What sort of points could be given to back up the following statement? "Curley's wife is innocent."

Curley's wife is innocent because she is a victim and not a predator. She is lonely, she's more good looks than she is trouble, and she's harmless. First of all, Curley doesn't treat his wife with much trust or respect. They aren't really friends, either. He's always running around looking for her rather than tending to his duties. If he would treat her with more respect, and let her get out of the house once in awhile to do things with other women friends, he wouldn't be as suspicious of her getting with Slim or any other worker. Because of Curley's mistreatment of his wife, she wants to talk with other people; so, she settles for talking to the workmen to ease the loneliness.

When Curley's wife talks to the workmen, this causes great alarm among the workers; but, Curley's wife is just more good looks than she is trouble. She's a young girl who uses the excuse that she's out looking for her husband to have some interaction with other people. The men simply misunderstand how she presents herself because they find her attractive. For example, when George meets Curley's wife for the first time, her actions are described as follows:

"She put her hands behind her back and leaned against the door frame so that her body was thrown forward. . . Lennie's eyes moved down over her body, and though she did not seem to be looking at Lennie she bridled a little" (31).

Her body language may seem to be provocative, but it's Lennie who possibly has the tempting thoughts. Men always place the blame on women being dangerous rather than taking responsibility for their own thinking. She's not throwing herself at them; she's merely standing by the door. There's no evidence to show that Curley's wife ever asked anything inappropriate from any of the men. Therefore, she's just pretty, not trouble.

Finally, Curley's wife is harmless. She makes some good threats on the night all the men are gone and she's talking to Crooks, Lennie and Candy; but she doesn't go through with them. She made those threats to Crooks, mostly, so he would back down. But she's the only one who is really gentle and kind to Lennie. Curley's wife just really wants a friend, so when she talks to Lennie, she is kind and shows a true spirit of trust with him.

What are malignant tumors?

Related conditions:
Most cancers

Definition:

Malignant tumors are those that invade surrounding tissue. Commonly known as cancer, cells of malignant tumors are abnormal in morphology, tend to be larger than normal, and have odd shapes and large and irregular nuclei. By entering into the bloodstream or the lymphatic system, these cells spread to surrounding tissue, where they damage the tissues and organs. A sarcoma is a cancer of the connective tissue, and carcinomas are of epithelial origin. Malignant tumors are named using the Latin or Greek root of the organ of origin as a prefix and “sarcoma” or “carcinoma” as the suffix. For example, a malignant tumor of the liver is called hepatocarcinoma; a malignant tumor of the fat cells is called liposarcoma.

Risk factors: The most common risk factors for development of malignant tumors include tobacco use; exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, ionizing radiation, certain chemicals, and viruses; and family history.

Etiology and the disease process: A mutated cell that continues to divide is a hallmark of cancer. The deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) repair mechanisms are damaged, and the immune system is compromised such that the tumor cells rapidly multiply undeterred. Additionally, the tumor has an extensive vasculature that provides nutrients and oxygen for its growth.

Symptoms: Unusual bleeding or discharge, a change in the shape or coloration of a wart or mole, a sore throat that does not heal, unexplained weight loss, persistent cough, and anemia are some warning signs. Many symptoms are caused by the fatigue, pain, and stress imposed on the body by malignant tumors.

Screening and diagnosis: X rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and computed tomography (CT) scans are used to detect changes in tissues or organs, and blood tests are used to monitor abnormal cell counts. Presence of tumor markers such as prostate specific antigen (PSA), carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), and human chorionic gonadotropin hormone in the blood are used to screen high-risk individuals.

Treatment and therapy: Malignant tumors can be removed before they metastasize (spread), but frequently they grow back. Besides a person’s age, general health, and response to treatment, the outcome depends on the type and location of the cancer, the stage of the disease (the extent to which the cancer has spread), or its grade (how abnormal the cancer cells look and how quickly the cancer is likely to grow and spread). Treatment includes surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, or biological therapy. However, most often a combination of therapies is required for complete eradication of the malignancy. Choice of a healthy, active, tobacco-free lifestyle with a minimum exposure to harmful UV rays can go a long way in preventing cancer.

Baykal, Can, and K. Didem Yazganoglu. Clinical Atlas of Skin Tumors. New York: Springer, 2014. Print.

Bloch, Orin, and Franco DeMonte, eds. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America: Malignant Tumors of the Skull Base 24.1 (2013): 1–142. Print.

Fletcher, Christopher D. M. Diagnostic Histopathology of Tumors. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders-Elsevier, 2013. Print.

Gomez, Dhanwant, and Dileep N. Lobo. "Malignant Liver Tumours." Surgery 29.12 (2011): 632–39. Print.

Kaye, Andrew H., and Edward R. Laws, Jr. Brain Tumors: An Encyclopedic Approach. 3rd ed. New York: Saunders-Elsevier, 2012. Print.

What is the principle and working of a pressure cooker?

Cooking with a pressure cooker uses the principles of various gas laws, but specifically the Gay-Lussac's Law. This law states that the pressure of a system and the temperature are directly related; that is, if we can increase the pressure of a given system, the resulting temperature will be higher than that of a system with lower pressure but the same heat applied.

Using a pressure cooker takes advantage of this fact. A pressure cooker is essentially a strong, well-sealed pot. It has a very small vent for safety, but the pressure inside the cooking area is increased as the liquid inside turns to steam. The temperature of the fluid inside is raised to higher than boiling (212 degrees F.), higher than what could be reached in a saucepan, with the result that the food inside cooks more quickly.

After Dill wonders aloud what Boo Radley looks like, how does Jem describe Boo based on his imagination in Haper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird? What...

In the opening chapter of Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird, Dill becomes obsessed with Arthur (Boo) Radley the moment Scout and Jem inform him of their neighborhood enigma, whom the children call Boo Radley. Scout describes Dill as frequently standing with his arm around the light-pole positioned on the street corner near the Radleys' property and wondering about Boo Radley. At one point, Dill wonders aloud, "Wonder what he looks like?"

In response, Jem lets his imagination run wild. He describes Boo as being "six-and-a-half feet tall," pop-eyed, having a "long jagged scar" across his face, and rotten yellow teeth. Jem further describes Boo as eating any raw animals he can catch such as squirrels and cats. Jem's description of Arthur Radley evokes the image of a monster.

Though Jem's description comes entirely from his own imagination, it appears to have been influenced by things he has read. Since he is an avid reader of classics like Ivanhoe, as we see later in Chapter 11, it can be assumed he has also read Mary Shelley's Frankenstein and has derived inspiration from Shelley's monster creation to invent his own Boo Radley. We particularly see Shelley's influence in Jem's description of Boo having a scar across his face, since Shelley describes the creature Dr. Frankenstein developed as having scars across its face due to the fact that the it is made up of multiple parts stitched together. Otherwise, fascinatingly, Jem describes Boo in the exact opposite way Shelley describes Dr. Frankenstein's creature. For example, Jem says Boo eats animals raw, whereas Dr. Frankenstein's creature is actually a vegetarian. Plus, Jem describes Boo as having rotten yellow teeth, whereas Shelley describes the creature as having pearly white teeth, one of its only attractive characteristics. Due to these opposing images, we can speculate that Jem drew inspiration from Shelley and just changed the details that suited his own imaginings of what a monster should really be like.

What does it mean to say that exchange rate pass-through is incomplete or complete?

Exchange-rate pass-through is the effect that when the international market changes so that a country's currency changes in value relative to others (the exchange rate), it will also affect prices within that country's economy (it "passes through").

Complete pass-through would mean that the change in exchange rate is directly tied to the change in local prices---if the dollar becomes 1% more valuable in international markets, prices will become 1% lower within the US. This almost never happens.

Incomplete pass-through is what actually occurs: Only part of the exchange rate change is reflected in local prices. Sometimes it's a large portion, close to complete pass-through; but usually it's a very small portion.

In fact as the papers I've linked show (be warned, they're actual peer-reviewed economics literature, so they are quite advanced), exchange-rate pass-through is so incompleteit's actually a bit of a mystery. It makes sense for a big rich country like the US; but even tiny poor countries like Nicaragua still see only very weak pass-through of their exchange rates. Something is in effect "shielding" local prices from international exchange rate changes.

How would you describe Lakunle from Wole Soyinka's The Lion and the Jewel?

Lakunle is the village school teacher who opposes traditional Yoruba culture in favor of modern Western civilization. He continually criticizes Sidi, Baroka, and Sadiku for their way of life. At the beginning of the play, he tells Sidi, "Only spiders carry loads the way you do" when he sees her walking with a pail of water on her head, which is the traditional African way villagers transported water (Soyinka 2). Lakunle knows that he is ostracized and ridiculed by the villagers for his modern views but is unapologetic and arrogant. He says to Sidi,

"For that, what is a jewel to pigs? If now I am misunderstood by you and your race of savages, I rise above the taunts and remain unruffled" (Soyinka 3).

In his support of modernity, Lakunle refuses the pay Sidi's bride-price, claiming that it is a savage custom. Regarding the bride-price, he says, "An ignoble custom, infamous, ignominious shaming our neighbors our heritage before the world" (Soyinka 7). Lakunle is also clumsy and sounds like a fool by trying to impress people with his "big words." He is also a hopeless romantic. When he talks to Sadiku about the future of Ilujinle, he says,

"Within a year or two, I swear, this town shall see a transformation, bride-price will be a thing forgotten, and wives shall take their place by men. A motor road will pass this spot and bring the city ways to us. We'll buy saucepans for all the women; clay pots are crude and unhygienic. No man shall take more wives than one. That's why they're impotent too soon. The ruler shall ride cars, not horses. Or a bicycle at the very least. We'll burn the forest, cut the trees, then plant a modern park for lovers" (Soyinka 37).

Despite Lakunle's apparent affinity for Western civilization and modernity, he attempts to manipulate the traditional custom to his benefit. After learning that Sidi is no longer a virgin, he says to her, "But you will agree, it is only fair that we forget the bride-price totally since you no longer can be called a maid" (Soyinka 60). Lakunle's comments reveal his true intentions and portray him as an insincere individual.

What are intersex conditions?

Early Human Sexual Development

Up to the ninth week of gestation, the external genitalia (external sexual organs) are identical in appearance in both male and female human embryos. There is a phallus that will become a penis in males and a clitoris in females and labioscrotal swelling that will become a scrotum in males and labial folds in females. Sexual differentiation into a male or female is governed by his or her sex chromosomes (the X and Y chromosomes) and hormones. An individual who has two X chromosomes normally develops into a female, and one who has one X and one Y chromosome normally develops into a male. It is the Y chromosome that determines the development of a male. The Y chromosome causes the primitive gonads (the gonads that have not developed into either an ovary or a testis) to develop into testes and to produce testosterone (the male sex hormone). It is testosterone that acts on the early external genitalia and causes the development of a penis and scrotum. If testosterone is not present, or the receptors for it are lacking, regardless of the chromosome constitution of the embryo, female external genitalia will develop.

Intersexuality: Causes and Effects

Intersex individuals have both male and female gonads. At birth, intersex individuals can have various combinations of external genitalia, ranging from completely female to completely male genitalia. Many intersex individuals have external genitalia that are ambiguous (genitalia somewhere between normal male and normal female) and may consist of what appears to be an enlarged clitoris or a small penis, hypospadias (a urinary tract opening at the base of or along the penis or scrotum instead of the tip), and a vaginal opening. The extent to which the genitalia are masculinized depends on how much testosterone was produced and received by the testicular portion of the gonads during development. The gonadal structures of an intersex individual can range from a testis on one side and an ovary on the other side, to testes and ovaries on each side, to an ovotestis (a single gonad with both testicular and ovarian tissue) on one or both sides.

Intersexuality has different causes. The chromosomal or genotypic sex of an intersex individual can be 46,XX, 46,XY, 45 XO (Turner syndrome), 47,XXX (triple X), or 47 XXY (Klinefelter syndrome). Chromosomal mutations can cause intersexuality. The absence or dysfunction of the SRY locus produces an individual with normal female genitalia but a 46,XY karyotype. Individuals with a 46,XX karyotype who have the SRY locus transposed to one of their X chromosomes will have a normal male appearance. Likewise, the genes WT1, SOX9, and SF1 are necessary for normal testicular development.

Some affected individuals have different types of mosaicism, such as 46,XX/47,XXY or 45,X/46,XY. Individuals with a 46,XX/46,XY karyotype are known as chimeras. Chimerism usually occurs through the merger of two different cell lines (genotypes), such as when two separate fertilized eggs fuse together to produce one embryo. This can result in a single embryo with some cells being 46,XX and some being 46,XY. Mosaicism means having at least two different cell lines present in the same individual, but the different cell lines are caused by losing or gaining a chromosome from some cells early in development. An example would be an embryo that starts out with all cells having a 47,XXY chromosome constitution and then loses a single Y chromosome from one of its cells, which then produces a line of 46,XX-containing cells. This individual would have a karyotype written as 46,XX/47,XXY. In a chimera or mosaic individual, the proportion of developing gonadal cells with Y chromosomes determines the appearance of the external genitalia. More cells with a Y chromosome mean that more testicular cells are formed and more testosterone is produced.

Hormones also play a part in determining the sex of an individual. Abnormalities of testosterone production or abnormalities in the testosterone receptor at the cellular level can cause 46, XY intersex (formerly called "male pseudohermaphroditism"). One example is a deficiency in 5-alpha-reductase, the enzyme that converts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT). When there is a deficiency of this enzyme, there will be a deficiency of DHT, which is the hormone primarily responsible for masculinization of external genitalia. An individual who is genetically male but lacks DHT will have female-appearing external genitalia or ambiguous genitalia at birth. Often these individuals are reared as females, but at puberty they will masculinize because of greatly increased production of testosterone. These individuals may actually develop into nearly normal-appearing males. Abnormalities of the testosterone receptor, known as androgen insensitivity syndrome, can also result in a range of different conditions in affected males, from normal female appearance (a totally defective receptor) to ambiguous genitalia (partially defective receptor). These individuals will not masculinize at puberty because no matter how much testosterone or DHT they produce, their bodies cannot respond to the hormones. Similarly, deficiency in aromatase (an estrogen-producing enzyme), overproduction of androgen due to congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and in utero exposure to testosterone can cause 46, XX intersex (formerly "female pseudohermaphroditism").

The cause of intersexuality in the majority of affected individuals is unknown, although it has been postulated that those intersex individuals with normal male or female karyotypes may have hidden chromosome mosaicism in just the gonadal tissue.

Impact and Applications

Intersex individuals with ambiguous genitalia are normally recognized at birth. It is essential that these individuals have a thorough medical evaluation, since some causes of ambiguous genitalia, such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia, can be life-threatening if not recognized and treated promptly. Once intersexuality is diagnosed in a child, the decision must be made whether to raise the child as a boy or a girl. This decision is made by the child’s parents working with specialists in genetics, endocrinology, psychology, and urology. Typically, the karyotype and appearance of the external genitalia of the child are the major factors in deciding the sex of rearing. Previously, most intersex individuals with male karyotypes who had either an absent or an extremely small penis were reared as females. The marked abnormality or absence of the penis was thought to prevent these individuals from having fulfilling lives as males. This practice has been challenged by adults who are 46,XY but were raised as females. Some of these individuals believe that their conversion to a female gender was the wrong choice, and they prefer to think of themselves as male. Intersex individuals with a female karyotype and normal or near-normal female external genitalia are typically reared as females.

The debate over what criteria should be used to decide sex of rearing of a child is ongoing. An increasingly important part of this debate is the concept of gender identity, which describes what makes people male or female in their own minds rather than according to what sex their genitalia are. This is an especially important issue for those individuals with chimerism or mosaicism who have both a male and female karyotype. The decision to raise these individuals as boys or girls is made primarily on the basis of the degree to which their external genitalia are masculinized or feminized.

Those intersex individuals who have normal female or male genitalia at birth are at risk for developing abnormal masculinization in the phenotypic females or abnormal feminization in the phenotypic males at puberty if both testicular and ovarian tissue remains present. Thus, the gonad that is not specific for the assigned sex of the individual may be surgically removed. Gonadal tissue may be also removed because the cells of the gonad(s) that have a 46,XY karyotype are at an increased risk of becoming cancerous. Medical professionals increasingly recommend that surgeries, other than those necessary for urinary function, be delayed until the affected individual is old enough to have input in the decision-making process.

Key terms




ambiguous genitalia


:

external sexual organs that are not clearly male or female




genotype

:

an organism’s complete set of genes




gonad

:

an organ that produces reproductive cells and sex hormones; termed ovaries in females and testes in males




karyotype

:

a description of the chromosomes of an individual’s cells, including the number of chromosomes and a physical description of them (normal female is 46,XX and normal male is 46,XY)




phenotype

:

the physical and biochemical characteristics of an individual based on the interaction of genotype and environment





Bibliography

Donohoue, Patricia A. "Disorders of Sex Development." Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. Ed. Waldo E. Nelson and Robert Kliegman. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Saunders, 2011. Digital file.

Dreger, Alice Domurat. Hermaphrodites and the Medical Invention of Sex. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1998. Print.

Gilbert, Ruth. Early Modern Hermaphrodites: Sex and Other Stories. New York: Palgrave, 2002. Print.

Harper, Catherine. Intersex. New York: Berg, 2007. Print.

Holmes, Morgan. Intersex: A Perilous Difference. Selinsgrove: Susquehanna UP, 2008. Print.

Hunter, R. H. F. Sex Determination, Differentiation, and Intersexuality in Placental Mammals. New York: Cambridge UP, 1995. Print.

"Intersex." Medline Plus. US National Library of Medicine, 22 Aug. 2013. Web. 1 Aug. 2014.

Meyer-Bahlburg, Heino. “Intersexuality and the Diagnosis of Gender Identity Disorder.” Archives of Sexual Behavior 23.1 (1994): 21. Print.

Moore, Keith L., T. V. N. Persaud, and Mark G. Torchia. The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2013. Print.

Preves, Sharon E. Intersex and Identity: The Contested Self. 2003. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2005. Print.

Reis, Elizabeth. Bodies in Doubt: An American History of Intersex. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2012. Print.

Simpson, J. L. “Disorders of the Gonads, Genital Tract, and Genitalia.” Emery and Rimoin’s Principles and Practice of Medical Genetics. Ed. David L. Rimoin, Reed E. Pyeritz, and Bruce R. Korf. 6th ed. San Diego: Elsevier Science, 2007. Print.

Zucker, Kenneth J. “Intersexuality and Gender Identity Differentiation.” Annual Review of Sex Research 10 (1999): 1–69. Print.