What was the impact of the Trail of Tears?

The impact of the Trail of Tears was that the Cherokee people were forcibly removed from Georgia, western North Carolina, and eastern Tennessee. This was the culmination of a more than decade-long removal process championed by President Andrew Johnson. By 1838, virtually all of the Native peoples in the Southeast--the Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, and to a lesser extent the Seminoles--had been forced off their lands and into Indian Territory in modern-day Oklahoma. Each of these peoples had suffered grievously in the process, with thousands dying of disease. The Cherokee experience was no different. The tribe had split into factions, with one smaller group moving more or less voluntarily. A much larger faction, at least 15,000, refused to leave. Under orders from President Martin van Buren, they were forced from their lands by the US Army and marched to Indian Country. Around 5,000 died of disease and exposure. So the result of the Trail of Tears was the expropriation of Indian lands and widespread disease and death among Indian peoples. On the other hand, Indian removal cleared the way for the expansion of plantation agriculture into the fertile Southeast. Thousands of would-be planters brought their slaves to the region to raise cotton.

What are barbiturates?

History of Use

In 1864, German scientist Adolf Von Baeyer synthesized barbituric acid by condensing urea and malonic acid. The name reportedly came from a friend of the discoverer, or from the day of Saint Barbara. The acid itself did not induce any effect on the central nervous system. Subsequently, more than twenty-five hundred barbiturate compounds with pharmacological properties have been obtained.

In 1903, Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering discovered an effective sedative, diethylbarbituric acid or barbital, which entered medicine under the trade name Veronal. Another barbiturate, phenobarbital (Luminal), was introduced in 1912.

By the mid-twentieth century, barbiturates became the most widely used
sedative-hypnotic medication and the most popular substances of abuse. Their lipid solubility rendered them quick to act and increased their hypnotic properties, but it decreased the duration of action. Collectively referred to as downers, barbiturates were taken alone or with ethanol to produce a feeling of relaxation and euphoria. In the United States, barbiturate abuse and addiction markedly increased in the 1950s and 1960s. The drugs became especially popular with actors and entertainers, as a way to cope with stress and uncertainty. (Elvis Presley chronically overused barbiturates, and an empty bottle of pentobarbital [Nembutal] was found on Marilyn Monroe’s nightstand after her death.) As safer drugs for people with sleep disorders became available, the use of barbiturates for this purpose declined.

The beginning of the twenty-first century, however, saw a modest increase in the popularity of barbiturates as substances of abuse. According to a national survey on drug use and health by the US Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, in the first years of this century an estimated 3.1 million people age twelve years and older had misused barbiturates. Deaths caused by overdose and suicide attempts using barbiturates still occur.

Barbiturates today are used clinically for anesthesia, pediatric sedation, status epilepticus treatment, and seizure prevention, and, in certain instances, for cases of traumatic brain injury. Some barbiturates are used to treat insomnia. Lesser known uses for barbiturates include treatment of essential hand tremor, cyclic vomiting, and hyperbilirubinemia in neonates. Among advocates of euthanasia and among those who commit suicide, barbiturates remain one of the most commonly employed drugs. Pentobarbital is the drug of choice for veterinary anesthesia and euthanasia.

Effects and Potential Risks

Barbiturates are classified according to their duration of action. The effects of ultra-short-acting drugs, such as Pentothal (used in surgical settings), last less than one hour. Short-acting barbiturates (such as Nembutal and Seconal) act for three to four hours and are more likely to be abused. The effects of intermediate-acting barbiturates (such as Amytal) last for six to eight hours, and those of long-acting barbiturates (such as Veronal and Luminal) last approximately twelve hours.

Like other sedative-hypnotic drugs, barbiturates produce relaxation or sleep. The mechanism underlying their effect is thought to be an enhancement of the neural inhibition induced by the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid.

At regular doses, the effects of barbiturates vary depending on the user’s previous experience with the drug, the setting of use, and the mode of administration. A particular dose taken in the evening, for example, may induce sleep, whereas it may produce relaxed contentment, euphoria, and diminished motor skills during the day. Some users report sedation, fatigue, unpleasant drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. A paradoxical state of excitement or rage also can occur. Users may experience a “hangover” phenomenon the day after drug administration. Hypersensitivity reactions, sensitivity to sunlight (photosensitivity), decreased sexual function, and impaired memory also have been reported. Tolerance to sedative and hypnotic effects develops after regular use.

Above-regular dosage of barbiturates induces a state of intoxication similar to that caused by ethanol. This resemblance, and tolerance development, may prompt some users to increase their drug intake. Mild intoxication is characterized by drunk-like behavior with slurred speech, unsteady gait, lack of coordination, abnormal eye movements, and an absence of alcohol odor.

The therapeutic dosage of any barbiturate is close to the lethal dose. Because of this narrow therapeutic window, severe intoxication or drug-induced death can easily occur. Intentional or accidental overdose results in extreme drowsiness, respiratory depression (with slow breathing), hypotension, hypothermia, renal failure, decreased reflexes, and, ultimately, coma and death. A person with suspected barbiturate overdose should be seen by a physician without delay.

Barbiturate use can cause both psychological and physical dependency and severe, even life-threatening, withdrawal
symptoms (such as anxiety, insomnia, tremors, increased heart rate, delirium, and seizures). Persons who want to stop taking this medication should do so under medical supervision only. Concomitant use of other sedative hypnotics, such as alcohol and benzodiazepines, leads to potentially dangerous synergistic effects.

Bibliography

Howard, Sherrel. "Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates." Drugs of Abuse: Pharmacology and Molecular Mechanisms. Ames: Wiley, 2014. 77–92. Print.

Lynton, Richard. “Barbiturates.” Haddad and Winchester’s Clinical Management of Poisoning and Drug Overdose. Eds. Michael W. Shannon, Stephen W. Borron, and Michael Burns. 4th ed. New York: Saunders, 2007. Print.

Marion, Nancy E., and Willard M. Oliver. Drugs in American Society: An Encyclopedia of History, Politics, Culture, and the Law. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2014. Print.

Shannon, Joyce Brennfleck, ed. Drug Abuse Sourcebook. 3rd ed. Detroit: Omnigraphics, 2010. Print.

Weaver, Michael F. "Prescription Sedative Misuse and Abuse." Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 88.3 (2015): 247–56. Print.

Who is responsible for red tape in management? Why is it only seen in bureaucratic organizations?

In essence there are two questions here:

1) Who in management is responsible for "red tape" in a bureaucratic organization, and

2) Why is "red tape" only prevalent in bureaucratic organizations, and not in other types of organizations such as scientific or administrative ones (even though formal procedures are often used in those types of organizations as well)?

First, note that "red tape" is in quotes, as it is a form of jargon.  Merriam-Webster defines it as:

"official routine or procedure marked by excessive complexity which results in delay or inaction."

As such, it is generally thought of as a pejorative.  The key to the question is in the idea of complexity which is "excessive" relative to the desired outcome or purpose of the task.  Quite simply, what is excessive to one person may make perfect sense to another, so the existence of red tape is often the perception on the part of the person being delayed or frustrated.  For example, to a builder who wants to drain a tidal pool and build a new high rise apartment, the number of studies and permits required, often by multiple entities, may seem like red tape.  However, to the people whose interests are being protected by those studies and permits, they are important and add value.

That being said, people on both sides of an issue will generally agree that red tape exists when the process of addressing and balancing these competing interests could be more efficient and transparent.  In other words, you minimize red tape by engineering the process to require minimum time and minimum expense on all sides, by making the need for each step clear, and by making the required steps easy to understand and comply with.

The association between red tape and governmental organizations (bureaucracies) is common usage, but red tape can be perceived in any type of organization, consistent with the principles above.  However, it is generally believed that governmental bureaucracies evolve red tape, because they are not subjected to market disciplines which for other types of organizations motivate them to be efficient and transparent.  This leads to another principle, namely, that the more insulated a function is from market-type interactions, and therefore the more arbitrary power it wields over its "customers," the easier it is for it to survive despite being inefficient and/or non-transparent (opaque).  Further reading in this regard should be directed to areas of market economics and forms of economic organization.

What is the mood of the story, "Just Lather, That's All?"

In the opening paragraph of "Just Lather, That's All," the mood is fearful and tense. This is established, primarily, by the description of the trembling barber and the reference to the Captain's clothing. These items, particularly the "gun holster" and "bullet-studded belt" evoke images of war and murder and suggest that violence might occur at some point in the story.

This tense mood continues as the story progresses. The images of the hanging soldiers, the oppressive heat and the barber's internal dilemma over whether to kill the Captain all contribute to this atmosphere.

Relief comes in the final lines of the story when the writer employs an image of rebirth to describes the Captain's skin:

He rubbed his hands over his skin and felt it fresh, like new.

The barber decides not to kill the Captain, and his inner peace is emphasized through his physical description: his shirt is "soaked," for instance, but he is no longer actively sweating. His conflict has, therefore, come to an end.

In Act 1 Scene 4 of Macbeth, Duncan speaks highly of Macbeth. Explain why this is dramatic irony.

Dramatic irony refers to situations in which characters are unaware of certain events or the true motivations of another character, but the reader/viewer/audience is in the know.  In Act 1 Scene 4 of Macbeth, the audience is well aware of the prophecy that Macbeth and Banquo have received from the witches, but no one else in the play knows about the men's encounter with the witches.  At this point, Duncan speaks highly of Macbeth's valiance on the battlefield, and he is completely unaware that Macbeth has already begun thinking about ways to kill him to take his position as King.  Macbeth has not yet solidified any plans; however, he is coveting Duncan's high status, and no one else knows about it.  Thus, this situation is a moment of dramatic irony.

What did Sam name his rabbit?

Sam Gribley, the main character in "My Side of the Mountain," doesn't meet a rabbit in the Catskills. Are you thinking of the raccoon, Jessie Coon James? Sam and his trained falcon Frightful meet this young raccoon in the 12th chapter, called "In Which I Find a Real Live Man." The animal seems to be in need, and Sam names it Jessie Coon James and takes it home to feed it. Eventually Jessie accompanies Sam to the stream. The raccoon is good at digging up mussels. Sam soon figures out how to use Jessie's techniques to his own advantage. If Jessie digs up mussels and eats them immediately, she stops digging as soon as she is full. Sam lets Jessie dig up the mussels, but then he takes the food away so that she keeps on digging. In this way, they help each other. The raccoon's stash feeds Sam first, and then Jessie eats the rest of the mussels she finds. Readers probably assume at first that Jessie is a male name for a male raccoon. But Sam realizes in the spring that the raccoon is pregnant, making her a she-Jessie instead of a he-Jessie.

What is the hypothalamus?

Structure and Functions

The hypothalamus is a small, cone-shaped structure located near the center of the brain immediately below the thalamus. The hypothalamus has many nuclei and fiber tracts. It forms part of the walls and floor of the central chamber of the cerebral ventricles, which is known as the third ventricle. Neurons in the hypothalamus extend axons to the pituitary gland that is hanging on a stalk underneath the hypothalamus.

The hypothalamus controls many automatic functions of the body. Its overall function is to maintain normal, healthy conditions in the body by governing the autonomic nervous system and controlling pituitary output. Its specific functions are controlling the release of eight major hormones in the body, regulating body temperature, controlling food and water intake, controlling daily cycles in physiological state and behavior, mediating emotional responses, and regulating sexual behavior and reproduction.

Disorders and Diseases

If the hypothalamus is not functioning properly, the autonomic nervous system can send wrong neurosignals to the body that can make the victim feel stressed and emotionally empty. This can lead to disordered sleep, dysfunction of the immune system, altered body temperature, or multiple hormonal dysfunctions. These conditions often lead to depression, hyperactivity, malfunctioning of normal brain and limbic activities, or abnormal responses to stress. Disturbances in neural pathways that connect the hypothalamus and thalamus and control mood appear to be related to some of the symptoms of schizophrenia.

Obesity and related disorders are directly related to the critical role that the hypothalamus plays in the central regulation of appetite and metabolism. Insufficient production of antidiuretic hormone by the hypothalamus may cause diabetes insipidus. When the thirst center in the anterior hypothalamus is stimulated, polydipsia occurs, which can lead to polyuria.

Treatment of hypothalamic disorders depends on the cause of the dysfunction. If it is due to a tumor, the growth is either surgically removed or treated with radiation. If it is due to hormonal deficiencies, the missing hormones are replaced. Other specific treatments may be applied if the malfunction is due to infection, bleeding, or other causes.

Perspective and Prospects

The homeostatic function of the hypothalamus was suggested by Claude Bernard in the late 1800s. Many initial studies were focused on identifying the boundaries, structural components, nuclei, tracts, and interconnections of the hypothalamus. During the latter half of the twentieth century, interest shifted to the functions of the hypothalamus that were involved in emotional expression, disease, controlling metabolism, and producing neuroendocrine secretions. This emphasis has led to a better understanding and treatment of medical problems and chemical imbalances associated with hypothalamic dysfunctions.

Bibliography

Hadley, Mac E., and Jon E. Levine. Endocrinology 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson, 2007.

Jasmin, Luc. "Hypothalamus." MedlinePlus, November 2, 2012.

Norwood, Diane Voyatzis. "Diabetes Insipidus." Health Library, March 15, 2013.

Rennert, Nancy J. "Hypothalamus." MedlinePlus, December 11, 2011.

Stoll, Walt, and Jan DeCourtney. Recapture Your Health. Boulder, Colo.: Sunrise Health Coach, 2006.

Swaab, Dick F. Human Hypothalamus: Basic and Clinical Aspects, Part 2: Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2003.