What current events could be related to the quote in Macbeth, "Wither should I fly? / I have done no harm [...]."

In this tragedy, Shakespeare tells the story of Macbeth, a Scottish general who, prompted by witches' prophesy, kills the King of Scotland and takes the throne. Macbeth is then forced to commit more murders, in order to protect his power and prevent the secret of his own crime from being known. 

Lady Macduff appears only briefly in this play, in Act IV, Scene II. Macbeth has heard from the witches at the beginning of Act IV that he should beware of Lord Macduff. Macbeth finds that Macduff has fled the country, but he still orders that his wife, Lady Macduff, and their unnamed son be killed. 

A messenger arrives at the castle to warn Lady Macduff of this threat. She replies to his message, "Whither should I fly? / I have done no harm [...]", meaning, "where should I escape to? I've done nothing wrong." She is killed at the end of the act.

Lady Macduff's situation in this scene could be related to a number of current events involving dictators who order their opponents to be assassinated. For instance, as one example, The New York Times has reported on a number of assassinations of enemies of the Kremlin in Russia, including the death of opposition leader, Boris Y. Nemtsov. 

How do you start an introductory paragraph for an autobiography, especially if you're young?

My best guess is that you're aiming to write not your entire autobiography, but rather an autobiographical story: that is, a focused story about something that happened to you in your own life. But whether that's the case or not, the ideas below may be of help, especially if you are still a kid or a teenager. Remember, even though you're young, you've still experienced an interesting, unique childhood that's worth writing about!

1. A good strategy is to start your first paragraph with a quick anecdote (a short, interesting story) that helps show readers what kind of person you are, or what kind of person you used to be. That is, just jump right into a description of something specific that happened to you, something that was funny, or sad, or surprising.

For example: "I once got in trouble with my parents for introducing myself to people as 'Lisa.' I was really tired of my weird real name, 'Liesl,' and I was especially tired of answering questions like 'Uh, how do you spell that?'"

2. Another strategy is to start describing something important you recently realized about life, or about a big idea like friendship, family, love, school, etc.

Example: "It took me way too long to realize that it's much more exciting to watch people open presents from you than it is to open your own presents."

3. Of course, you can also blend an anecdote with a realization. Example: "Last year in school when I didn't have my homework to turn in, and Mrs. Tarkington was standing over me with her eyebrows all wrinkled up in confusion because I always have my homework, I was very surprised to realize that I was neither jailed nor expelled nor disowned by my family as a result of this seemingly unforgivable sin."

Finally, here are some sentence patterns you can borrow to start your introduction paragraph:

A. "By the time I was (a certain age), I had realized _____."

B. "If you think that (something is true), you're in for a shock because _____."

C. "(A specific person in my life) once taught me something amazing: that _____."

D. "My life changed forever on the day that _____."

E. "For as long as I live, I will never forget how _____."

For more ideas, head to the biography section of your school's library, and open to the first page of any of the autobiographies to see how these published writers began their own stories. You can borrow their strategies—not copy what they say exactly, but notice how they begin and try to do a similar thing.

How much money did Henry VIII spend on foreign policy?

It's very difficult to put a precise figure on it, let alone adjust that figure appropriately for inflation since then; but the general consensus among historians is that Henry VIII spent a large amount of money on warfare and many of England's financial problems at the time were traceable to that.

Henry VIII fought a number of wars during his reign, chiefly against Scotland and France, and several wars he fought became costly wars of attrition with little success. The most precise estimate I was able to find for how much Henry VIII spent on his wars was 2 million pounds, 1.3 million from currency debasement, 430,000 from higher taxes, and 110,000 from forced loans along with 160,000 from existing taxes.

It's very difficult to make a precise inflation adjustment, but the figures I have say that pound fell in value by about a factor of 267 from 1550 to 1997, and then official UK inflation figures say that it fell in value by about a factor of about 1.7 since then; so that's about a factor of 450 over that whole period. So that 2 million pounds would have been about 900 million pounds in today's money, which is still a small fraction of modern UK military spending.

It was, however, a large portion of England's wealth at the time. Henry VIII was not popular by the end of his reign, in large part due to the high taxes and inflation he imposed to pay for his endless wars.

I didn't have room for all the sources I consulted in the usual place, so here they are:
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/tudor-england/henry-viii-and-foreign-policy/
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/majesty_menace_01.shtml
http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/361/361-06.htm
https://militaryhistoryblog.wordpress.com/tag/wars-of-henry-viii/
http://www.markedbyteachers.com/as-and-a-level/history/henry-viii-foreign-policy.html
http://www.freeinfosociety.com/article.php?id=409
https://prezi.com/majolaxdtr9y/henry-viiis-foreign-policy/
http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/361/361-06.htm

What was the purpose of the Poor People's March?

The Poor People's March took place on May 12, 1968 and was organized by Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. According to the American Friends Service Committee, its purpose was to encourage the federal government to pledge $30 billion to help the poor by guaranteeing "full employment," "an annual income measure" and more "low-income housing." (See the first reference link provided.)

This march is significant because it was designed to highlight the plight of all poor people, regardless of skin color or creed. As part of the campaign, Martin Luther King, Jr. organized the construction of a shanty town in Washington, D.C., later known as Resurrection City, which housed people from across the country who descended on the capital to join the march and created a strong image of the problem of poverty. 

Despite an attendance in the thousands, the Poor People's March did not achieve its aims and Resurrection City was later demolished. 

Please see the second reference link for more information. 

What should be written about in an autobiographical essay if you don't feel you have anything special to write about?

No matter how young you are, if you are old enough to write, there is always plenty to write about in an autobiographical essay. You can write about when and where you were born, who your parents and other family members are, where you have attended school, what friends you have had, what activities you have enjoyed through your life so far, and much more. You can write about your favorite teachers, favorite kinds of movies, and favorite foods. If you like to read, you can write about some books you have enjoyed or books you have not enjoyed. You can write about your feelings, both what makes you happy and what makes you sad. You can also write about your goals in life, what profession(s) you are interested in, and where you would like to live someday. You can write about any place you have traveled to, even if it is just the town next to yours! You can write about your good qualities and the skills you have. You might be a faithful friend and good at fixing things around the house. When someone writes an autobiography, it does not mean everything in the autobiography is high drama. Our lives consist mostly of smaller and more ordinary details, which make up our everyday lives. 

What were the social, economic, and political effects of the Crusades?

The Crusades had a major effect on commerce, as the crusaders often brought goods, such as silks, perfumes, ivory, pearls, and spices, across the Mediterranean to the ports of Italy. This trade stimulated a demand for eastern goods into Europe, and trade with the East became increasingly important. In addition, the Crusades created an immense demand for ships to transport the crusaders to the East. Italian cities such as Genoa and Venice became wealthy through trade to the East. Politically, the Crusades resulted in the weakening of feudalism and the growth in royal power. Many of the knights who were important in propping up feudalism went on the Crusades. Their absences or death resulted in the collapse of many estates, which were then transferred to kings. The Crusades also resulted in the intellectual and social advancement of Europe, as knights returned with knowledge of science and literature that was far more advanced in the East than in Europe at the time. As a result, the Middle Ages eventually gave way to a rebirth in learning and exploration known as the Renaissance. 

Why is it important for the nucleus of a cell to make a copy of itself before mitosis takes place?

Cell division is a process that allows life to continue from generation to generation. It produces new cells for growth and repair. In order for this to occur, the genetic material of the parent cell, or its DNA, must be replicated so that it can be distributed to two daughter cells at the end of mitotic division. The DNA in an organism has hundreds or even thousands of genes. These dictate the production of proteins which can be structural parts of the organism, enzymes important in metabolic processes, hormones, or other important molecules. 

Therefore, a dividing cell replicates its DNA and passes a complete set of its genetic information to opposite poles of a dividing cell. These will split into two daughter cells.

In prokaryotic cells, the organism's genome (all of its genetic information) is found in a single long circular DNA molecule in an area called the nucleoid. Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus. In eukaryotic cells, the genome is found in all of its DNA molecules distributed in the number of chromosomes for that species. These are located in the nucleus.

The processes of replication and subsequent cell division result in a complete set of the DNA distributed to each daughter cell. The amount of DNA found in body cells is called the diploid amount, which is the species number for that type of organism. Humans have 46 chromosomes in somatic cells, or body cells. The only cells which are an exception and have the haploid amount are called gametes, or sex cells, and these are produced by meiosis, a reduction division that only occurs in gametes resulting in cells with half the chromosomes as the parent cell. For humans, this amount is 23 chromosomes.

To conclude, mitosis is the division of the nucleus, followed by division of the cytoplasm into two daughter cells, in addition to some intermediate steps. The results of this process is that a single cell makes two genetically identical daughter cells which can be used for growth and repair. 

The asexual reproduction of single-celled eukaryotes such as amoebas is carried out by mitosis and binary fission. Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission after the DNA in its chromosome is replicated. They lack a nucleus, however.

I have included a link showing how mitosis is part of the cell cycle. The link has a chart showing mitosis and its resulting daughter cells. It also shows meiosis as a comparison.