In Romeo & Juliet why does Juliet's family want her to marry Paris and not Romeo?

From the Capulet's point of view there are good reasons why they want Juliet to marry Paris and not Romeo. The principal reason is that they know absolutely nothing about the relationship between Romeo and Juliet. In an example of dramatic irony, only the audience and three other characters (Friar Lawrence, the Nurse and Balthasar) are aware that Romeo has married Juliet. Had they known, the Capulets probably would have attempted to have the marriage ended. After all, Romeo was a member of a family which had been at odds with the Capulets for many years and the feud between the two families often caused violence in the streets of Verona. Another reason they may have preferred Paris was because he was related to the Prince and that would have been a political advantage for Lord Capulet, though this is only a guess, because Shakespeare never offers much information about Paris, other than he is a Count (suggesting nobility) and a "kinsman" of Prince Escalus. Even though Lord Capulet speaks well of Romeo in Act I, Scene 5, it is doubtful he would have approved a marriage between a Montague and his daughter. His angry outburst at the end of Act III shows that he could be quite temperamental and news of a secret marriage might have caused him to become even more enraged. 

In Act 3 Scene 3 of Othello, Othello and Iago kneel down together and then rise. What does this symbolize?

This moment is perhaps the most important turning point in Othello, and the climax to the lengthiest scene in the play. In the space of 461 lines (from "Ha? I like not that" to "I am your own forever"), Iago infects Othello's mind with the previously unconceived notion of his wife's infidelity, and swiftly reduces him to the turmoil of baseless near-certainty. What we're witnessing here is not just a revelation of Iago's cunning and insight or of the Moor's fragile and contingent sense of self, but the gradual dissolution of the pure and loving (but imperfect and unstable) marriage of Othello and Desdemona, and the consecration, in its place, of the new, diabolical union between Othello and his ensign. One of the ironies involved here is that Othello, in his suspicion that Desdemona has committed adultery, is the one who irreparably violates their wedding pact by choosing to trust his ensign over his wife. (This also indicates the incompatibility of the military and domestic spheres of life, a recurring theme in the play; a chasm dividing the homosocial bonds of men from the heterosexual union of man and wife.)

The act of kneeling is traditionally associated with a vow of loyalty, devotion, or submission. The contexts in which one might kneel to another include prayer, surrender to a conquering enemy, an oath of service to a lord or commanding officer, the receipt of titles or honors from one's superior, a proposal of marriage, or a wedding ceremony itself, in which both parties are often expected to kneel before a priest or other representative of the church who blesses the union. All of these diverse and contradictory associations are invoked in this short but complex exchange.

Othello is the first to kneel, and he does so not in the context of a mock-marriage, but of a holy oath: "Now, by yond marble heaven," he says, "In the due reverence of a sacred vow / I here engage my words." (His words, in this case, are his preceding promise not to let his anger toward Desdemona abate until he has satisfied it with revenge.) But Othello's genuflection is also, inadvertently and ironically, an indication of his submission and surrender to Iago, representing visually the inversion of power in their relationship. The sight of Iago standing over his general is one of many verbal and visual signs in the play that Othello has been made lesser by Iago's plotting, and it will be echoed even more powerfully later on when, in the midst of a violent seizure, Othello collapses at Iago's feet.

This meaningful visual configuration then shifts. "Do not rise yet," says Iago. (It is worth noting that, although editors generally insert stage directions to specify the kneeling and rising, these directions are not Shakespeare's own, and the implied physical action is gleaned from the dialogue itself. At this point, most editors assume, Iago kneels alongside his general.) "Witness, you ever-burning lights above, / You elements that clip us round about, / Witness that here Iago doth give up / The execution of his wit, hands, heart, / To wronged Othello's service." In this instance, the kneeling takes on the dual context of both a deeply insincere address to the heavens (which blasphemously mirrors Othello's own vow) and an oath of fealty to Othello himself. A few lines later, Iago accepts the title of lieutenant, which he so coveted at the play's beginning.

Narratively speaking, this moment is important because Iago has now succeeded in his original goal: the disgrace of Cassio and securing his own promotion to the rank of lieutenant. But he is now embarking on his ultimate project of revenge, the complete moral annihilation of Othello himself. Iago, who is repeatedly associated with demonic forces throughout the play ("Hell and night must bring this monstrous birth to the world's light," etc.) profanes the sacrament of prayer and of marriage by kneeling with Othello; there is an implication that, like Satan, his corruption of Othello separates him irreparably from God (as well as Desdemona), diverting the Moor's pledge to heaven into a false and earthly union founded on murder. Religious, military, and domestic/romantic ritual are fused together in the act of kneeling, and when Iago and Othello rise together (as before a priest), it signifies the solidification of their new, fatal bond of "marriage," concluding with Iago's distinctly matrimonial line "I am your own forever."

What are branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs)?

Overview

Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are naturally occurring molecules (leucine,
isoleucine, and valine) that the body uses to build proteins. The term “branched
chain” refers to the molecular structure of these particular amino acids. Muscles
have a particularly high content of BCAAs. For reasons that are not entirely
clear, BCAA supplements may improve appetite in cancer patients and slow the
progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, or Lou Gehrig’s disease,
a condition that leads to degeneration of nerves, atrophy of the muscles, and
eventual death). BCAAs have also been proposed as a supplement to boost athletic
performance.

Requirements and Sources

Dietary protein usually provides all the BCAAs needed. However, physical stress and injury can increase a person’s need for BCAAs to repair damage, so supplementation may be helpful.

BCAAs are present in all protein-containing foods, but the best sources are red meat and dairy products. Chicken, fish, and eggs are excellent sources as well. Whey protein and egg protein supplements are another way to ensure that a person is getting enough BCAAs. Supplements may contain all three BCAAs together or simply individual BCAAs.

Therapeutic Dosages

The typical dosage of BCAAs is 1 to 5 grams (g) daily.

Therapeutic Uses

Preliminary evidence suggests that BCAAs may improve appetite in people undergoing treatment for cancer. There is also some evidence that BCAA supplements may reduce symptoms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, or Lou Gehrig’s disease); however, not all studies have had positive results.

Preliminary evidence from a series of small studies suggests that BCAAs might decrease symptoms of tardive dyskinesia, a movement disorder caused by long-term usage of antipsychotic drugs. BCAAs have also shown a bit of promise for enhancing recovery from traumatic brain injury.

Because of how they are metabolized in the body, BCAAs might be helpful for
individuals with severe liver disease (such as cirrhosis).
BCAAs have also been tried for aiding muscle recovery after bedrest, such as
following surgery.

Although there is a little supportive evidence, on balance, current research
does not indicate that BCAAs are effective for enhancing sports performance. One
preliminary study hints that BCAAs might aid recovery from long-distance running.
BCAAs have also as yet failed to prove effective for muscular
dystrophy.

Scientific Evidence

Appetite in cancer patients. A double-blind study tested BCAAs on twenty-eight people with cancer who had lost their appetites because of either the disease itself or its treatment. Appetite improved in 55 percent of those taking BCAAs (4.8 g daily) compared with only 16 percent of those taking a placebo.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s disease). A small double-blind study found evidence that BCAAs might help protect muscle strength in people with Lou Gehrig’s disease. Eighteen individuals were given either BCAAs (taken four times daily between meals) or a placebo and followed for one year. The results showed that people taking BCAAs declined much more slowly than those receiving a placebo. In the placebo group, five of nine participants lost their ability to walk, two died, and another required a respirator. Only one of the nine participants receiving BCAAs became unable to walk during the study period. This study is too small to provide conclusive evidence, but it does suggest that BCAAs might be helpful for this disease. However, other studies found no effect, and one actually found a slight increase in deaths during the study period among those treated with BCAAs compared with those treated with a placebo.

Muscular dystrophy. One double-blind, placebo-controlled study found leucine (one of the amino acids in BCAAs) ineffective at the dose of 0.2 g per kilogram body weight (for example, 15 g daily for a 75-kilogram woman) in 96 individuals with muscular dystrophy. Over the course of one year, no differences were seen between the effects of leucine and a placebo.

Safety Issues

BCAAs are believed to be safe; when taken in excess, they are simply converted
into other amino
acids. However, like other amino acids, BCAAs may interfere
with medications for Parkinson’s disease. They may reduce
the effectiveness of medications for Parkinson’s disease (such as levodopa).

Bibliography

Aquilani, R., et al. “Branched-Chain Amino Acids Enhance the Cognitive Recovery of Patients with Severe Traumatic Brain Injury.” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 86 (2005): 1729-1735.

Charlton, M. “Branched-Chain Amino Acid Enriched Supplements as Therapy for Liver Disease.” Journal of Nutrition 136 (2005): 295S-298S.

Crowe, M. J., et al. “Effects of Dietary Leucine Supplementation on Exercise Performance.” European Journal of Applied Physiology 97 (2006): 664-671.

Marchesini, G., et al. “Nutritional Treatment with Branched-Chain Amino Acids in Advanced Liver Cirrhosis.” Journal of Gastroenterology 35 (2000): 7-12.

Richardson, M. A., et al. “Branched Chain Amino Acid Treatment of Tardive Dyskinesia in Children and Adolescents.” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 65 (2004): 92-96.

Richardson, M. A., et al. “Efficacy of the Branched-Chain Amino Acids in the Treatment of Tardive Dyskinesia in Men.” American Journal of Psychiatry 160 (2003): 1117-1124.

Stein, T. P., et al. “Branched Chain Amino Acid Supplementation During Bed Rest: Effect on Recovery.” Journal of Applied Physiology 94 (2003): 1345-1352.

Watson, P., et al. “The Effect of Acute Branched-Chain Amino Acid Supplementation on Prolonged Exercise Capacity in a Warm Environment.” European Journal of Applied Physiology 93 (2004): 306-314.

What is the rectum?

Structure and Functions

The rectum is the pouch at the end of the gastrointestinal tract, between the sigmoid colon and the anal canal. It is about 6 inches (15 centimeters) in length, dilated slightly at the end (the rectal ampulla), and lined by an orange-red tissue with mucous glands, much like the colon.

The rectum remains empty until just before defecation, when wastes pass into it from the colon. Three lateral folds in the rectum, called Houston’s valves, hold the feces in place until a sufficient quantity is collected and the walls of the rectum are distended. Nerve receptors in the walls detect the stretching and prompt the urge to defecate. Waves of muscular contraction, known as peristaltic waves, move the feces into the anal canal and through the anus.

Defecation depends in part on a person’s conscious relaxation of the anus in response to the defecation urge. If the urge is resisted, then the feces may return to the colon, where water may be absorbed from them. If defecation is postponed repeatedly, the feces may harden and cause constipation.

Disorders and Diseases

Like the anus, the rectum is subject to a variety of malformations caused by infection or injury. The rectum may develop an abscess—a cavity in its wall that is filled with pus—when bacteria infest a mucous gland. The abscess may open a channel, or fistula, to another part of the rectum, the anus, or an entirely different organ, such as the vagina; fistulas can also be the product of other diseases, such a diverticulitis or injury to the rectum. When the rectum is made to protrude through the anus and outside the body, usually from straining at stool, the condition is called rectal prolapse.
Proctitis is inflammation of the rectal lining from a variety of infectious diseases, such as ulcerative colitis or a sexually transmitted
disease.

About a quarter of colorectal cancers,


the most common of the gastrointestinal tract, occur in the rectum, about equally in men and women. They are adenocarcinomas, growing in the lining of the rectum, and if untreated often spread to the liver or less commonly to the lungs and bones. Rectal cancer usually grows slowly and can be surgically removed.

Bibliography

Ahuja, Nita, and Brenda S. Nettles. Johns Hopkins Medicine Patients' Guide to Colon and Rectal Cancer. Burlington, Ma.: Jones and Bartlett Learning, 2014.

Beers, Mark H., ed. The Merck Manual of Medical Information: Second Home Edition. London: Pocket Books, 2004.

Keshav, Satish. The Gastrointestinal System at a Glance. 2d ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.

Levin, Bernard, et al., eds. American Cancer Society’s Complete Guide to Colorectal Cancer. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, 2006.

Parker, Steve. The Human Body Book. 2d ed. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 2013.

Thibodeau, Gary A., and Kevin T. Patton. Structure and Function of the Human Body. 14th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier, 2012.

A brief character sketch of Miss Helen Keller.

Helen Keller became deaf and blind as a toddler due to an illness.  When she was a child in the late 1800s, there were very few opportunities for anyone who was deaf and blind.  Despite this, Helen's parents were determined that their daughter should receive an education.  They contacted many people until they found help through a teacher.  Miss Annie Sullivan came to be Helen's teacher when the girl was almost seven.  Miss Sullivan worked very hard, and eventually she taught Helen to communicate using the manual alphabet.  Helen called this new knowledge her "soul's sudden awakening."

Helen was able to use the manual alphabet to fully communicate for the first time in her life.  She used her new knowledge of communication to get an education.  Helen eventually went to school and then college.  She enjoyed writing, which led her to write her autobiography.  Helen also loved traveling.  She enjoyed visiting a variety of places, such as Niagara Falls, New York City, the Hudson River Valley, and Nova Scotia.  Helen had many different friends, who she loved to visit and spend time with.  Helen described the impact that her friends had on her life:

In a thousand ways they have turned my limitations into beautiful privileges, and enabled me to walk serene and happy in the shadow cast by my deprivation.

What are beta-blockers? How do they interact with other drugs?

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10)

Effect: Supplementation Possibly Helpful

There is some evidence that beta-blockers (specifically
propranolol, metoprolol, and alprenolol) might impair the body’s ability to
utilize the substance CoQ10. This is particularly of concern, because
CoQ10 appears to play a significant role in normal heart function.
Depletion of CoQ10 might be responsible for some of the side effects of
beta-blockers. In one study, CoQ10 supplements reduced side effects
caused by the beta-blocker propranolol. The beta-blocker timolol may interfere
with CoQ10 production to a lesser extent than other beta-blockers.

Chromium

Effect: Possible Helpful Interaction

Beta-blockers have been known to reduce levels of HDL (good) cholesterol.
According to one study, chromium supplementation can offset
this adverse effect.

Coleus forskohlii

Effect: Theoretical Interaction

The herb Coleus forskohlii relaxes blood vessels and might
have unpredictable effects on blood pressure if combined with
beta-blockers.

Bibliography

Folkers, K. “Basic Chemical Research on Coenzyme Q10 and Integrated Clinical Research on Therapy of Diseases.” In Coenzyme Q: Biochemistry, Bioenergetics, and Clinical Applications of Ubiquinone, edited by G. Lenaz. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1985.

Hamada, M., et al. “Correlation Between Serum Coq10 Level and Myocardial Contractility in Hypertensive Patients.” In Biomedical and Clinical Aspects of Coenzyme Q, Vol. 4, edited by K. Folkers. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1984.

Roeback, J. R., et al. “Effects of Chromium Supplementation on Serum High-density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Levels in Men Taking Beta-blockers.” Annals of Internal Medicine 115 (1991): 917-924.

How would you compare the humor between the Osric scene and the gravediggers' scene? How does each serve to bring out the character of...

Before we discuss this topic, please keep in mind that it's very much possible to reach different interpretations of and observations about literature, especially works as complex and layered as Shakespeare's Hamlet. So feel free to use this discussion as a starting point to come to reach your own observations and interpretations.

Of course, as we see in these two scenes in the play, Hamlet has a unique sense of humor. What's so nice about Hamlet's fun and sarcastic conclusions about people and incidents he observes is that he's able to reach some very interesting and ironic truths about life while criticizing them. In his sarcasm, there are lessons to be learned about human nature, society, classes, life, and death. 

While observing the gravedigger, Hamlet discusses how people of wealth, high social class, virtue, and skill are now mere skulls thrown around without being given any care or importance. To me, this scene shows Hamlet is ever intrigued by the state of life and death. It hurts him to see people eventually end up in this state after death and are not helped by all they owned and accomplished in the world. He is clearly struggling with and trying to understand the meanings behind life and death. The scene also tells me of Hamlet's realization that the various social and economic classes are in truth meaningless, as none of it endures or avails one beyond death.

This realization is difficult to digest for Hamlet. He gives a lot of importance to wealth and classes. We see this when he makes fun of the gravedigger saying peasants like him are now going beyond their limits and showing their wit to noblemen like Hamlet. 

When Hamlet speaks about Yorick the jester, we again see how difficult it is for Hamlet to accept and understand the transition of man from life to death to soil that might be used to patch a wall. This is Hamlet's realization of how little meaning and significance man and life hold.

In the Osric scene, Hamlet makes fun of Osric, who he says is not a gentleman or a nobleman and is just tolerated because he is a wealthy landowner. Osric tries to impress Hamlet and Horatio by using fancy words he does not correctly understand, and Hamlet makes fun of his attempt. In my opinion, this scene shows Hamlet does not evaluate people by their wealth, but maybe by their qualities and standing. Considering the gravedigger's scene and this scene together, we can argue Hamlet wants people to know their place in the social structure and not go beyond their limits. All people are not of equal standing to Hamlet; a peasant and a lord are not the same, and an uneducated or ignorant man is not worthy of respect just because he is wealthy. These two scenes help us understand Hamlet's opinion about social class.

How accurately does the story portray the events?

It depends what you mean by "events."  If you are referring to events as they take place in Peyton Farquhar's head, then yes.  If you mean events as they take place in reality, then no.  In the moments before Farquhar is hanged for attempting to destroy the Owl Creek Bridge, he senses that time begins to slow down.  As a result, the moment between when he begins to fall from the bridge and when the noose snaps his neck is extended in his mind, so much so that he imagines an elaborate escape from the Union army, traveling through the forest for many miles, and, finally, a near-reunion with his loving wife.  However, time doesn't actually slow down; Farquhar only imagines it does.  He doesn't actually escape; he is hanged in real time.

In the prologue of The Great Gatsby, we see that Nick has arrived at a definite point of awareness. How can I trace his developing consciousness...

Nick narrates the events of the story after having lived through them all, making him a first-person objective narrator.  This means that he was a participant in the story but that he narrates it from a position in the story's future; he knows the outcome, then, at the beginning of the story, and this accounts for his awareness in this first chapter.  

The story, in addition to being one about the corruption of the American Dream and the overwhelming disparity between the haves and the have-nots, is also about Nick's coming of age.  He seems relatively innocent at the start of the story, conversing easily with Daisy and only sort of "annoyed" by Tom, and very much interested in Jordan Baker. He begins to become more aware of the social distance between someone like Daisy and himself when she

"looked at [him] with an absolute smirk on her lovely face, as if she had asserted her membership in a rather distinguished secret society to which she and Tom belonged."

His slow-growing awareness of the corruption in the world intensifies when he spends the afternoon waiting for Tom and Myrtle to have sex as a guest at their cocktail party full of awful people.  

By the time of Nick's first Gatsby party, he felt a "tender curiosity" about Jordan, despite her "haughty face" and obvious desire to conceal something.  The rumors about Gatsby inform Nick's own opinion of him and the stories he tells of his life, but when Gatsby produces proof by way of some old photographs, Nick thinks, "Then it was all true." He can still be taken in; he is still quite trusting. He allows Gatsby to use him to reunite with Daisy after he hears their sad history together.  

After he witnesses the row between Gatsby and Tom over Daisy, and realizes that that very day was his thirtieth birthday, he claims that "Human sympathy has its limits." Then the ugly death of Myrtle, killed by Daisy, but for which Gatsby took the blame (as well as Myrtle's husband's wrath), and finally Gatsby's own death, seem to be more than Nick's innocence can bear. He still wanted to believe that Gatsby's friends -- or at least some of those partygoers -- would show up for his funeral.  But when they do not, and Daisy fails to send even a flower, Nick's disillusionment seems complete.  He knows now that all of them, except Gatsby, are "a rotten crowd," as he'd told Gatsby on the day he was shot. He sees that they are "careless," that they think of no one but themselves. He sees them as people who

"smashed up things and creatures and then retreated back into their money or their vast carelessness, or whatever it was that kept them together, and let other people clean up the mess they had made...."

His transition complete, Nick sees the way of the world now, complete with the essential hopelessness of the American Dream, Gatsby's dream. Our growing awareness of these truths parallels Nick's, making him an extremely sympathetic narrator in addition to being a reliable one.

What is an example of a symbol in "Rip Van Winkle" by Washington Irving?

An example of a symbol in "Rip Van Winkle" would be the Union Hotel that replaces the Inn after the Revolutionary War. The Inn, with its sleepy owner and picture of King George III, symbolizes the passivity and inactivity of the time when the United States was a set of colonies under British rule. It is a symbol of inactivity because the narrator tells us Rip Van Winkle goes there to join "idle personages" in the village and talk "about nothing." In contrast, the new Union Hotel that replaces the Inn is a place that symbolizes the energy and patriotism in the new nation. The tree the old inn's owner use to sit under has been replaced by a flagpole flying the stars and stripes of the American flag and a picture of General Washington has replaced George III. The men inside are busily debating the upcoming presidential election, not simply sitting around sharing old news. Words describing what is going on inside the Union Hotel like "bustling" and talk of "rights of citizens ... elections" show the patriotic energy of the new nation. 

In a nutshell: the Inn is a symbol of the sleepy, passive times before the American Revolution. The Union Hotel, with its American flag, portrait of Washington and busy people inside is a symbol of the new energy of the new country. 

What are natural treatments for multiple sclerosis (MS)?

Introduction

Multiple
sclerosis (MS) is a disease affecting the fatty sheath that
covers nerve fibers in the brain and spinal cord. This sheath, made of a substance
called myelin, normally insulates the nerve fibers, allowing nerve impulses to
move swiftly and efficiently between brain, spinal cord, and body. In MS, patchy
areas of this insulating material are destroyed and replaced by scar tissue, which
results in the slowing or blocking of nerve signals.

People with MS may experience symptoms such as blurred vision, muscle weakness and
spasticity, difficulty walking, poor coordination, bladder problems, numbness, and
fatigue. In its most common form, the disease begins between the ages of twenty
and forty with an initial attack of symptoms followed by partial or complete
remission. Further attacks usually follow and can eventually lead to progressive
disability. Another form of the disease progresses more quickly.

Although the exact cause of MS is not known, scientists generally assume that MS
is an autoimmune
disease in which the immune system attacks the body’s own
myelin cells. Scientists theorize that something, perhaps a toxin or virus,
triggers this autoimmune response in susceptible people. It appears that not all
people are equally susceptible. Gene studies suggest that genetics plays a role in
who gets the disease, but other factors too seem to be important. For example, MS
tends to be more common the farther one travels from the equator. The disease is
also more prevalent in societies with greater dietary intake of meat and animal
fat, lower intake of unsaturated fats compared to saturated fats, and lower intake
of fish. Not everyone agrees that all of these factors actually contribute to the
disease. Some factors may simply be statistically associated with the actual
cause.

There is no cure for MS, but several newer drugs, including two forms of the
substance interferon (Avonex and Betaseron) and an unrelated drug,
glatiramer acetate (Copaxone), appear able to reduce the frequency of relapses in
people with certain forms of MS and slow the rate of progression of the disease.
Other medications reduce the severity of acute attacks or treat specific symptoms
such as muscle spasticity.

Proposed Natural Treatments

While there are no well-documented natural treatments for multiple sclerosis, there are a few options that may provide some help. There is some evidence that changing the type and amount of fat in the diet might alter the course of MS. Based on observations from population studies linking diets lower in fat or saturated fat to lower rates of MS, physician R. L. Swank developed a special low-fat diet for MS in which unsaturated fats replace most saturated fat. This approach, called the Swank diet, has been used by many people with MS. When he analyzed the long-term effects of the diet on his patients, Swank found that those adhering closely to the diet for twenty to thirty-four years developed significantly less disability than those who ate more saturated fat. Because these were not controlled trials, they do not actually prove that the Swank diet works. Nonetheless, the possible connection between MS and fatty acids continues to arouse interest, and a variety of essential fatty acids have been proposed as possible treatments for MS. Although a link between fat intake and MS is intriguing, research has not provided clear-cut evidence that any of these treatments help.

Linoleic acid. One of the omega-6 essential fatty acids, linoleic acid, is found in high concentration in sunflower and safflower oil and in lower concentrations in most other vegetable oils. Several researchers have investigated whether linoleic acid in the form of sunflower seed oil can help MS, but the results of their research were equivocal.

Three groups of investigators performed double-blind studies, using olive oil as a placebo, to see if linoleic acid supplements could affect the symptoms or course of MS. Two of these studies (one involving 75 people, the other 116) found that those taking linoleic acid had shorter and less-severe attacks of MS compared to those taking placebo. However, in the two years of the trials, the frequency of attacks and overall levels of disability were not significantly affected. The third study of seventy-six people found that linoleic acid had no effects on either MS attacks or degrees of disability in 2.5 years, compared to olive oil.

Another researcher suggests that these studies may have been too short and that it may take far longer than two years for linoleic acid to exert its effects on myelin. Olive oil also contains important fatty acids; others have wondered if the olive oil could have been an effective treatment on its own, thereby obscuring the benefits of linoleic acid. Finally, another researcher who carefully examined the study reports found that linoleic acid might have been effective in those persons with less severe MS symptoms.

Although interesting, this type of after-the-fact analysis must be interpreted with caution. More studies are needed to confirm whether linoleic acid, taken early in the course of MS or at other times, has the power to prevent, delay, or improve disability. In the three double-blind studies, participants received 17 to 20 grams (g) of linoleic acid per day, the equivalent of one ounce of sunflower seed oil.

Other essential fatty acids. There has been much excitement about
other essential fatty acids as treatments for MS, including those found in
fish
oil (omega-3) and evening primrose oil (omega-6). However,
evidence does not support this concept.

Blood tests among people with MS have found lower levels of omega-3 fatty acids in
their body fluids and tissues compared to those without MS. This hints, but does
not prove, that taking extra omega-3 fatty acids might help. Only double-blind,
placebo-controlled studies can show that treatments actually
work.

The only meaningful double-blind study of fish oil for MS failed to find evidence of benefit. In this two-year study of 292 people with MS, comparing fish oil’s omega-3 fatty acids with an olive oil placebo, no significant differences were seen between the two groups. Another study did find possible benefit with fish oil compared to olive oil in the relapsing-remitting form of MS. When fish oil was used in combination with a low-fat diet, participants showed benefits on some measures. However, the study was small, and the results were far from definitive. Similarly, while some researchers have suggested that gamma-linolenic acid might be beneficial in MS, what little evidence there is remains more negative than positive.

Threonine. Early evidence suggests that threonine, a naturally occurring amino acid, might be able to decrease the muscle spasticity that often occurs with MS. Two small double-blind studies found a modest but statistically significant improvement in muscle spasticity among people who took threonine compared to those who took placebo. In one study of twenty-six people with MS, the improvement was so slight after eight weeks of treatment that it was detectable by doctors but not by the participants themselves. In the other study, both researchers and a few of the thirty-three participants noticed improvement after two weeks of treatment, with some persons reporting fewer spasms and milder pain. This shorter trial that showed more improvement also used lower doses: 6 g daily of L-threonine, as opposed to 7.5 g daily of threonine. No significant side effects were noted in either study.

Vitamin B
12
. Because several studies have found MS to be occasionally
associated with vitamin B12
deficiency, and lack of
B12 can cause neurological problems on its own, some doctors
recommend that people with MS be screened for this condition. One preliminary
study suggested that massive doses of B12 could improve certain test
results (“evoked potentials”) but not disability in people with chronic
progressive MS. A double-blind study of fifty people with MS found that high doses
of injected hydroxocobalamin, a form of B12, did not affect the course
of disease or number of relapses.

Vitamin D. The human body normally obtains vitamin D in
one of two ways: through diet or through exposure to the sun. More than one group
of researchers has noted that populations in areas with less sunshine tend to have
a higher incidence of MS, unless the residents of these areas commonly eat more
fish that is rich in vitamin D. This has led to a theory that vitamin D might
confer some protection against MS. No human studies have adequately tested this
hypothesis, although one poorly designed study did investigate a combination of
calcium, magnesium, and vitamin D given in the form of cod liver oil; the study
found some benefit.

Phenylalanine and TENS. Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid,
meaning that it is essential for life and that the human body cannot manufacture
it from other chemicals. Humans normally obtain all the phenylalanine needed for
nutritional purposes from high-protein foods. Supplemental phenylalanine
has been studied for MS only in combination with another treatment called
transcutaneous nerve stimulation (TENS), a portable electrical device used to
decrease pain and muscle spasticity.

Two small double-blind trials compared phenylalanine to placebo among a total of sixteen people with MS being treated with TENS. In both studies, those treated with phenylalanine and TENS experienced less muscle spasticity, fewer bladder symptoms, and less depression after four weeks of treatment than those treated with TENS and placebo. These findings are somewhat difficult to interpret, but they tend to suggest that phenylalanine may be helpful in MS.

Other treatments. A special form of magnet therapy called PEMF (pulsed electromagnetic field therapy) has shown some promise for MS. In a two-month, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, thirty people with multiple sclerosis applied a real or a fake PEMF device to one of three acupuncture points on the shoulder, back, or hip. The study found statistically significant improvements in the treatment group, most notably in bladder control, hand function, and muscle spasticity.

One small double-blind trial suggests that neural therapy, a treatment related to
acupuncture, might be helpful for MS. In addition, weak evidence hints that
reflexology might be helpful.

The use of bee stings or injected bee venom for MS has generated a great
deal of interest over the years, despite a lack of reliable research supporting
its use. The one meaningful study, reported in 2005, failed to find any benefit.
Other treatments suggested for MS include adenosine monophosphate, biotin,
glycine, proteolytic enzymes, selenium, and vitamins B1, C, and E, but
little evidence supports these recommendations.

Although the herb ginkgo is sometimes suggested as a treatment for MS, there
is no meaningful evidence that it works. One study reported as showing benefit was
actually too small to provide meaningful results. Another double-blind study
examined ginkgolide B, a chemical in ginkgo, for treating MS attacks, but it found
no evidence of benefit.

Johnson, S. K., et al. “The Effect of Ginkgo biloba on Functional Measures in Multiple Sclerosis.” Explore (New York) 2 (2006): 19-24.

Lambert, C. P., et al. “Influence of Creatine Monohydrate Ingestion on Muscle Metabolites and Intense Exercise Capacity in Individuals with Multiple Sclerosis.” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 84 (2003): 1206-1210.

Siev-Ner, I., et al. “Reflexology Treatment Relieves Symptoms of Multiple Sclerosis.” Multiple Sclerosis 9 (2003): 356-361.

Weinstock-Guttman, B., et al. “Low Fat Dietary Intervention with Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation in Multiple Sclerosis Patients.” Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids 73 (2005): 397-404.

Wesselius, T., et al. “A Randomized Crossover Study of Bee Sting Therapy for Multiple Sclerosis.” Neurology 65 (2005): 1764-1768.

In James Thurber's The Night the Ghost Got In, who does the mother think the intruders were?

In the story, the narrator's mother thinks that the intruders were burglars. The story begins at about a quarter past one on November 17, 1915. The narrator has just finished his bath when he hears resolute footsteps repeatedly circling the dining-room table downstairs. Initially, he thinks that either his father or his brother, Roy, is responsible for the noises. However, he soon discards the idea and goes to wake up his brother, Herman. Both are too afraid to ascertain the cause of the upheaval.

Herman rushes to his room and slams the door, while the narrator slams the upstairs door shut in order to keep out the supposed burglars. All the noise eventually wakes up the narrator's mother, who thinks that burglars have indeed invaded their home. She proposes that the police must be alerted about the situation. So, she throws a shoe from her bedroom window across to their neighbor's bedroom window. The resounding crash of glass wakes up Bodwell, a retired engraver, and his wife. For his part, Bodwell does alert the police despite his displeasure about the broken window.

When the police turn up, they cannot find any burglars even after ransacking the house. However, they do manage to get into a harrowing shootout episode with the narrator's grandfather, who thinks that the police officers are Army deserters. Eventually, the police leave in great frustration after a fruitless search for the supposed burglars and an embarrassing tangle with the narrator's delusional grandfather. The next morning, however, the narrator's grandfather shocks the family when he asks why so many police officers were at their residence the night before.

What is the tone of the poem "The Armadillo" by Elizabeth Bishop?

There are two different and distinct tones used in "The Armadillo."  

The tone of the first half of the poem could be described as admiring and awe-filled. The narrator speaks with great appreciation and wonder in regards to the fire balloons that he or she is looking at. They rise high into the night sky and become one with the stars and planets. It is a great image.  

Once up against the sky it's hard

to tell them from the stars—

planets, that is—the tinted ones:

Venus going down, or Mars,

or the pale green one.

But the tone of the poem drastically shifts with the last line of the fifth stanza.  

suddenly turning dangerous.

From that point forward, the tone is not admiring. The tone has become fearful, foreboding, and grave.  

The balloons are no longer a thing of beauty. Instead they are destructive devices that destroy habitats and the animals that live there.  

The flame ran down. We saw the pair

of owls who nest there flying up

and up, their whirling black-and-white

stained bright pink underneath, until

they shrieked up out of sight.

I would even support the idea that the tone of the final stanza is angry. The picture of a fist being clenched against the sky is a gesture of anger.  

O falling fire and piercing cry

and panic, and a weak mailed fist

clenched ignorant against the sky!

Who wants to marry Juliet, and what does Lord Capulet say to him?

Paris, a relative of the Prince of Verona, wants to marry Juliet, and Lord Capulet not only gives his permission, but arranges the marriage to take place within three days, which is deemed to be enough time for Juliet and the family to grieve Tybalt's death. When Lady and Lord Capulet give Juliet the news, she does not respond as they hoped. She swears never to marry Paris, saying that she would marry Romeo before she married Paris (this is dramatically ironic, as the audience knows she has already, in fact, married Romeo). Lord Capulet flies into a dreadful rage when she defies him, and tells her that he will disown her unless she obeys his wishes. At this point, the Friar concocts a plot to save Juliet from a marriage to Paris that he cannot grant (Juliet being married to Romeo already, a second marriage would have been invalid and sinful in any case). The failure of this plot leads to the deaths of Romeo and Juliet. 

Why did the boys leave Jerry?

It's rather sad, but we'll find the answer here:

"The boys were gathering up their bits of clothing and running off along the shore to another promontory. They were leaving to get away from him. He cried openly, fists in his eyes. There was no one to see him, and he cried himself out."

According to the narration, the boys are leaving to get away from Jerry. He's younger than they are, too pale, really bad at speaking their language, and just a drag to be around--so these much cooler boys are leaving so they don't have to deal with Jerry hanging around them anymore.

Sad? Yes. But are they justified? Well, maybe. Look at how babyish and irritating Jerry's behavior was when he was desperate to get their attention and play with them. You'd think he was five years old instead of eleven:

"Through his hot shame, feeling the pleading grin on his face like a scar that he could never remove, he looked up at the group of big brown boys on the rock and shouted, 'Bon jour! Merci! Au revoir! Monsieur, monsieur!' while he hooked his fingers round his ears and waggled them."

Just in case you weren't sure, Jerry was saying in French, "Hi! Thanks! Bye! Mister, mister!" In other words, he was shouting all the French words he could think of, desperate to engage with the older boys, and making a fool of himself. 

This event is important to consider as we move forward in the story. Somehow, Jerry will need to recover his dignity and prove to himself that he's worthy of hanging out with those older boys. It's a major reason for his obsession with the challenge of swimming through the underwater tunnel.

Explain the essay "Poor Relations" by Charles Lamb.

It is beyond the scope of an eNote answer to explicate an essay of this length line by line, but I will provide an overview, and please feel free to ask more questions.

As the title of the essay indicates, the subject is poor relations, by which Charles Lamb means relatives with very little money. They were common in early 19th century England because society favored the accumulation of wealth into a few hands. For example, the laws of primogeniture ensured that great estates were inherited in their entirety by the eldest son, rather than divided among the children. This kept the estates intact and maintained the family prestige. Custom, as Samuel Richardson had outlined a half century earlier in Sir Charles Grandison, also tended to favor leaving even discretionary income to one heir, something Richardson deplored as cruel to other relatives. Jane Austen's novels, close to Lamb's period, also dealt with the issue: the plots of both Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice are put into motion by the real or threatened loss of an estate to a male heir. 

What kept wealth concentrated in a few hands (the good fortune of eldest sons) tended to leave other relatives in more precarious situations that could lead to poverty, especially given the lack of a social safety net in that period. Then, as now, having the poor relation show up for dinner could be embarrassing (if you have seen the movie National Lampoon Vacation, you will remember the comic problems that arise when poor, uneducated relations show up), and this becomes the focus of the Lamb essay, though more poignantly than in National Lampoon: the poor relative who arrives at the house for a meal. 

In the first paragraph, Lamb, in the guise of his narrator, Elia, lists some of the common thoughts or cliches about a poor relation, none of them flattering. A poor relation is "irrelevant" or unimportant, "impertinent" in writing to you, in other words, a person you don't want to hear from, a drain on your finances, an embarrassment, something that delights your enemies, inconvenient, annoying, a blot on your life. These are blunt words, and while there is a comic intent in this piling up of cliche upon cliche to the point of exaggeration, at the same time, Lamb/Elia doesn't fall into silly pieties or the hypocrisy of pretending a poor relation is wholly welcome. 

In the second paragraph, Elia describes the arrival of the male poor relation, including the mutual embarrassment: you, the host, really don't want to see him and he is embarrassed by his poverty, but he needs a free meal. (We remember that the problem of food scarcity isn't really solved, even in rich countries, until after World War II, well beyond this time period.) The poor relation never seems to arrive on the days when you don't have other company. He, of course, shows up at dinnertime, then has to be persuaded to eat the food he is hungry for, even if there is none too much ("the turbot ... small"). Lamb lays out the whole embarrassing scene: 

He declareth against fish, the turbot being small — yet suffereth himself to be importuned [persuaded] into [taking] a slice against his first resolution. He sticketh by the port — yet will be prevailed upon to empty the remainder glass of claret, if a stranger press it upon him.

His manners (how he acts) are also excruciating: he is both too "familiar," in other words, he acts too much like a close friend, and at the same time, he is too "diffident" or shy, too abject and humble. The servants don't know how to treat him and the other guests wonder about him, though his unfortunate knack of being both overly friendly and overly abject betray him as the poor relation. He brings up old family stories at the wrong moment (is "unseasonable") and his conversation and compliments irritate (they are a "trouble" and "perverse"): his presence, in a word, is  awkward, and when he's gone, you whisk his chair into a corner and breathe a sigh of relief. He's that person who doesn't fit in but who you can't not have over.

Elia then moves to the female poor relation. He finds poor females worse than poor males because they have an even more difficult time hiding their status and can't be dismissed easily as simply eccentric:

But in the indications of female poverty there can be no disguise. No woman dresses below herself from caprice. The truth must out without shuffling.

Her clothes are between those of gentlewoman and a beggar, presumably meaning once well made, stylish clothes of good fabric now worn, outdated and patched. But even worse are her manners. She is too humble, too self-aware of being a poor relation, too abject, and people hold her in contempt: for instance, the governess, below her rank, corrects her when she calls the piano a harpsichord (a humbler, more old-fashioned instrument). 

In the next paragraph, Lamb first mentions a Richard Amlet, a poor gamester (or gambler) in a play called "The Confederacy" by Sir John Vanburgh, then moves to a friend, who was the son of a house painter. This man went to Oxford and loved the scholarly life, but was pulled out of it to take up his father's trade, for financial reasons. The difference between "gown and town" or academics and life in a shop, was too great for this young man, who instead joined the army and was killed in Portugal. 

Elia goes on to say in the next paragraph that while he started off his essay half comically, the subject of poor relations is also painful and tragic. He mentions his own childhood and a poor relation, an old gentleman, who would come to dinner every Saturday and one day was offended when Elia's aunt pushed a second helping of food on him saying, “Do take another slice, Mr. Billet, for you do not get pudding every day." He gets revenge later on her calling out his poverty by labeling her superannuated, which means obsolete or outdated. But Elia allows the poor relation to land on a note of dignity, for this elderly man dies poor, but with five pounds to his name: "enough to bury him." The very ending, however, is ambiguous, possibly ironic: he had "never been obliged to any man for a six-pence" (if you don't count the weekly meals). 

Overall, the essay is notable for dealing honestly with an uncomfortable subject. 

What are pathogens?

Definition

The term “pathogen,” introduced in 1880, is a combination of patho (“disease”) and gen, which indicates a “producer.” Hence, the term “pathogen” most commonly refers to any infectious organism that can inflict damage on its host. Pathogens include diverse groups of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, prions, and parasites. The term “pathogen,” however, is less commonly used in referring to noninfectious agents of disease, such as chemicals. Furthermore, some organisms classified as pathogens are not negative to their host. That is, they serve as natural or introduced controls to suppress arthropod populations.

Largely, pathogens can best exist in their human, animal, and plant
hosts. Harmful microorganisms, however, can be found in
abundance in soil, water, air, and on various surfaces for a range of time. Each
pathogen has a particular host range or specificity that it can affect. In other
words, some pathogens can infect only a particular type (genus and species) of
host, such as humans, whereas other pathogens can affect a large number and wide
range of hosts. Research has shown, though, that pathogens can evolve because of
their interactions with their hosts and other microorganisms in their environment,
sometimes leading to a changed or expanded host range. For instance, various
strains of the influenza virus can spontaneously arise, leading to the need for
regularly altered vaccines to treat annual outbreaks of influenza. The
avian
influenza virus is an example of a pathogen that was
originally found in one host (birds) but can now cause infection in another host
(humans).

Many pathogens grow and reproduce preferentially in certain environments and in the presence of certain resources, preferring warm, moist, neutral environments that are representative of the natural physiology of their biological hosts. Many other infectious agents, however, can adapt to and even beat difficult conditions. Most potential hosts have natural defenses against pathogens in the form of immune response, helpful normal flora (in mammals), and other mechanisms; yet, pathogens continue to successfully infect and kill millions of people worldwide annually.

Pathogens prey on persons with weakened immune defenses (caused by diseases
such as human
immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome, and by chemotherapy, malnutrition, and
immunosuppression for surgery or pregnancy). Those infections acquired in hospital
settings are referred to as nosocomial and can be quite difficult to prevent and
control. Furthermore, other pathogens overcome human defense mechanisms by
altering their own genetic code and employing other strategies to avoid the
defense efforts of the human body. For instance, multi-drug-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus has acquired resistance to many of the
most commonly used and effective antibiotics (including methicillin
and penicillin). These superbugs are of constant concern to
researchers and clinicians.

Types of Pathogens

Pathogens can be divided into five broad classifications: bacterial, viral, fungal, prionic, and other.

Bacterial. A small percentage of bacteria are
actually classified as pathogens. In contrast to commensal bacteria, which can be
useful or helpful, pathogenic bacteria cause infection and serious disease in
humans, nonhuman animals, and plants. The diseases and symptoms caused by
pathogenic bacteria are almost as diverse as the biological organisms they
infect.

Symptoms of bacterial infection can be minor, such as itchiness or sore
throat, to significantly more serious, such as open wounds and sepsis
(excessive bacteria in the blood). Certain bacteria have even been linked to
certain types of cancer, although this has been shown to occur most commonly in
immunocompromised persons.

Some bacterial infections or diseases are caused by a single species or genus,
whereas others can result from multiple organismal sources that are either closely
related or quite distant in terms of phylogeny. For instance, tetanus, a
medical condition sometimes induced by an infected deep cut or wound, is caused
only by Clostridium tetani. The most common human
bacterial
disease, tuberculosis, however, can be caused by
many related strains of the Mycobacterium genus (M.
tuberculosis, M. africanum, M.
canettii, M. caprae, and M.
microti). Moreover, pneumonia can be caused by an extremely
wide range of bacterial genera, including Pseudomonas,
Streptococcus, Mycoplasma, and
Legionella, rather than by a single organism or closely
related organisms. Also, food-borne illnesses and gastrointestinal disorders can
be caused by several types of bacteria, including Salmonellae
spp., Shigella spp., Campylobacter spp.,
Bacillus cereus, Clostridium spp.,
Yersinia enterocolitica, Cryptosporidium
parvum, Escherichia coli(0157:H7), Listeria
monocytogenes, and Vibrio spp.

Conversely, some bacterial species can cause a single ailment, whereas others
can lead to several, quite different infections. For example, the microorganism
Salmonella typhi is known to cause typhoid fever
only, whereas the species Staphylococcus pyogenes can cause both
the commonly diagnosed strep throat, which can be treated with prescription
antibiotics, and scarlet or rheumatic fever, which can be chronic
and even lead to heart failure.

Other notable ailments caused by bacterial infection include diphtheria
(Corynebacterium diphtheriae), chlamydia
(Chlamydia trachomatis), syphilis
(Treponema pallidum), gonorrhea
(Neisseria gonorrhoeae), listeriosis
(Listeria monocytogenes), and various issues affecting the
skin, including purulent discharges, boils, blisters, and minor infections
(Staphylococcus aureus). Bacterial infection also can lead to
more serious “flesh-eating” and destructive diseases
(Streptococcus spp.). Bacteria have also been linked to
certain types of cancer. Studies have shown that the organism Helicobacter
pylori, a bacterial species that can exist in abundance in the
stomach, is linked to the formation of ulcers and possibly gastric cancer.

Bacteria also affect agriculture and food-based industries by leading to costly infections, such as fire blight (Erwinia amylovora), leaf spot (Cercopsora spp. and Pseudomonas cichorii), and wilts (Erwinia tracheiphila) in commercial crops, and to anthrax (Bacillus anthracis), Johne’s disease (M. avium subspecies paratuberculosis), and leptospirosis (Lectospora spp.) in livestock.

Viral. Viral pathogens make up the most abundant biological
entity, and they can affect various species of animals, plants, and even bacteria
through various mechanisms. Examples of common human diseases caused by viral
pathogens include the common cold (rhinovirus, coronavirus, and picornavirus),
influenza (Orthomyxoviridae), chickenpox (varicella
zostervirus), measles (morbillivirus), mumps
(rubulavirus), rubella (rubivirus), cold sores (human papillomavirus types
1 and 2), and mononucleosis. Viral pathogens also cause many serious human
diseases, including hepatitis (viruses A, B, C, and D),
smallpox (Variola), Ebola virus
infection (Ebola virus), HIV/AIDS (lentivirus), yellow fever (flavivirus),
West Nile
virus, SARS-associated coronavirus, and avian influenza.

Many viruses have also been linked to various cancers. Epstein-Barr
virus, otherwise known as human herpesvirus-4 (HHV-4), causes not only cold sores and mononucleosis;
it has also been linked to Burkitt’s lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and
central nervous system lymphomas associated with HIV infection. Furthermore, HHV-8
has been linked to Kaposi’s sarcoma. HPV is also a
causative agent in cervical cancer. Some studies also link viruses to neurological
diseases such as multiple sclerosis and chronic fatigue syndrome.

Viruses can also affect animals and agriculture. Some of the commonly found viruses in food, water, and animals include hepatitis virus, rhabdovirus, picornavirus (foot-and-mouth disease), and pararamyxovirus.

Fungal. Fungi are the most common cause of
diseases in crops and other plants. Fungal infections also occur in humans,
with the majority of advanced infections occurring in immunocompromised persons,
particularly on their skin and nails and as yeast infections in body cavities.
Some commonly occurring fungal infections include athlete’s foot, ringworm
(Trichophyton and Microsporum), and
candidiasis (Candida).

Prionic. Prions are infectious particles
composed primarily of protein that do not, unlike other pathogens, contain nucleic
acids. Prions cause a number of diseases in a variety of mammals and have received
significant media attention. These prion diseases include bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (mad cow disease) in cattle and
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans. All known prion
diseases affect brain structure or neural tissue and are untreatable and
universally fatal.

Other parasites. Some parasitic eukaryotic organisms, including protists and helminths, also cause disease in humans and animals.
Protists in the genus Plasmodium are mosquito-borne and cause the
highly infectious disease malaria. Other protozoa of the species
Trypanosoma brucei are transmitted by the tsetse fly and cause
African sleeping sickness. Leishmania is another genus of
protozoa that is carried by sandflies and causes the disease leishmaniasis
in many types of mammals. Each of these devastating diseases is endemic to several
tropical and subtropical regions of the world, especially in the Americas, Asia,
and Africa. Helminths are parasitic wormlike organisms that disrupt their host’s
digestion and nutrient absorption, causing weakness and disease. These organisms
are also more common in developing countries.

Transmission

In general, the transmission of pathogens largely involves three steps: exit from a primary host, travel or existence in an intermediate location, and infection of a new host. There are, however, several specific routes and mechanisms by which pathogens can reach and colonize their hosts. Collectively, pathogens can essentially affect all facets of anatomy, in mammals and plants alike. The specific pathology and epidemiology of an infection, however, are largely dependent on the pathogen involved.

Scientists typically group transmission into two general categories, direct and indirect contact, which are further divided into several subcategories. Direct transmission refers to those instances when an infected host transmits a pathogen directly to another host. For example, pathogens that cause many sexually transmitted diseases, including gonorrhea, syphilis, and HIV/AIDS, are most commonly passed directly from person to person and cannot survive in environments external to their hosts for any extended time.

In contrast, indirect transmission involves transference of a pathogen from one host to another by way of an intermediate agent, which can be either animate or inanimate. Animate objects include both disease vehicles (including food, water, and air) and disease vectors (including insects, fleas, and rodents). Inanimate objects (or fomites) are those items on which pathogens are deposited and remain; fomites include clothes, bedding, and clinical apparatuses. Many gastrointestinal, respiratory, and blood-borne infections are passed through indirect transmission.

Prevention and Outcomes

Because the range of pathogens is great, the ranges of prevention and treatment for infections are similarly broad. Researchers and clinicians have developed many effective strategies for the prevention and treatment of pathogens. It should be noted, however, that many pathogens remain to be understood, preventable, or clinically treatable. Epidemiologists, who study the health and illness of populations, use their knowledge of current trends to predict future behavior and to formulate logical interventions in the interest of public health and preventive medicine. Pathogens are a cornerstone interest to researchers and policymakers alike because they are drivers of disease and death worldwide.

The control of pathogens and related infectious diseases is largely the result
of advancements in the comprehensive understanding of disease processes, in
improved sanitary and living conditions, and in the discovery of antimicrobial
agents and other biotechnological strategies for prevention and treatment. Persons
can reduce the incidence of many pathogenic infections by being educated about
potential threats, by adopting certain behaviors, and by avoiding other behaviors.
In particular, because many pathogens spread indirectly by oral, fecal, genital,
and blood-borne routes, good hygiene (such as properly storing and preparing
foodstuffs, regularly washing hands and bathing, avoiding intravenous drugs, and avoiding
direct sexual contact with infected persons) can prevent many types of infections.
At the community level, infectious disease can be prevented by providing
uncontaminated water for drinking and agriculture, by educating the public about
infectious disease, and by ensuring adequate health care for all.

Vaccination is an effective way of preventing viral infection, which has led to a dramatic decline in morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) associated with infection. Many viral infections have been essentially eradicated (including smallpox, measles, mumps, and rubella) since the introduction of their respective vaccinations.

Treatment

The treatment of pathogens includes using a wide range of compounds and substances collectively known as antimicrobials. Infections caused by bacteria are most commonly treated with prescription antibiotics, which either slow the growth of (bacteriostatic) or kill (bactericidal) certain bacteria. Antibiotics can be naturally derived, synthetic, or semi-synthetic, and can target either a few or a broad spectrum of organisms.

Some of the most commonly prescribed antibiotics include beta-lactams, sulfonamides, quinolones, and oxazolidinones. Similarly, antifungals are used to treat various fungal infections. Several of these drugs can be purchased without a prescription; others require one. The most commonly prescribed antifungals include those of the azole group. Antiviral drugs are used for treating viral infections. Unlike most antibiotics, antivirals do not destroy their target pathogen; instead, they inhibit their development. In contrast, another group of agents, viricides, destroy virus particles outside the body. Drugs are now available for the management of influenza A and B viruses, HIV, herpesviruses, and hepatitis B and C. Protozoa and other parasites are typically treated with antimicrobial drugs.

Impact

Pathogens make up a very small fraction of all microorganisms, yet they play a
particularly powerful role in human life, and in human illness. Several agencies
monitor and regulate the control of infectious diseases around the world,
including the World Health Organization, the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention in the United States, the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration, and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.

Despite advancements in the prevention and containment of pathogenic diseases, especially of smallpox, mumps, and plague, some pathogenic diseases, especially HIV, tuberculosis, and influenza, continue to persist in large numbers and to threaten human life. Because the effectiveness of epidemiology directly influences the spread, treatment, and outcome of pathogenic diseases, the developing world, which has limited epidemiological resources, remains unequally affected by diseases that are rarely reported in modern Western nations. There are many reasons for the discrepancy, including a lack of access to infrastructure, education, and funding resources.

Bibliography

Black, Jacqueline G. Microbiology: Principles and Explorations. 7th ed. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2008. A standard introductory microbiology textbook for allied health students, with detailed descriptions of common infections and the organisms that cause them.

Edwards, R. A., and F. Rohwer. “Viral Metagenomics.” Nature Reviews Microbiology 3, no. 6 (2005): 504-510. A peer-reviewed literature review on viral metagenomics published in a technical microbiology journal for researchers and students of medicine and microbiology.

Komaroff, A. L. “Is Human Herpesvirus-6 a Trigger for Chronic Fatigue Syndrome?” Journal of Clinical Virology 37, suppl. 1 (2006): S39-46. A peer-reviewed study on herpesvirus published in a clinical virology journal that explores the role of viruses in human health.

Madigan, Michael T., and John M. Martinko. Brock Biology of Microorganisms. 12th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2010. A standard introductory microbiology textbook for students of medicine and microbiology, with simplified descriptions of common ailments and the organisms that cause them.

Pollack, Andrew. “Rising Threat of Infections Unfazed by Antibiotics” The New York Times, February 27, 2010. Discusses the increasing resistance of certain infectious microorganisms to antibiotics.

Prusiner, Stanley B. “Prions.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95, no. 23 (2004): 13363-13383. A peer-reviewed study on the mechanisms and effects of infectious prions published in a high-tier academic journal.

Who were "winners" and "losers" of prosperity in the USA during the 1920's?

The 1920s was a time of fairly rapid economic growth in the US, but also a time of rapidly widening economic inequality.

This means that while the total amount of wealth in the US was growing (about 3.4% per year), and the total amount of wealth per person was also growing (about 1.9% per year), this wealth was not being distributed evenly among the population.

The "winners" were those at the top of the income distribution; the share of income received by the richest 1% of people rose from about 15% in 1920 to 23% in 1929.

The "losers" were everyone else; from 1920 to 1929, the share of income received by the poorest 90% of people (which is to say, most people) fell from about 58% to about 52%.

It's important to be clear that this does not necessarily mean that people got poorer---they got a smaller share of a larger amount of wealth, which could end up bigger or smaller than they had before. In practice, the absolute amount of income for most Americans was about the same, while those at the very bottom (roughly the poorest 20%) actually did see decreases in their absolute standard of living.

The really scary thing about all this is that it seems to be happening again---the income share of the top 1% today is now comparable to what it was in 1929, and growth in GDP per capita is actually somewhat slower. Unless something changes, we seem to be headed toward a world where economic growth is primarily something the richest people receive, and everyone else is left behind or even made worse off.

Name the two planets with no moons.

There are only 8 planets in our solar system, since Pluto is no longer classified as a planet. Most of these planets have natural satellites, which are also known as moons. For example, Earth has 1 moon, while Mars has 2. In comparison, Jupiter has 67 moons and Saturn has 62 moons. 

There are only 2 planets in our solar system that do not have any moons. These planets are Mercury and Venus. The main reason why these planets do not have a moon is their proximity to the Sun. If a moon were to exist too close to the planet, it would be destroyed by tidal gravity. If, on the other hand, the moon is very far from the planet, it would be attracted by the Sun and captured.

Thus, apart from Mercury and Venus, all the other planets in our solar system have moons.

Hope this helps.

Does the life of Andrew Carnegie support or counter the philosophy of Social Darwinism?

The life of Andrew Carnegie both supports and counters the philosophy of Social Darwinism. Social Darwinism refers to the concept of survival of the fittest. With this concept, those who are strong and able to make adjustments will survive. Those who are strong will overrun those who aren’t as strong and cannot make adjustments.

Andrew Carnegie was ruthless in some of his business activities. He would buy out the competition that couldn’t compete with his businesses. This allowed him to control industries such as the steel industry. Many competitors were forced out of business or to sell their businesses to him.

Andrew Carnegie also believed the wealthy had an obligation to help the less fortunate, though. Andrew Carnegie donated a lot of money to provide people with opportunities to help themselves. For example, he funded the construction of many libraries to help people become more educated. Andrew Carnegie didn’t believe in giving handouts to the less fortunate. He believed in providing them with opportunities to improve their situation in life. This runs counter to the concept of survival of the fittest.

What societal values are common to both the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey?

Both stories are as ancient as they get, yet they both reflect societal values of mankind’s fascination with the supernatural and man’s relationship to the gods. These two stories represent early man’s attempt to convey values, morals, and beliefs about their cultures and civilizations in the form of myths. Of course, the common theme between these two epics are that man must live according to their duty to their fellow men/family, fear the gods and death, and propagate the human race in the face of mortality.

               In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh and Enkidu begin their association as enemies, but after they fight they become friends and go on an epic journey together to explore the world and test the gods. They are the perfect foils for each other, Gilgamesh being a cruel, despotic two-thirds god, one-third man befriending a primal being who barely transcended from an animalistic primitive. Their polarities make them fit for one another and there is a manly bond between them. Because of one of their adventures, they trespass against the gods, triumph over a demon, and kill the Bull of Heaven (sent by a goddess who lusted after Gilgamesh but was rejected), which results in the gods exacting punishment in the form of a cruel death for Enkidu, which sets Gilgamesh on a path for immortality as he saw how death comes so easily and without warning. Gods can be seen as the forces of the world, which should be respected and feared as they set limits on human potential and influence the world. This is why there is the story of the great deluge, which the gods allowed one man how to survive and was granted eternal life. Because of this action by the gods, the fact of life is that all men are mortal but if they pass on their seed, mankind will continue. After Gilgamesh gets so close to eternal life and obtaining a plant that could restore youth, he returns to his kingdom empty-handed yet building it up instead of abusing his power like before. He finds that despite his own mortality, achievement and the continuity of humankind is the closest thing to immortality humans can attain. In other words, we live on through our descendants.

               In the Odyssey, Odysseus seeks to return home from war to his wife and son but is imprisoned and delayed by gods and demi-gods. Also, before on Odysseus’s journey of war before his men are all killed, he did feel responsible for trying to bring them back home alive, but the gods and monsters along the way do not allow that. It is interesting to note that Odysseus is captured by a demi-goddess who was in love with him. It seems both stories have men of heroic quality that are the objects of desire of the gods. Yet, they deny them and reveal that gods are fickle, too. Trespassing against gods seems to be the ultimate folly of our heroes, yet their defiance suggests courage and determination, which gods should respect—but in the end, why men live in fear of the gods. However, Odysseus is aided by the goddess Athena in his journeys and is able to return home to protect his family and lineage from suitors. Unlike Gilgamesh, Odysseus does not seek immortality, but to secure his family’s future and see that his son continues the next generation—in sync with the theme of propagating human kind and duty to one’s peoples.

               Both these stories end back where they ultimately started (following a cyclical hero’s journey). In finality, these stories convey a tradition of the supernatural, gods and goddesses, and ultimately the human condition. Sometimes the human endeavor to bear fruit and multiply seems to be the defining ends to human life. Our ancestors live on through us and our descendants will carry us into the future with them. Overall, these two stories enlighten their audience through fantastical situations and perilous ordeals to ingrain in their audience the facts of life as told by ancient poets and storytellers. Like these stories that are still being read and studied today, civilization continues on and where one human dies, another lives; and the stories pass on and on to future generations. Is that not immortality?

How do prices, output, and profits differ between monopolies and monopolistically competitive firms? Are there similarities?

In fundamental microeconomic theory, competitive markets have the effect of driving market price down to the point where producers are operating at the point of minimum total cost per unit (i.e. at the point of greatest efficiency). Conversely, monopolies will be able to maintain higher prices, specifically at the point where the total market demand curve crosses their marginal cost curve. That is, they do not have to share the market with anyone, so they will raise prices until the quantity demanded is such that marginal cost equals that price. The key here is that monopolies face no competition. For a pure monopoly to exist, not only must there be no competitors producing the same good or service, but there should be no effective alternative goods or services to that one. True monopolies are extremely difficult to maintain in the long term, as the higher prices they charge stimulate research and investment into alternatives (e.g. solar as an alternative to electric company provided power). Additionally, it is unusual for a monopoly to be allowed by democratic governments without substantial price regulation (e.g. utility commissions).

 Monopolistic competition is the situation in which there are multiple firms producing a good or service, but they are able to differentiate their products to an extent. In other words, each firm’s product is an imperfect substitute for its competitors’ products, and vice versa. The result is that price can be maintained above the minimum total cost level, but not as high as in a true monopoly. Profits are thus not as high in monopolistic competition, quantity produced and consumed is higher, and price is lower. Monopolistic competition tends to place a premium on marketing, product features, and additional services associated with a product. Anything which ties a consumer into a particular firm’s products over an extended term fosters monopolistic competition. An example would be attempts to associate prestige with a particular brand (e.g. cars, cosmetics). Another example is making capital goods incapable of operating on consumables produced by other firms (e.g. HP ink cartridges, or Keurig’s producing machines which will only operate with K-cups produced by them).

How is the theme of loneliness, in your opinion, dealt with in "Games at Twilight" by Anita Desai?

That's a good question because that is not one of the typical themes that gets focused on in this story.  

I would say that the theme of loneliness is dealt with and best illustrated through the character of Ravi.  Desai includes subtle details in the story that highlight how and why Ravi exists on the outskirts of the group of other children.  We know early on that Ravi is not a physical powerhouse of a child, so he is not the group's popular "jock."  

. . . but he hadn’t much faith in his short legs when matched against Raghu’s long, hefty, hairy footballer legs.  

Actually, the very first detail that readers are given about Ravi portrays him as that "weird loner" kid.  

Ravi heard the whistling and picked his nose in a panic, trying to find comfort by burrowing the finger deep—deep into that soft tunnel. He felt himself too exposed, sitting on an upturned flowerpot behind the garage.

I'd like to point out that Ravi is sitting, alone, on a flowerpot behind the garage.  He is not where most of the other kids are.  Additionally, he is picking his nose, and trying to find comfort in that activity.  It's the equivalent of a small child sucking his/her thumb. That is not something that wins over large groups of friends.  

Another loneliness detail is the game that the kids are playing.  They are not playing a team sport in which every kid is part of a team that works toward a common goal.  Instead, they are playing hide-and-seek.  That is an inherently lonely game.  One person is "it," and everybody else is supposed to find their own hiding spot.  Nobody hides with a partner in that game.  It makes you easier to find.  

The best evidence for loneliness and Ravi's embodiment of that theme comes at the end of the story.  Ravi has been hiding, alone, in the shed for hours.  When he finally comes out to claim his victory, nobody believes him.  All of the other children have moved on to a different game.  Nobody knew that Ravi was still playing.  They completely forgot about him, and that shows Ravi how little attention the group gives him.  He has been left out yet again.  He feels completely alone and insignificant, and Ravi goes off alone to quietly sulk.  

But he had been forgotten, left out, and he would not join them now. The ignominy of being forgotten—how could he face it? He felt his heart go heavy and ache inside him unbearably. He lay down full length on the damp grass, crushing his face into it, no longer crying, silenced by a terrible sense of his insignificance.

What does "the crash" mean in To Kill a Mockingbird?

In chapter two of To Kill a Mockingbird, Atticus refers to "the crash." He is explaining why the Cunninghams are poor to Jem and Scout. He says,

The Cunninghams are country folks, farmers, and the crash hit them hardest.

"The crash" is a reference to the 1929 stock market crash that plunged the United States into the Great Depression. The Great Depression affected people from all walks of life, from farmers to millionaires.

Atticus also explains how the Great Depression affects many people in town. He tells them how the farmers no longer have cash to pay professional people, like doctors and lawyers. This causes professional people to live in poverty, too. Atticus tells his children they are poor for this reason. For example, Mr. Cunningham has no cash so he pays Atticus for legal services in stovewood and turnip greens.

What is a barium swallow?

Cancers diagnosed:
Oral cavity (mouth) cancer; oropharyngeal (throat) cancer; vocal cord cancer, including laryngeal and hypopharyngeal cancer, glottic cancer, supraglottic cancer, subglottic cancer; esophageal cancer; stomach cancer; stomach polyps, which may precede stomach cancer; small intestine cancer, including carcinoid tumors, gastrointestinal stromal tumors, lymphomas, and adenocarcinoma

Why performed: A barium swallow with X rays is performed to help diagnose cancer of the mouth, throat, vocal cords, esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. When swallowed, barium sulfate shows up on X rays and highlights the linings of the above-mentioned structures. A double-contrast barium swallow involves swallowing substances that create air in the stomach to expand it, allowing a better view.

Patient preparation: Patients may be placed on a restricted diet a few days before the test. Patients should not eat, drink, chew gum, or smoke after midnight before the test. Patients receive instructions from their doctors about swallowing medications. The stomach needs to be empty for the procedure. In some cases, the stomach contents are removed through a tube placed in the nose. For women, a pregnancy test may be performed to ensure that the patient is not pregnant.

A barium swallow is an outpatient procedure that is performed at a hospital radiology department, outpatient radiology center, or doctor’s office. The test does not require anesthesia, and patients are awake. A barium swallow usually takes from thirty to sixty minutes, depending on the extent of the procedure. Patients disrobe and wear a gown for the test. Patients need to remove metal objects that may interfere with the X rays, including glasses, dentures, and jewelry.

Steps of the procedure: The patient’s vital signs are taken before the test and monitored during the test. Patients may sit, stand, or lie on an X-ray table for the procedure. Patients may be secured to the X-ray table if it is tilted to allow images to be taken from various angles.

X rays of the patient’s heart, lungs, and abdomen are taken. Then, patients drink sixteen to twenty ounces of barium sulfate. The barium sulfate is mixed in a thick drink that may have flavor added to it; otherwise, the drink is described as tasting chalky. The examination table may be tilted or pressure may be applied to the patient’s abdomen to help spread the barium. The barium is viewed on a barium fluoroscope monitor as it travels through the upper digestive tract. Still X-ray images can be taken at any time. Patients may need to drink more barium sulfate as the test progresses.

For a double-contrast barium swallow, the patient swallows baking soda crystals. The baking soda creates gas, and the air expands the stomach. Additional images are taken, and the patient is repositioned or the examination table is tilted as necessary.

After the procedure: Patients should drink plenty of fluids to help remove the barium from their bodies. Patients can eat a regular diet unless instructed otherwise. Bowel movements will contain barium for one to two days following the tests. The barium may make bowel movements appear white, gray, or pink in color.

Risks: A barium swallow is considered a low-risk procedure. The radiation exposure is low, but it carries a small risk of cancer. Patients may be allergic to the flavorings that are mixed with the barium drink. Occasionally, the barium may harden, resulting in intestinal blockage or constipation. Patients should contact their doctor if they have not had a bowel movement within one to two days of the procedure.

Results: The X-ray films are read by a radiologist. The ordering doctor may review the films as well. The linings of healthy structures are free of abnormal growths or polyps. Any abnormalities, such as cancer or precancerous tissues, appear as growths or polyps.

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