In Candide, what are the major issues addressed by the text?

Candide, of course, is a philosophical novel. While it can be enjoyed on several different levels--Voltaire's wit has actually translated quite well across the centuries--Voltaire is using the story of Candide to make a serious philosophical point.

The pretentious professor Pangloss assures Candide that "all is for the best in this, the best of all possible worlds." Pangloss, like many of Voltaire's contemporaries, suggested that whatever happened in the world was God's will and was thus to be cheerfully accepted. By subjecting Candide to one horrific incident after another, Voltaire clearly suggests that this is not true. The point is a serious one in that Voltaire was arguing for human agency in making the world a better, or a worse, place.

Voltaire also critiques many contemporary institutions. He mocks dogmatic religion in his treatment of the Inquisition in Portugal. He points to the absurdity of war. In fact, a key message in Candide is that it is pointless to spend too much time bickering over abstract philosophical and religious propositions at all. As Candide says in the end when Pangloss insists on explaining everything that has happened to them through the prism of his philosophy: "All that is very well, but let us cultivate our garden.” Voltaire was a hard-headed pragmatist, and Candide was a splendid vehicle for his philosophy.

A mockingbird is a bird thought to be innocent because all it does is provide music to be enjoyed by others. Do you believe Boo Radley to be a...

Scout, the narrator of the story, believes that Boo is like a mockingbird. Boo brings joy to the children and shows them kindness. Eventually, he saves their lives.

Boo hides gifts for Scout and Jem in the knot-hole of an old tree on the Radley property. These gifts delight Scout and Jem. The siblings eagerly look forward to each gift. When Jem's pants get trapped in the barbed wire at the edge of the Radley yard, Boo mends them. On a cold night, Boo covers Scout with a blanket as she rests outside.

On a walk home from the Halloween festivities, Bob Ewell attacks Scout and Jem. He tries to kill them, but Boo comes to the rescue. He fights Mr. Ewell and stabs him. Heck Tate wants to imply that Mr. Ewell fell on his knife. He wants to spare Boo any hardship or a long trial. Atticus tries to make Scout understand this. She does:

"Yes sir, I understand," I reassured him. "Mr. Tate was right."

Atticus disengaged himself and looked at me.  "What do you mean?"

"Well, it’d be sort of like shootin' a mockingbird, wouldn't it?"

Scout sees Boo's innocence. She knows he was only trying to save them. She knows that he means no harm, just like a mockingbird.

Timothy reveals to Phillip that he cannot read or write. How does this make Phillip feel? What do Phillip's feelings reveal about him?

Phillip reacts to Timothy's illiteracy with smugness, which reveals how immature Phillip still is.

This happens in Chapter 8, on page 68, when Timothy and Phillip are using stones to spell the word "help" on the ground in hopes that passing planes will see it and come to their rescue. Phillip realizes that Timothy wants to write this word on the ground but doesn't know how to spell it. Here's how Phillip reacts to this discovery:

I felt good. I knew how to do something that Timothy couldn't do. He couldn't spell. I felt superior to Timothy that day, but I let him play his little game, pretending not to know that he really couldn't spell.

Keep in mind that Phillip has recently lost his self-control and had a loud, babyish crying fit over their situation. He feels like a helpless child (which he is) and is desperate to regain his dignity. Until this point, Timothy has taken care of himself and Phillip with his own superior knowledge of survival skills and a steady, friendly, fatherly manner. Phillip has often felt the burden of his youth and ignorance in Timothy's company, so now that the boy realizes he can do something that the old man cannot, Phillip feels superior and proud, smug in the knowledge that he's better at reading and writing than Timothy is and that Phillip's own spelling skills are actually useful for the task they're working in.

What we can understand from this revelation about Timothy and its effect on Phillip is that the boy lacks maturity. Someone older and more mature than Phillip would understand that their situation isn't a contest of who's better at what. It's a situation that calls for teamwork, for reliance on each other, and for sensitivity. Timothy is probably self-conscious about his illiteracy, since he certainly doesn't admit it openly--and a mature friend would be sensitive to that issue, careful not to offend the old man. Instead, Phillip keeps his observations secret not out of tact but out of smugness: he seems to snatch onto this deficiency of Timothy's as if it's a good card in a game to play later to his own advantage. And in fact, if you read a bit further, you'll see Phillip losing his temper and yelling at Timothy about how the old man can't even read. Phillip has a lot of growing to do, socially and emotionally.

Why did the French offer to sell Louisiana to the United States?

President Thomas Jefferson sent emissaries to France to negotiate the purchase of the city of New Orleans, or at the very least, guaranteed access to the ports there. This would give the United States free navigation of the Mississippi River, which was necessary for the nation's continued westward expansion--farmers had to be able to transport their crops downriver. France had only recently reacquired the region, once part of its vast North American empire, from Spain, and Napoleon hoped to develop the region into a source of wealth. But when Jefferson's emissaries arrived in France, they received the stuning offer of the entire Louisiana Territory--virtually all of the modern United States between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains--for the sum of fifteen million dollars. France was eager to sell for a few reasons. First, the Haitian Revolution had resulted in the fall of the French sugar island of Saint-Domingue. With this island no longer in French hands, New Orleans, and the French presence in the region in general, no longer seemed as desirable. Also, France was entering into war with Great Britain and other European powers, and was in need of the cash from the land deal. So Napoleon, in short, was more focused on affairs in Europe than on rebuilding a French empire in North America and the Caribbean.

What is a miscarriage?

Causes and Symptoms

Approximately 15 to 20 percent of all known pregnancies will end in miscarriage. Furthermore, it is estimated that 50 to 75 percent of all fertilized eggs fail to implant in the uterus—a situation generally unknown to the woman. The likelihood of a miscarriage drops during the pregnancy’s duration: approximately 10 percent in the first four weeks after implantation, 5 percent for the next six weeks, and 3 percent for the following eight weeks. (The stillbirth rate is approximately 1 percent.)

The symptoms of a threatened abortion may include spotting of blood, which may turn into heavier bleeding; cramping, possibly accompanied by lower back pain; and vaginal discharge of tissue, clots, or pinkish fluid. A completed miscarriage may also demonstrate changes in pregnancy signs, such as nausea and breast sensitivity. A hormonal sign of a threatened abortion is the failure of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) levels to double every two days.

There are three conditions where a woman experiences a miscarriage and the developing child is missing in the sac. About 30 percent of miscarriages before the eighth gestational week are blighted ova, as an embryo has failed to develop. Complete molar pregnancies arise when a sperm (or two) fertilize an egg that has lost its genes. The resulting development of pregnancy tissues—absent the developing child—usually leads to the symptoms of a miscarriage in the first several gestational weeks, but expulsion of the placenta may not occur. Because of the higher likelihood of residual disease (including cancer) in the abnormal tissue if any is left behind, surgical removal of the molar tissue is often warranted. Women who have aborted a molar pregnancy are advised to not get pregnant again for a year, and then they must be closely monitored for subsequent pregnancies, as they are at increased risk for further abnormalities that can become malignant. Finally, a woman may have a recognized pregnancy yet not realize that she was actually pregnant with twins and that one died. This is called “vanishing twin syndrome.”

Analyses reveal the probability of the most common causes of miscarriages: 50 to 60 percent, genetic abnormalities; 10 to 15 percent, defects in the uterus (such as double or septal uterus) or the cervix (such as incomplete closure); and 10 to 15 percent, hormonal (such as low progesterone or thyroxin) and/or immune disorders (such as lupus or antiphosphid antibody syndrome). A woman’s poor health, history of disease (such as endometriosis), history of miscarriages, and advanced age (a 50 percent miscarriage rate for women forty-five and older) also increase the probability of a miscarriage. Recent studies have indicated that the presence of bacterial vaginosis is associated with late-onset miscarriages and preterm deliveries. The presence of the bacteria known as beta strep in the mother’s birth canal is tied to preterm labor when it goes untreated. Lifestyle choices that can compromise a successful pregnancy may involve the abuse of substances such as caffeine, cocaine, or nicotine; the contraction of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), such as chlamydia, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), or human papillomavirus (HPV); or exposure to harmful agents, such as radiation.

Treatment and Therapy

Little can be done to stop a miscarriage in the first two months of pregnancy, though some effective interventions are possible in later gestational periods. Magnesium sulfate is effective in combating preeclampsia (high blood pressure during pregnancy) and premature labor contractions. A cervical stitch (cerclage) can rectify an incompetent cervix (premature dilation). Most medical efforts, however, are directed toward the prevention of future miscarriages—the treatment of disease, lifestyle changes, RhO shots for Rh problems—and recovery from the present miscarriage. For example, medications to reduce the risk of miscarriage include antibiotics, which treat or prevent infections, and aspirin and similar medications that treat blood-clotting issues. Surgical procedures are also used to prevent miscarriages by treating certain uterine problems, such as uterine fibroids and a weakened cervix.

There are two aspects of recovery from a miscarriage. The physical part involves the natural or artificial removal of pregnancy tissue—either chemically, as with pitocin, or surgically, as with dilation and curettage (D & C)—and the establishment of a new menstrual cycle. A typical physical recovery ranges from a few days to a few weeks for the miscarriage itself and one to two months after the miscarriage for the next period. Women are usually advised to wait one to two normal periods before trying to conceive again. Most women trying to conceive will be successful within six months of the miscarriage.

The psychological recovery may take longer than the physical recovery. Social support, good mental health prior to the miscarriage, deeper religious faith, and successful grieving (mourning, not denying, the loss and then moving forward in life) are some of the factors correlated with a better psychological recovery. Support groups exist for individuals who have suffered miscarriage, stillbirth, or infant death. Similar groups exist to provide support to individuals who are pregnant after the loss of an earlier pregnancy. Such support is essential in decreasing anxiety.

Perspective and Prospects

Until the latter half of the twentieth century, miscarrying women received little satisfaction from the medical community. In fact, many of the drugs introduced in the mid-twentieth century, such as diethylstilbestrol (DES) and its numerous estrogenic cousins, caused more harm than good. However, by the latter part of the twentieth century significant progress was made in diagnosing and preventing miscarriages.

In the early twenty-first century, three avenues of research appear to be promising. Studies are revealing certain genetic predispositions for miscarriages, such as the low production of nitric oxide, resulting in less blood to the uterus. Miscarriages are also being linked to autoimmune disorders and hormonal deficiencies. Use of hormone injections to women who are found to have a hormonal imbalance can help to prevent miscarriage. Finally, assisted reproductive technologies offer intriguing possibilities, such as the ethically controversial opportunity to screen preimplantation embryos for chromosomal abnormalities. In these and other areas of research, new hopes are being raised for old griefs.

Bibliography

Eisenberg, Arlene, Heidi E. Murkoff, and Sandee E. Hathaway. What to Expect When You’re Expecting. 4th ed. New York: Workman, 2009. Print.

Friedman, Lynn, and Irene Daria. A Woman Doctor’s Guide: Miscarriage—The Support and Facts You Need to Get through Pregnancy Loss. New York: Kensington, 2001. Print.

Jutel, A. “What’s in a Name? Death before Birth.” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 49.3 (2006): 425–34. Print.

Lanham, Carol Cirruli. Pregnancy after a Loss: A Guide to Pregnancy after a Miscarriage, Stillbirth, or Infant Death. New York: Berkley, 1999. Print.

Larsen, E. C. "New Insights into Mechanisms behind Miscarriage." BMC Medicine 11.1 (2013): 154. Print.

Pannel, Virginia M. Miscarriages: Diagnosis, Management and Coping Strategies. New York: Nova Biomedical, 2014. Digital file.

Tranquilli, A. L. "Miscarriages: Causes, Symptoms and Prevention." Obstetrics and Gynecology Advances. New York: Nova, 2012. Print.

Ugwumadu, A. H., and P. Hay. “Bacterial Vaginosis: Sequelae and Management.” Current Opinions in Infectious Disease 12.1 (1999): 53–59. Print.

Wenzel, Amy. Coping with Infertility, Miscarriage, and Neonatal Loss: Finding Perspective and Creating Meaning. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2014. Print.

Wood, Deborah. "Miscarriage." Health Library, 10 Sept. 2012.

Why is carbon dioxide considered the main greenhouse gas? Why are carbon dioxide concentrations increasing in the atmosphere?

Greenhouse gases are those gases that trap heat and result in the warming of Earth. There are a number of gases that cause the greenhouse effect, including carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, halocarbons, and water vapor, among others. Out of all these gases, carbon dioxide gets the most attention. There are a couple of reasons for that. Carbon dioxide is present in the highest concentration among all the greenhouse gases (GHGs). And thus, it has the highest radiative forcing among all the GHGs, which simply means that carbon dioxide has had the highest influence on global warming as compared to all the other GHGs. Another reason for prominence of carbon dioxide is the relative stability of this gas in the atmosphere. Unlike other GHGs, carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere for a very long time. Due to these two major reasons, carbon dioxide is the highest priority GHG.

The increase in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide is (mostly) due to consumption of fossil fuels (such as coal, petroleum and natural gas) and deforestation. Fossil fuels have powered the growth of our industry and deforestation has been necessary to make more land available for agriculture or habitation. 

Hope this helps. 

How does John Steinbeck depict the plight of migrant workers?

During the Great Depression, a drought struck the Great Plains region of the United States, further worsening already bad economic conditions that resulted in part from the stock market crash of 1929. Many farmers in the Oklahoma Panhandle and surrounding areas lost their farms and had to migrate to other areas in search of work. Many went to California, where their dreams of wealth and land did not usually pan out. These people, often referred to as "Okies," were the desperate people whose plight Steinbeck wrote about in Of Mice and Men and The Grapes of Wrath. Steinbeck knew their plight firsthand, as he had interviewed and traveled with migrant workers in California as a journalist in the 1930s.

Steinbeck's novelistic portrayal of the migrant workers is sympathetic. He shows how hard they work, and how little they earn as a result. For example, Lennie and George, the protagonists in Of Mice and Men, along with the farm hands, dream of settling down on their own land, but that dream is unlikely, as they can't earn enough to make their dream a reality. Instead, they travel from farm to farm and are often treated poorly by farm owners. In The Grapes of Wrath, the Joad family is displaced from their farm in Oklahoma and travels to California in search of a better life that doesn't materialize. They also become itinerants, traveling from farm to farm and not finding work. When the characters in the novel protest against their poor working conditions, they are often persecuted. Steinbeck writes empathically about the rootless existence of a people who were used to owning their own farms and having a settled and secure life.