In Call It Courage, what does Mafatu realize once he sees the island has a sacred place?

In Call It Courage, when Mafatu finds the marae, the Sacred Place, on the island, he knows that he has found a forbidden island, or motu tabu.

This realization can be found on p. 46 of the book. At this point, it is the first day that Mafatu has spent on the island and he is exploring. While exploring, he finds a long lava slide and decides to sled down it on a sled of leaves. At the bottom of the slide, he finds a trail that is too fine to have been “made by the feet of wild pigs (p. 46).” He walks along the trail and comes to the Sacred Place. Mafatu looks at the idol and then looks around its base. He sees burnt bones all over the platform. They are too large to be dog or pig bones so he realizes that they must be human bones. At this point (still on p. 46), we are told that

And then he understood. His heart congealed.  This was a motu tabu, a Forbidden Island.

What is the climax in Tracks By Louise Erdrich

In literary terms, the climax is the turning point in the story, the place where the rising action peaks before turning into the falling action. Opinions vary as to where the climax occurs in Louise Erdrich's novel Tracks. Some argue that the climax occurs when Fleur leaves the reservation for the town of Argus. This is a fair point because this move enhances one of the main conflicts in the story, that of survival and cultural identity. But the action continues to rise after her move, ultimately leading to a game of cards with some male co-workers who rape her after she beats them at the game. This event makes more sense as the climax because it leads directly to the falling action as Fleur moves back to the reservation, falls in love, discovers she is pregnant (although paternity is a question), and builds a family unit. Sadly, the conclusion is the government seizure of their land.

What are motor neuron diseases?

Causes and Symptoms

In motor neuron diseases, certain nerves die, specifically those that allow any and all body movement. The actual cause of spontaneous motor neuron death is unknown, but genetic defects, neurotoxins, viruses, autoimmune disruptions, and metabolic disorders are contributing factors.

The predominant features of motor neuron disorders are muscular weakness, muscular wasting, and the presence of fasciculations. As a nerve dies, it can no longer effectively innervate its target muscle, but neighboring nerves may sprout to keep the muscle active. A consequence of nerve sprouting is the onset of brief, spontaneous contractions, or twitches. These visible twitches are called fasciculations. Eventually, as increasing numbers of nerves die, fewer healthy nerves are left to sprout until, finally, all muscles are denervated. Dead nerves cannot prompt muscle movement, nor can they release tropic factors as they do in health. This loss of tropic input from the neuron causes muscular
atrophy and renders the muscle useless.

Motor neuron diseases are usually first noticed in the hands or upper limbs, where muscle weakness and decreased ability to use arms or hands cause problems. Unlike some disorders, motor neuron diseases fail to show stages of exacerbation or remission. Rather they progress—either rapidly or slowly, but relentlessly—until death, usually as a result of respiratory complications.

Although there are childhood forms, motor neuron diseases are more likely to strike between the ages of fifty and fifty-five, and they are seen in males more than females by a ratio of 1.5 to 1. Motor neuron diseases seem to occur rarely in the obese person and tend to afflict otherwise healthy, thin, and perhaps athletic persons. A famed person afflicted by the debilitating motor neuron disease
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) was baseball player Lou Gehrig, in whose memory it is often called Lou Gehrig’s disease.

Motor neuron diseases are often subgrouped into three categories: ALS, progressive spinal muscular atrophy, and progressive bulbar (brain-stem) palsy. In the plural form, motor neuron diseases refer to all forms of the affliction, whereas the singular form, motor neuron disease, is synonymous with ALS.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is the most familiar of the motor neuron diseases primarily because it accounts for a full 60 percent of all such disorders. The name has clinical meaning: “Amyotrophy” refers to the loss of muscle bulk as a result of missing tropic factors from dying or dead neurons, “lateral” refers to the locations within the spinal cord that are affected, and “sclerosis” refers to the hardened quality of the lateral regions of the diseased spinal cord, which otherwise would be soft tissue. The brain stem may also be sclerotic (hardened). ALS has an incidence of 1 or 2 persons per 100,000, although some Pacific islands, such as Guam, seem to have a higher incidence attributable to undetermined genetic factors. In addition, some populations show an autosomal dominant genetic component. ALS is fatal, and death generally occurs as a result of respiratory failure within three to five years after the onset of symptoms.

ALS is characterized by upper and lower motor neuron signs of neural death; thus the presence of both fasciculations and spasticity is required for a diagnosis. Spasticity is a medical term that describes a certain kind of muscular resistance (stiffness) to movement. In particular, spastic means a resistance that increases the more rapidly a muscle is extended; tendon reflexes are also hyperactive and Babinski’s sign (abnormal reflexes of the toes) must be present. Babinski’s sign reveals the death of neurons in the corticospinal tracts, which signals the occurrence of upper motor neuron death. The presence of fasciculations reveals lower motor neuron death.

Progressive spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) will show only lower motor neuron signs—namely, muscular weakness, fasciculations, and atrophy. Babinski’s sign or spasticity is not found. The early symptoms may include increased clumsiness in using the fingers for fine movements (including writing or using kitchen utensils), stiffness of the fingers and hands, and cramping of the upper and lower limbs. Once the brain-stem nerves become involved, difficulty in speaking and swallowing occur. Of all persons afflicted with one of the motor neuron diseases, 7 to 15 percent will have lower motor neuron signs only and are presumed to have the progressive spinal muscular atrophy form.

Progressive bulbar palsy literally means progressive brain-stem paralysis. This form of motor neuron disease accounts for 20 to 25 percent of all cases. The tongue is usually the first place to show muscular wasting and fasciculations. As the nerves controlling the tongue die, the tongue shrivels and shrinks so that speaking, chewing, and moving solids or liquids to the back of the mouth for swallowing become difficult or impossible.

Children can be afflicted with spinal muscular atrophy. This disease is believed by many experts to be completely unique from the adult form. The childhood form seems to be more associated with environmental and genetic factors. (This concept is greatly debated, however, since the actual cause of any of the motor neuron diseases is unknown.) Three forms of childhood SMA have been identified: type 1, or acute infantile SMA (also known as Werdnig-Hoffman disease); type 2, or intermediate SMA; and type 3, or juvenile SMA (also known as Kugelberg-Welander disease).

Of children afflicted with SMA, 25 percent have type 1. This form of the disease is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder that occurs in 1 of 15,000 to 25,000 births. In an experienced mother, there may be awareness of minimal fetal movement in the last trimester of pregnancy; the fetus tends to stay still as a result of muscular weakness. Upon birth, the newborn may be a “floppy” baby of great weakness and may immediately have trouble with nursing and breathing. In other cases, it may take three to six months before symptoms begin. Because of the eventual weakening of the muscles of respiration, the child becomes prone to respiratory infections that cannot be cleared because of a lost cough reflex. Death usually occurs at two to three years of age.

When a child fails to stand or walk between six to twelve months of age, the physician considers the possibility that the child has type 2 SMA. An abnormal curvature of the spine to the forward and sideways position (kyphoscoliosis) is often seen, but rarely is there any problem with feeding or breathing. It is generally the case that very fine tremors of the child’s hands can be noticed, and sometimes contractures of the hips and knees can occur. There is no delay in terms of mental health or intellect for these children.

Type 3 SMA is most often seen in the adolescent, but this disease can be observed in some children as early as five years of age. The predominant feature is weakness of the hip muscles. Since these children have been walking for some time, a change in their walking gait to a waddle can be seen over the course of years. Most people with type 3 SMA must use wheelchairs in their mid-thirties, but some may lose their ability to walk earlier. Type 3 SMA has been shown to be an autosomal recessive disorder in many cases, but there are also reported cases of sporadic occurrences within families that have previously been unaffected. Clearly, there are unanswered questions about this disease.

It should be noted that controversy abounds on the assigned classifications of motor neuron diseases. This controversy arises from the fact that the origins of the diseases are not known. Since cause has not been established for any form of motor neuron disease, physicians must use clusters of symptoms to sort the differences in disease manifestation. This sorting is used to plan the best possible treatment programs for the circumstances; nevertheless, these distinctions may seem arbitrary once more is known about the causes of motor neuron death.

Treatment and Therapy

Perhaps one of the most frustrating attributes of motor neuron diseases is that neither prevention nor effective treatment and cures are available. For a person living with motor neuron disease, physicians and health care professionals must work as a team to manage the symptoms of the diseases and offer palliative care.

In general, patients are encouraged to use and exercise their muscles cautiously in order to avoid disuse atrophy, but activity to the point of fatigue is forbidden since it is believed to aggravate the progression of muscular wasting. In addition, exposure to cold may worsen muscular contractures. Physical therapy facilitates a delay in the total loss of willed body movement by allowing the use of braces, walkers, and wheelchairs as modes of locomotion. Adults are encouraged to continue nonexertive work for as long as possible; it aids both the body and the mind to maintain independence and a sense of wholeness, well-being, and dignity.

As muscular control of the voice wanes, sketch pads, word boards, and computers can aid the ill person in communicating with loved ones, doctors, nurses, and colleagues. In addition, respiratory therapy aids in maintaining healthy breathing in spite of ever-weakening respiratory muscles. Prophylactic immunizations for influenza and pneumococci are given, especially to those who are wheelchair-dependent or bedridden. Forced deep breathing and coughing are needed at least once every four hours to bring up any congestion that may otherwise lead to grave consequences. Almost all persons with motor neuron diseases die from respiratory insufficiency. For this reason, it is imperative that the patient and physician discuss respiratory care early after diagnosis to determine whether the patient wants to be placed on mechanical ventilators in the later stages of the disease. Other issues such as tube feedings should be discussed while the patient is still able to voice an opinion and express any concerns about the dying process associated with the disease .

The past decade has seen a significant increase in the offering of fake treatments for motor neuron diseases by unaccredited organizations and physicians online. Many of these treatements offer patients relief from symptoms using human or animal stem cells. There remains no credible scientific evidence that stem cells of any kind are beneficial in the treatment of motor neuron disease. Reputable medical organization and law enforcement officials in the United States have stepped up efforts to combat scams and hoaxes offering false promises to patients and their familes.

Perspective and Prospects

Life can be socially difficult for people with motor neuron diseases. Others tend to assume that persons who must use wheelchairs and are unable to control mouth movements (so that speech and swallowing are lost and drooling may occur) are not intelligent, thinking, or aware. This is a sad misperception.

Many persons suffering from a motor neuron disease rise above its physical challenges to conquer in spirit that which the body cannot. For example, former United States senator Jacob Javits labored hard to improve the awareness of and funding for ALS in spite of being on a ventilator and completely immobile because of his battle with the disease. Another example of how well the intellect is preserved in this physically tragic disease can be seen in the life and work of the world-renowned astrophysicist Stephen Hawking.

Until there is an established cause or causes for these diseases, effective treatments or cures are likely to remain hidden. The research continues in the hope of pinning down the ever-elusive motor neuron diseases.

Bibliography

Bear, Mark F., Barry W. Connors, and Michael A. Paradiso. Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain. 3d ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

Bloom, Floyd E., M. Flint Beal, and David J. Kupfer, eds. The Dana Guide to Brain Health. New York: Dana Press, 2006.

Heilman, Kenneth M. Matter of Mind: A Neurologist’s View of Brain-Behavior Relationships. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Kuncl, Ralph W.  Motor Neuron Disease . 1st ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Ltd., 2002. Print.

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). Motor Neuron Diseases Information Page. http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/motor_neuron_diseases.

Parker, James N., and Philip M. Parker, eds. Official Patient’s Sourcebook on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. San Diego, Calif.: Icon Health, 2003.

Parsons, Malcolm, and Michael Johnson. Diagnosis in Color: Neurology. New York: Mosby, 2001.

Talbot, Kevin.  Motor Neuron Disease (The Facts) . Oxford UP, 2008. Print.

Thompson, Charlotte E. Raising a Child with a Neuromuscular Disorder: A Guide for Parents, Grandparents, Friends, and Professionals. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Turner, Bradley J.  Motor Neuron Diseases: Causes, Classification and Treatments (Neurology - Laboratory and
Clinical Research Developments). Hauppauge, New York: Nova Biomedical Books, 2012. Print.

In Richard Wright's story "Almos' a Man," does the ending prove that he is still immature because he is running away from his responsibility, or...

In Richard Wright's short story "The Man Who was Almost a Man" or "Almos' a Man," the main character Dave longs to overcome his poverty stricken life as a sharecropper's son in the rural south during the 1930's. Caught between childhood and adulthood, Dave believes that having a gun will change his life and make him a man. He pesters his mother for money and when she gives in he buys a pistol from a local merchant. Rather than bring it home to his mother, he takes it to the fields on Mr. Hawkins' plantation where he plans on practicing with it. Accidentally, he shoots the mule Jenny and, after initially lying about what happened, has to admit that he killed the mule. At the end of the story Dave retrieves the gun which he had buried, fires it four times and then hears the train coming. He makes up his mind to hop on the train and leave his world behind.

On one hand, Dave is still very immature. He believes that an object will provide him with the qualities which will make people consider him a man. He is tired of being laughed at by the other workers on Hawkins' plantation and sees the gun as a great equalizer. He seeks the power he currently lacks by owning a gun. Like a child, he tells lies. He lies to his mother, saying that he will give the gun to his father, and he tries to twist the truth about the death of the mule. Obviously, compulsive lying is not characteristic of a real man. His last decision, however, proves that he has the courage and willpower of an adult.

Dave does the only thing which will free him from a life of poverty and servitude. Escape is the only solution and in this act he displays a great deal of maturity. He hops on the train with the gun secure in his pocket:

He felt his pocket; the gun was still there. Ahead the long rails were glinting in the moonlight, stretching away, away to somewhere, somewhere where he could be a man...

Whether or not Dave succeeds and truly becomes a man is unclear, as indicated by the ellipsis in the final line. But, rather than stay in a dead end life, following in the footsteps of his father, he opts for something different, and in that choice proves that he may indeed be on the path to adulthood. It is the same decision which other blacks made in the years after the Civil War. They left their homes in the south and moved north to make a different life in the hopes of achieving happiness and prosperity. 

Was Ancient Rome or Athens a better form of government?

The Roman system of government was a republic, which meant that citizens could vote for who would represent them in government. The Athenian system of government was a direct democracy, which meant that the entire body of citizens voted for virtually everything that was decided by the government. Both systems limited citizenship, but it was easier to acquire citizenship in Rome than in Athens.

The Roman system of government was more complex, but offered a more flexible and efficient form of government than in Athens. Since it was more efficient and allowed for greater flexibility, I believe it was the better form of political organization. Athens was often criticized by other city-states as being dictated by "mob" rule. In other words, the political climate changed often at the mood of the people. In Rome, greater stability existed and military and political officers were granted more power and influence as a result. The consequence of having powerful and influential leaders is that more can be achieved because political leaders can make decisions for the good of the state without fear of being replaced at the whims of the populace. For this reason, the Roman system of government can be considered superior to Athens.

According to Sarny, why is it bad for a slave to run away?

According to Sarny, it's bad for a slave to run away because "nobody ever gets away."

What Sarny means is that she's never known a slave to succeed in escaping. Sarny doesn't believe it's wrong for a slave to run away; she merely thinks that running away isn't a worthwhile enterprise, because there's so little chance for success.

In the book, she cites three examples of slaves who tried to flee. One was an old slave named Jim. Waller, the plantation owner, had set his ferocious dogs on Jim once he heard about the slave's escape. Jim had run as far as he could, but he had to eventually climb a tree to get away from the baying dogs. However, the tree he climbed was too close to the ground, and the hounds succeeded in tearing the bottom half of Jim's body to shreds. The old slave had died with his hands still holding on to the tree. Sarny tells us that Waller had ordered the slave's body to be left in its place for the carrion birds to feed on.

The second slave to run was a young man named Pawley. One night, Pawley was late in returning from a tryst with a girl from another plantation, and Waller set his dogs on Pawley when he found out. Even though Pawley was on his way home, the dogs were allowed to savage Pawley to within an inch of his life. After the vicious attack, Waller tied Pawley down and castrated him. However, the crude operation was a botched affair, and Pawley bled to death in his quarters.

Sarny also tells about Alice and how she tried to flee. Waller had set his dogs on Alice too and they tore the young woman to shreds. Alice had survived the brutal canine attack, but Mammy had to sew her up in her quarters. Sarny relates that Alice never made a sound during Mammy's ministrations.

So, Sarny says that it's bad for slaves to run away because there's so little chance for success. In her opinion, she doesn't think there's really any place to run to, although the rumors have reached her that slaves can flee north. Sarny reasons that since the North is too far away, there's no use hoping for an unattainable dream that will never be realized.

Shakespeare's Othello has been described as having a flimsy and unrealistic plot, which is only convincing if we think of Othello as "a savage". Do...

The plot of Othello has aspects that are difficult to reconcile. For example, how can Othello be such a noble, patient man, and then suddenly descend into a jealous rage? The story also plays on contemporary stereotypes about African men who were espoused to be honorable and brave but hot-tempered and naive. Othello arguably comes across as very foolish and even barbaric when he murders his innocent wife Desdemona because he is convinced she has committed adultery.

However, the play introduces a number of complications. For one, Othello defies racial stereotypes by being well-spoken, patient by nature (before succumbing to Iago’s lies), and decidedly not lascivious. He at first suspects Iago, but Iago has no apparent reason to lie and has served in the army with Othello for years. Iago plays on Othello’s hidden insecurities and prejudices, including internalized racism and misogyny. It is the uncertainty of Desdemona’s actions that drive Othello mad, as well as his pride and fear of being unworthy of her.

There is much racism in Othello, both blatant and subtle. Iago says that Othello “will as tenderly be led by the nose / As asses are,” comparing a man to an animal, and Othello calls upon “black vengeance, from thy hollow cell!” However, Othello’s inability to separate his violent military life from his increasingly fraught domestic life is a recurring theme in Shakespeare’s plays, no matter the race or origin of the soldier. In conclusion, seeing Othello as a “savage” is one way to interpret the plot, but it is by no means the only way to make sense of the story and the character’s complex motivations.