Please give a Marxist reading of Chapter 56 of Pride and Prejudice.

Chapter 56 of Pride and Prejudice provides fertile ground for a Marxist reading. Marxist literary critics read literature through the lens of socialism. One of socialism's emphases is class struggle, and class struggle is quite evident in this chapter.

In chapter 56, Lady Catherine de Bourgh unexpectedly arrives at Longbourn to pay Elizabeth Bennet a visit. Apparently, she had heard a rumor that her nephew, Mr. Darcy, planned to propose to Elizabeth. This threw her into a rage. The reason she was so upset is that the Bennet family was from a lower class than the de Bourgh and Darcy families.

Consequently, Lady Catherine believed Elizabeth was being what one might call "uppity;" in other words, she did not did not know her place. In fact, the indignant Catherine even declared that Elizabeth was ungrateful for all the "kindness" she had showed her when she had visited Mr. Collins. However, Elizabeth rebelled against these class conventions and refused to submit to Lady Catherine's will simply because she belong to a higher social class. 

In Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451, what does Beatty criticize about schools, universities and printed material?

Beatty says that the increase in population had something to do with the necessity of banning books: 

Once, books appealed to a few people, here, there, everywhere. They could afford to be different. The world was roomy. But then the world got full of eyes and elbows and mouths. Double, triple, quadruple population. Films and radios, magazines, books levelled down to a sort of paste pudding norm, do you follow me? 

Also, according to Beatty, as technology became faster, books were cut shorter. Attention spans shrunk. Everything became condensed. This compression of thinking activities gives everyone more time to focus on work and leisure. With people thinking less profoundly, they are less likely to confront real sadness, loneliness, and so on. Beatty says that with less critical thinking there is less conflict and controversy. This lack of conflict makes for a complacent, numbed, but generally happy populace. The "smart" people of the world have always been the subject of abuse, so why not just make everyone equal and eliminate the stress on education. Beatty says, "And wasn't it this bright boy you selected for beatings and tortures after hours? Of course it was. We must all be alike. Not everyone born free and equal, as the Constitution says, but everyone made equal." 

If certain books, printed material, and literature make certain people upset, why not just get rid of them all? This is the logic Beatty proposes to Montag and Mildred. Education just leads to sadness. Beatty adds, "Don't give them any slippery stuff like philosophy or sociology to tie things up with. That way lies melancholy." (This conversation between Beatty, Montag, and Mildred occurs at the end of Part 1.) 

What is the main point and what is surprising about the following article? Why? Braveman, P (2006). Health Disparities and Health Equity:...

In the first part of his article, Braveman (2006) discusses the terms “health inequalities,’ “health disparities,” and “health equity,” looking at Margaret Whitehead’s definitions of each as were applied in the 1990’s, the first time a “concise and accessible definition of health disparities/inequalities/equity was articulated” (p. 2). He provides tables that break down definitions and parameters of health inequalities/disparities/equity formulated by others and examines the methodologies used to determine these parameters (pp. 5, 7-11). Many of these previous definitions depend on measurements based on social position, “relative advantage and disadvantage in social hierarchies,” or on “particular kinds of comparisons that should be made between/among groups with different social positions” (p. 14), i.e., ethnic, cultural, gendered positions. Braveman (2006) indicates that there is need for a definition that considers the implications of both and introduces his own proposed definition and parameters for these terms, explaining his reasons for the changes, the values that underlie those reasons, and how the definition change contributes something new to our understanding of the terms. The main point of the article overall is that there is a need for change in the way we understand the concepts of health inequalities/disparities/equity, especially here in the United States. His reasons are two of the most surprising aspects of this article: first, that there currently is no consensus among sociologists, health professionals, or policy makers on the definitions of health inequalities/disparities/equity. Policy can determine “which measurements are monitored by national, state/provincial, and local governments and international agencies, but also which activities will receive support from resources allocated to address health disparities/inequalities and health equity,” and because a consensus is necessary for creating policies that can effect changes in health, it is startling that one unanimously-agreed-upon definition is nonexistent. Second, while most of Europe understands and acts on these concepts based on socioeconomic inequalities, here in the Unites States, we understand them based primarily on racial/ethnic inequalities, and because the two often go in hand, we need a definition that adequately measures both. Braveman (2006) points out that most of us have an understanding of human rights as political and civil ones but “human rights also encompass economic, social, and cultural rights, such as the right to a decent standard of living, which in turn encompasses rights to adequate food, water, shelter, and clothing requisite for health, as well as the right to health itself,” and because “almost every country in the world has signed one or more agreements that include important health-related rights” (p. 17), it is vital that the world powers come to an agreement on how to define these terms in order to create policies and allocate resources that address them.

What irony is there in Mrs. Merriweather's insistence that Helen Robinson be forgiven in To Kill a Mockingbird?

As she alludes to Helen Robinson's need to lead a Christian life for her children from now on, the dramatic irony in these words of the judgmental, hypocritical Mrs. Grace Merriweather are that Tom and Helen both have probably been far more Christian in their actions than Mrs. Merriweather has ever been. Mrs. Merriweather is the one who should seek forgiveness, as she makes many uncharitable remarks about her maid and other blacks in the community.

Mrs. Merriweather considers herself an upright Christian, but the irony is that she is anything but Christian in her uncharitable and derogatory remarks, including,

"If we just let them know we forgive 'em, that we've forgotten it, then this whole thing'll blow over."

As stated by Mr. Link Deas, Tom Robinson was a good person. When she listens to Mayella's testimony, Scout realizes Tom was probably the only person who was ever decent to Mayella Ewell. In addition, Tom's wife Helen has not caused any problems and just tries to raise her family.

What is also ridiculous about Mrs. Merriweather's words is her assumption that Helen Robinson is unchristian in her behavior may be based upon the disgruntled black community's reaction after the trial; she tells Scout that the field hands and the cooks are dissatisfied, having grumbled all the next day. Of course, the bigoted Mrs. Merriweather does not believe they have anything about which to grumble.

Lyddie's roommates call Diana a radical; Diana says that she is infamous. What do these two words mean, and why do people use them to refer to...

A radical is someone who behaves very differently than most people.  To be infamous means that you have a bad reputation.  Diana is radical because she wants to organize the factory workers, and this makes her infamous because it is dangerous to try to organize. 

Lyddie is a little baffled by Diana at first.   The other girls tell her that Diana is a radical, and she should not be “taken in” by her, or in other words convinced. 

"If it's Diana Goss," Prudence said, "she's a known radical, and Amelia is concerned-"

"Ey?"

Betsy laughed. "I don't think our little country cousin is acquainted with any radicals, known or unknown." (Ch. 9) 

A radical is a person who has extreme views.  Most of the girls prefer to follow the factory rules and not make waves.  Diana is a radical because she believes that the girls should not work too many hours and should be provided with safer working conditions.  She belongs to a workers’ rights movement and helps circulate a petition for more reasonable hours for the factory girls. 

When Diana introduces herself with the word "infmaous", she does so jokingly.

“I'm Diana Goss."

She must have noted a flicker of something in Lyddie's face, because she added, "The "infamous" Diana Goss," and dimpled into her lovely smile.

Lyddie reddened.

"So you've been warned."

"Not really-" (Ch. 9) 

Being infamous is not necessarily a bad thing.  It can just mean that you are scandalous to some people.  Diana does not mind her sketchy reputation.  She has been a factory worker for a long time, and she looks out for them.  It matters more to her that she might be making a difference than that some people do not like or trust her.  

Lyddie actually does become good friends with Diana.  She avoids signing the petition at first, because she does not want to get into trouble.  She eventually does go to one of Diana’s meetings, but the petition has already failed.  Lyddie is sad when Diana has to leave the factory because she gets pregnant and the father is a married man.

What is the Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT)?

Introduction

The Peabody Individual Achievement Test is a widely used, individually administered achievement test. Developed in 1970 by Lloyd M. Dunn and Frederick C. Markwardt, it was revised in 1989 by Markwardt. The original version, often called the PIAT, and the revision, often called the PIAT-R, are for children aged five through eighteen. In 1997, the test's normative scores were updated to reflect changes in average level of performance, resulting in the PIAT-R/NU, which is for children aged five through twenty-two. The PIAT measures widely expected educational outcomes, not specific to any particular curriculum.

The PIAT measures achievement in five areas: general information, reading recognition, reading comprehension, mathematics, and spelling. The revision added one more area, written expression. For the general information portion, the examiner reads questions aloud, and the child answers aloud. For reading recognition, the child reads aloud. For reading comprehension, the child reads a sentence silently and then chooses a picture that best illustrates the sentence. For mathematics, the child answers multiple-choice questions on topics ranging from recognizing numbers to solving geometry and trigonometry problems. For spelling, the child chooses the correct spelling of the word that the examiner speaks. For written expression, depending on the child’s level, the child either copies and writes words or writes a story in response to a picture.

The items are arranged in increasing order of difficulty. For each child, the examiner starts with some sample items and then obtains basal and ceiling levels. The basal level is the point where the child correctly answers five items in a row. The ceiling level is the point where the child misses five items out of seven. The number of items answered correctly between the basal and ceiling levels determines the child’s score. The child’s score is matched with scores of children of the same chronological age. The PIAT provides an overall score, percentile ranks, and age-equivalent, grade-equivalent, and standard scores for the overall score and for each portion.

An adult, who is typically an educator or a psychologist or someone working under supervision, administers the PIAT to one child at a time. No formal training is required, but the adult must be able to follow the instructions precisely. Typically, testing occurs in a private, quiet, well-lit room and takes about an hour to complete. The items are not timed, except for written expression. Although it is typically given in one session, the child may take a break or come back for a second session if needed.

Uses and Limitations

The PIAT has several uses. PIAT scores can be useful whenever someone needs an assessment of scholastic achievement or insight into the individual’s specific strengths and weaknesses. For the child, this information might be useful in designing a program, providing guidance and counseling, making admissions and placement decisions, and grouping students. In terms of research, the PIAT can be used for evaluation of an educational program. Also, because the test assesses individuals from preschool to post-high school, the PIAT can be used in longitudinal studies on achievement and human development. It could also be used for basic research questions, such as showing how two achievement areas are related or determining the relationship between academic achievement and other traits.

As is true of any test, the PIAT has limitations. One potential limitation is that sometimes people forget that it is a score that the individual made on one specific test on one specific day. They mistakenly believe that the score defines them. Children or adolescents who are ill, distracted, or having an off day for other reasons may perform well below their typical level. Another potential limitation is that the PIAT is limited to English-speaking children in the United States. Children who have other backgrounds would typically be at a disadvantage. Also, the PIAT must be administered in a standardized way. An examiner who deviates from the instructions might quickly inflate or deflate the child’s score.

Bibliography

Andrade, Heidi. "Assessing Learning." Education Digest 78.3 (2012): 46–53. Print.

Costenbader, Virginia K., and John W. Adams. “A Review of the Psychometric and Administrative Features of the PIAT-R: Implications for the Practitioner.” Journal of School Psychology 29 (Fall 1991): 219–28. Print.

Flanagan, Dawn P., Patti L. Harrison. Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories, Tests, and Issues. New York: Guilford, 2012. Print.

Grimley, Liam K. “Academic Assessment of ADHD Children.” Handbook of Hyperactivity in Children. Ed. Johnny L. Matson. Needham Heights: Allyn, 1993. Print.

Kasomo, Daniel W. Measurement and Evaluation in Humanities and Education: Teaching, Evaluation, Assessment and Testing. Saarbrucken: Lambert Academic, 2010.

Luther, James B. “Review of the Peabody Individual Achievement Test—Revised.” Journal of School Psychology 30 (Spring 1992): 31–39. Print.

Sattler, Jerome M. Assessment of Children. 5th ed. San Diego: Author, 2008. Print.

Smith, Douglas K. Essentials of Individual Achievement Assessment. New York: Wiley, 2008. Print.

How does Blake portray people in the poem 'London'?

His view of humanity in this poem is, to say the least, bleak and desperate. Blake seeks to provide a portrait of Londoners, particularly members of the lower-class, struggling to survive in the Industrial Age.

The narrator is walking through the streets and regarding the faces of other passersby:

I wander thro' each charter'd street,

Near where the charter'd Thames does flow,

And mark in every face I meet

Marks of weakness, marks of woe.

"Chartered" could indicate private property, or a space (e.g., city, street, school) that has been established. For the purpose of the poem, Blake seems to use the word to remind us that we are in a civilized space, but that civilization has not made us any more humane or content. Perhaps our discontent is rooted in our growing too distant from nature. Notice, too, how the Thames, a natural formation, has also been "charter'd." 

Every face has "marks of weakness" and "woe." The use of the word mark, as both a verb and a noun, indicate that the strangers are stained or sullied. One thinks of marks of soot or oil that one would see on the body of a factory worker.

Though he does not describe any of these strangers, but instead gives us a catalog of types, Blake accounts for the singularity of everyone's anguish:

In every cry of every Man,

In every Infant's cry of fear,

In every voice, in every ban,

The mind-forg'd manacles I hear:

With the use of the adverb "every" he gives distinction where there is otherwise none. The distinction, for humans, lies in the pained sounds they produce. "Ban" has several meanings. It could indicate social and legal prohibitions, public condemnation, or be a play on "banns," which were marriage proclamations. What all of these "bans" have in common is that they are institutional restrictions placed on people -- hence, "mind-forg'd manacles." The narrator hears the clanging of the shackles with which each person has locked down his or her mind in the interest of being a member of society.

The last two stanzas more specifically address people who are representative of political concerns. "The Chimney-sweeper" is a figure about whom Blake had written several poems. Here the chimney sweeper cries, which echoes the "cry of every Man" and "every Infant's cry of fear," but also alludes to the chimney-sweeper advertising his services:

How the Chimney-sweeper's cry

Every blackning Church appalls,

The misery of a boy sweeping out chimneys to live is an outrage or shock to the Church, or should be. Blake's use of the present participle "blackning" suggests a Church that is implicit in this. Churches, too, require the services of chimney-sweeps to clear out soot, which could blacken the space. "Blackning" also suggests guilt or shame for the Church's lack of action on this matter.

The next two lines take issue with the state:

And the hapless Soldier's sigh

Runs in blood down Palace walls.

The soldier is a victim ("hapless") of political maneuvering. He takes his last breath ("sigh") and the reverberations of his death are felt in the palace, for they are guilty -- stained with his blood. There is some alliteration in these lines as well, with the repetition of the "s" sound both at the beginning and end of various words. The effect here is like that of a hush.

The last stanza looks at a prostitute and the effect her desperate actions have had on her child. This is the figure on whom Blake focuses: "But most thro' midnight streets I hear." "Most" indicates that the sound she produces from her "curse" are all too familiar to the narrator. "Curse" has a double-meaning here. It is both profanity and probably venereal disease:

How the youthful Harlot's curse

Blasts the new-born Infant's tear,

And blights with plagues the Marriage hearse.

The blast on "the new-born Infant's tear" indicates that the child is blind. Untreated gonorrhea can have this effect on newborns. Moreover, her ability to spread this disease, and possibly others, to her married customers results in the deaths, both spiritual and possibly literal, of those men's marriages. Untreated syphilis can result in death; and realizing that one's husband has been with a prostitute can destroy the marriage bond. Thus, the marriage coach becomes a "hearse."