1–23. Print.

"Lactate Dehydrogenase Test." MedlinePlus. Natl. Lib. of Medicine, 24 Feb. 2014. Web. 28 Oct. 2014.

Miao, Ping, et al. "Lactate Dehydrogenase A in Cancer: A Promising Target for Diagnosis and Therapy." IUBMB Life 65.11 (2013): 904–10. Print.

Philipp, Alexander B., et al. "Circulating Cell-Free Methylated DNA and Lactate Dehydrogenase Release in Colorectal Cancer." BMC Cancer 14.1 (2014): 1–21. Print.

Sun, Xuren, et al. "Clinicopathological Significance and Prognostic Value of Lactate Dehydrogenase A Expression in Gastric Cancer Patients." PLoS ONE 9.3 (2014): 1–9. Print.

0.0833 moles of carbohydrate of empirical formula CH2O contain 1 g of hydrogen. Find its molecular formula.

Molecular formula is a multiple of empirical formula. That is, in the given case, if the empirical formula is CH2O, the molecular formula can be written as n(CH2O) or, CnH2nOn.

Using this molecular formula, we can see that each mole of this carbohydrate contains n moles of carbon, 2n moles of hydrogen and n moles of oxygen.

Given number of moles of carbohydrate = 0.0833 moles

number of moles of hydrogen in this given amount = 2n x 0.0833 moles.

It is given that 0.0833 moles of carbohydrate contains 1 g hydrogen. This means that 2n x 0.0833 moles of hydrogen contain 1 g of hydrogen.

Since, the molar mass of hydrogen is 1 g/mol,

2n x 0.0833 mol x 1 g/mol = 1 g

solving the equation, we get, n = 6.

Thus, the molecular formula of the carbohydrate is `C_6H_12O_6` , which is the molecular formula of glucose. 

We can verify our answer. 

0.0833 moles of glucose contains 12 x 0.0833 moles of hydrogen, which is equal to 1 g of hydrogen, as given in the question.

Hope this helps.