How does the British unitary government compare and contrast with the confederation-based Swiss system?

While both the UK and Switzerland are generally considered "democracies" and they both have stable governments with low corruption and a very high standard of living, there are actually some quite significant differences between their governments in terms of structure. Both countries provide very nice guides on their official websites explaining how their governments function, which are linked below.

The United Kingdom is still technically a monarchy. Specifically, it is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The Queen of the United Kingdom theoretically still has an enormous amount of power, but she hardly ever exercises it. In practice, most of the decisions made by the UK government are made by Parliament in general or the Prime Minister in particular.

Unlike the US, where the President is directly elected by popular vote, in the UK, the Prime Minister is appointed by the Queen from the members of Parliament. The UK is a (really, the) common law system, so precedent has established that the Queen must appoint whomever Parliament votes for, even though this is not actually written into the Constitution of the UK. Parliament consists of two Houses, the House of Commons, which is directly elected by popular vote, and the House of Lords, which is partially elected, partially appointed by the Queen, and partially made up of hereditary offices still inherited all the way down from the feudal system.

As you can see, democracy in the UK is actually quite indirect; the people elect (most) of the Members of Parliament, who then de facto elect the Prime Minister (who is actually technically appointed).

Switzerland is quite the opposite. They have something very close to a direct democracy, wherein all major decisions are made by popular vote in a referendum. (One thing that may make it easier is that the population of Switzerland is only about 8 million people, about the population of Greater London. The UK as a whole has over 60 million people.) There is no single chief executive in Switzerland, but instead a Federal Council of seven elected officials, each of whom serves as Federal President for one year over their collective seven-year term. Then they also have a Parliament, all of the members of which are elected directly by popular vote. Switzerland is a civil law system, so laws must be written down; they can't be established by precedent as they are in the UK. And in order to write them down, either there must be a vote of Parliament for minor laws, or a direct referendum of the popular vote for major laws (Parliament decides what is "major" and sets up an "optional referendum") and amendments to the Constitution of Switzerland (which are always done by mandatory referendum).

Switzerland's two legislative houses are the National Council of 200 people, which is elected by proportional representation so that each party gets a number of seats proportional to the votes they received; and a Council of States of 46 people, which is elected by a plurality vote in each of the cantons, smaller units comparable to states in the US, such that every canton gets two representatives, except for the very smallest cantons, which only get one. This system is quite similar to the US Congress, where the House of Representatives is proportional to population but the Senate has two representatives elected from each state. The chief difference is that the US does not use true proportional representation, but instead allots districts to states based on population and then elects a representative from each district. As discussed in the Switzerland brochure (much to my delight; how often do government brochures explain political science concepts?), proportional representation favors small political parties, while plurality vote favors large political parties. This is likely why the US has only two major political parties and Switzerland has several.

Thus, democracy in Switzerland is much more direct; while they do elect representatives, there are no appointed or inherited offices at the top (obviously they appoint postal carriers, tax collectors, etc.!) and individual voters directly make most policy decisions.

Cantons in Switzerland also have a great deal of autonomy, making their own local laws and policies under a framework provided by the federal government (this is also much like the US system, where laws vary between states). By default, it is assumed that the cantons will have the right to make policy, unless the Constitution says specifically that a given law is under the authority of the federal government.

In the UK, Parliament (and technically the Queen) have unitary authority, so they can essentially dictate absolutely all law in the United Kingdom. They do grant some powers to local regions (particularly Scotland and Northern Ireland), but this is entirely at their discretion and could be removed at any time. By default, power is vested in the Government of the United Kingdom unless that power is specifically relinquished.

Switzerland is a democracy in the strongest sense, while the UK is more like a de facto democracy or quasi-democracy, or, like I said, the more formal term is parliamentary constitutional monarchy.

Yet despite all these differences, policies between the two countries are really not all that different. Even their economies are quite similar, being highly focused on financial services. The powers that the Government of the UK has chosen to devolve to lower governments are even quite similar in practice to the powers that the federal government of Switzerland has chosen not to take from the cantons. They have taken very different paths, but ended up in more or less the same place.

Why did the Romans fight the Punic Wars? What did they gain?

The Romans became involved in the Punic Wars after they intervened during a 264 B.C. dispute between the city of Syracuse (who had allegiance to Carthage) and Messina (who Rome supported). Thought the battle initially started simply between Syracuse and Messina, once Rome intervened, it transformed into a full-scale conflict of more than 100 years between Rome and Carthage. 

Rome built up its naval fleet over the course of the next several years until it was ultimately able to win a decisive sea battle against Carthage. This battle allowed Rome to win a major victory by obtaining Sicily. 

Over the course of the next several decades, Rome was also able to obtain control of Spain and parts of North Africa. Finally, in 146 B.C., Rome overtook Carthage. Rome gained control of the ancient city and sold many of the 50,000 surviving residents into slavery.

How did the New Deal try to solve the problems of the Great Depression?

There were many components to the New Deal that we cannot cover in this short of a space, but the overall strategy employed by FDR was to put into action the economic theories of John Maynard Keynes, who posited that during a great economic recession, private money would flee the market and the government, in order to turn the tide, needed to inject lots of money quickly into the economy, to stimulate growth and reverse the vicious cycle that results from loss of confidence in the market, tightening credit, business failures and job losses. The way the New Deal injected money into the economy was through what is called "Deficit Spending," a process by which the government borrows money and prints excess currency to pay for programs that put people back to work.

The New Deal can be divided into two main components: stimulative action and regulation. Stimulative action included the Social Security Act, which gave widows and orphans direct payments to help them afford basic necessities. This also included unemployment assistance, direct cash payments to unemployed workers to help them pay for basic necessities and in turn, support the businesses that provided those services.

Other components of the stimulative side of the New Deal include the various works projects, like the Works Project Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Agriculture Adjustment Bureau, and the Tennessee Valley Authority, among others. All of these programs put unemployed men (and women) to work on large infrastructure projects, thereby improving and expanding the United States' roads, bridges, waterways, farms, irrigation systems, national parks and cities, and creating a virtuous economic cycle of job creation and consumer spending, which in turn prompted more job creation and more consumer spending. 

The regulation component of the New Deal was just as important, because it aimed to reform the failed mechanisms that allowed the financial collapse to occur in the first place. The regulatory programs of the New Deal included (but were not limited to) the Federal Depositors Insurance Corporation (FDIC), to insure depositor's money, the Glass Steagall Act, to prevent savings and loans banks from gambling their depositors money on Wall Street, the creation of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), to police and monitor the trading and marketing of securities on Wall Street, so that investment bankers couldn't sell fraudulent securities and could not lie to their counterparts about the risks  involved in the investments they sold. The regulations also included a Bank Holiday at the very start of the New Deal, to stem the flow of bank runs and return confidence to the financial system, before other regulation could be enacted. The National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) aimed to regulate and improve business practices and labor conditions.

All in all, the New Deal was the single largest and most effective government intervention into the economy in this country's history. It succeeded in digging the country out of a long and deep economic depression by allowing the federal government to act as the "lender of last resort," when private citizens and private institutions were unable and/or unwilling to step in.

A 250 N boy exerts 5000 Pa of pressure when standing on the floor. Calculate the area of the soles of his shoes?

By the definition, pressure is the force over the area on which it is exerted, `P = F/A.` If we cannot be sure that this ratio is the same for all parts of the area, then the force divided by the area is the average pressure. Also the force in the definition is supposed to be perpendicular to the area, which is true for horizontal floor and the gravity force.

The unit for pressure is Pascal, abbreviated Pa. It is equal to one Newton over one square meter.

In this problem both the force and the pressure are given, it is simple to find the area: `A = F/P = 250/5000 = 0.05 (m^2).` I hope the boy has two soles, so the area of one of them is twice less, `0.025 m^2,` or `250 cm^2.`

How are CAM practitioners educated and trained?

Overview

The education and training of practitioners of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) are widely varied, as these practices encompass any type of therapy that is not considered conventional or scientifically proven. Many of these therapies, however, have a long history in other cultures. CAM education and training may involve rigorous courses of study similar to those for a medical degree or for postdoctoral training. However, some CAM education consists of only minimal training, such as a six-week course that leads to a certificate. Even within the same discipline, training and certification requirements may vary widely from state to state, because there is no national regulatory body to oversee the process.

The education and training of CAM practitioners are the focus here, so the discussion will cover only those areas of unconventional therapy with standard educational or training programs. Covered here are acupuncturists, chiropractors, homeopaths, massage therapists, naturopaths, and integrated medicine programs that combine conventional medicine with CAM practice.

Many other types of CAM practitioners, such as aromatherapists, crystal therapists, reflexologists, reiki practitioners, and native or indigenous healers, study for long periods with experienced experts in their field. However, no particular training programs, educational courses, recognized requirements, or state or national certifications are available in the United States for these practitioners.

Practitioners

Acupuncturist. Acupuncture is a standard accepted
practice in the Chinese medicine tradition; however, it is relatively new in the
United States and, as such, varies from state to state in education and
certification requirements and venues. About forty states have established
criteria for persons seeking to practice acupuncture. Nonmedical professionals, to
become licensed as an acupuncturist, must take a four-year course of study and a
board examination. Persons with a medical background, such as medical doctors,
dentists, nurses, and chiropractors, must often complete a rigorous course of
study too, including classroom study (a minimum of three hundred hours) and
clinical acupuncture practice, before becoming licensed.

Courses in acupuncture focus on anatomy, physiology, and other areas that are
typical for any type of medical practice. Courses also include detailed study of
the nervous and vascular systems so that a practitioner has a thorough
understanding of needle insertion and the body’s reaction to it. A practitioner of
acupuncture may also be trained in other aspects of Chinese traditional
medicine.

Two bodies certify and accredit acupuncture colleges and practitioners in the United States: the Accreditation Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine and the American Board of Medical Acupuncture. These organizations provide continuing education and examinations for practitioners and oversight for educational programs in the United States. They also provide standards for acupuncturists trained in other countries who wish to practice in the United States.

Chiropractor. This branch of CAM may be one of the most highly
regulated in the United States. The Council on Chiropractic Education (CCE) is an
accreditation body for chiropractic schools, and its accreditation criteria are
recognized by the U.S. Department of Education. CCE regulates all training
programs for chiropractors. The American Chiropractic Association, a
leading professional organization for chiropractors, provides continuing medical
education and other resources to practitioners.

A chiropractic training program must include a minimum of 4,200 hours of class time, laboratory work, and clinical experience and must include courses in orthopedics, neurology, and physiotherapy (all with a focus on clinical practice of manipulation and spinal alignment). Chiropractors may also pursue studies in a specialty, such as orthopedics, sports medicine, or rehabilitation.

After completion of a doctor of chiropractic (D.C.) program, student practitioners must pass a four-part examination from the National Board of Chiropractic Examiners and must pass a state examination to be licensed. In some areas, the state examination takes the place of the national examination.

Homeopath. The education and training of a homeopath can take
varied courses. Programs designed for medical doctors or others with medical
training tend to focus on homeopathy and its application,
assuming that those with a medical degree would already have a basic background in
medicine and medical practice. Other courses, geared to those who do not have a
medical background, focus more on medical education, such as anatomy and
physiology, but also train students in homeopathy practices and principles.

A few states in the United States offer training in homeopathy (Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Massachusetts, and Utah, and the District of Columbia). Admission requirements for courses of study vary widely; some require a medical doctor (M.D.) or similar degree, and others enroll students with little or no medical background. Because homeopathy itself is not regulated in the United States, anyone can use the word “homeopath” to describe themselves or their type of work. However, a person cannot identify himself or herself as a homeopathic doctor or imply to the public that he or she is practicing medicine if he or she does not hold a medical license.

Several programs offer homeopathic education, but no single certification is recognized throughout the United States. Each state has its own standards for licensing this type of care. Some homeopaths are licensed in a conventional type of medicine and may hold a degree as an M.D. or as a nurse practitioner. In Arizona, Connecticut, and Nevada, M.D.’s and D.O.’s (doctors of osteopathy) can be licensed as homeopathic physicians. Homeopathic assistants, who practice under the supervision of a homeopath, are licensed in Arizona and Nevada.

Organizations such as the Council for Homeopathic Certification and the American Board of Homeotherapeutics offer certifications to homeopaths who have completed certain requirements: for example, M.D.’s or D.O.’s who pass oral and written exams in homeopathy. Upon completing these exams, the successful candidate is awarded a diplomate of homeotherapeutics (D.Ht.). Even though the Department of Education does not recognize any one organization as a certifying body, homeopathic practitioners use the standards upheld by these organizations to maintain competency and to encourage self-regulation.

Massage therapist. Most U.S. states regulate the practice of
massage
therapy in some way with a type of governing board providing
certification or licensure. Usually, a massage therapist must complete some course
of training and pass a board examination to be licensed. However, the requirements
vary widely from state to state. Education provided in massage therapy schools
typically requires about five hundred hours of study and involves courses in
anatomy, physiology, motion and body mechanics, and clinical massage practice.
Licensure also may involve passing a nationally recognized test, such as the
National Certification Examination for Therapeutic Massage and Bodywork or the
Massage and Bodywork Licensing Examination.

Naturopath. There are two basic types of naturopath: traditional
and naturopathic physicians. Education and training for traditional naturopaths
vary from nondegree certificate programs to undergraduate degree programs. After
completion of a degree program, a traditional naturopath can certify with the
American Naturopathic Medical Certificate Board and become a naturopathic
consultant. Traditionally, these types of naturopaths do not practice medicine and
thus do not require a license.

A naturopathic physician must have a doctor of naturopathic medicine (N.D., or N.M.D. in Arizona) degree from an accredited school of naturopathic medicine. Only four schools in the United States (in Washington, Oregon, Arizona, and Connecticut) are accredited for this type of education. The N.D. involves four years of graduate-level study in a standard medical curriculum, with added courses in natural therapeutics. Practitioners must then pass a state board licensing examination. (In the state of Utah, naturopathic doctors must complete a residency before starting a practice.)

Practitioners often work as primary care clinicians, but some states do not recognize the D.M. degree, so practitioners in these areas cannot legally practice medicine. Generally, they may still practice traditional naturopathic medicine. Two states, South Carolina and Tennessee, specifically prohibit the practice of naturopathy in any form.

The Council of Naturopathic Medical Education is a governing body that provides
accreditation for education in naturopathy. The American Naturopathic
Certification Board provides testing and continuing education for this
profession.

Alternative Medicine. http://www.pitt.edu/~cbw/altm.html.

American Academy of Acupuncture. http://medicalacupuncture.org.

American Association of Naturopathic Physicians. http://naturopathic.org.

American Chiropractic Association. http://www.acatoday.org.

American Massage Therapy Association. http://www.amtamassage.org.

International Website for Professional Homeopathy. http://www.world-of-homeopathy.info.

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. “Selecting a Complementary and Alternative Medicine Practitioner.” Available at http://nccam.nih.gov/health/decisions/practitioner.htm. Discusses choosing and evaluating a practitioner and provides questions to ask a practitioner about his or her education.

Tierney, Gillian. Opportunities in Holistic Health Care Careers. Rev. ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007. This book addresses the job outlook, educational requirements, regulation, and salaries for many CAM practitioners.

In order to neutralize a basic solution, you would need to add a solution with a pH higher than 7. A. True B. False C. I have no idea.

This statement is false. In order to neutralize a basic solution you would need to add a solution with a pH lower than 7. 

The pH scale describes the hydrogen ion concentration, abbreviated [H+], of a solution. A solution that is neutral has a pH of 7. It has equal concentrations of H+ and OH- (hydroxide ion). A basic solution has a pH greater than 7 and it contains more OH- ions than H+ ions. An acidic solution has a pH less than 7 and contains more H+ ions than OH- ions. 

H+ ions and OH- ions neutralize each other by forming water:

`H^+ + OH^(-) -> H_2O`

In order to neutralize a basic solution you would need to add a solution with an excess of H+ ions to react with the excess of OH- ions. This would be an acidic solution, one with a pH below 7. The amount needed to neutralize the solution would depend on the volume and concentration of the basic solution and the concentration of the acidic solution.

The attached video explains acids, bases and pH.

What does Roger do when Mrs. Jones leaves him alone with her purse? Why does he do this? How have Roger's behavior and attitude changed?

In Langston Hughes short story “Thank you, M’am,” Roger’s attitude changes from that of a petty thief to a young man who desires to demonstrate his trustworthiness and gratitude.

After Mrs. Jones decides not to contact the authorities, she drags him back to her room in the boarding house. With her immediate actions, she shows Roger an inkling of trust. When they arrive back in the room, she places her purse on the day-bed in plain sight and instructs Roger to wash up. It is his choice whether he grabs the purse and runs out the door, or whether he stays with Mrs. Jones. He decides to stay, and when he returns from the sink, he sits as far away from the purse as possible. Mrs. Jones and Roger have a conversation in which she reveals some details about her past, which Roger can relate to in his current situation as a young man growing up in the slums of New York City. His family life is non-existent, he is poor, and he wants new, blue suede shoes.

After this conversation, Roger realizes he wants to be trusted. He sees his mistake in attacking Mrs. Jones, who is making out a living by working long hours in a local beauty salon. Roger sees the value in her hard work and determination, and he is grateful for her kindness.

In another corner of the room behind a screen was a gas plate and an icebox. Mrs. Jones got up and went behind the screen. The woman did not watch the boy to see if he was going to run now, nor did she watch her purse which she left behind her on the day-bed. But the boy took care to sit on the far side of the room where he thought she could easily see him out of the corner of her eye, if she wanted to. He did not trust the woman not to trust him. And he did not want to be mistrusted now.

Mrs. Jones' kindness and respect, her lack of preaching, and her demonstration of understanding help Roger change from a child of desperation to a grateful young man.

What are the challenges faced by Israel with regard to international terrorism?

Israel faces many challenges when it comes to international terrorism.  For one thing, it is surrounded by enemy nations in the Middle East, most of which are hotbeds of terrorist activity.  Palestinian terrorism, for example, was an enormous threat in Israel far before 9/11, due to the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict.  Palestinian extremists would often go for "soft targets" such as night clubs, pizza shops, and shopping malls.  Their willingness to commit suicide attacks in order to attack Israeli citizens makes them particularly dangerous because they do not fear death.

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict has inflamed tensions between Israel and its Arab neighbors.  Nations like Syria sympathize with the Palestinians and they are tied by their common faith, Islam.  The terrorists, therefore, see the attack against Israel as a holy war, one they are willing to die for in order to win.  Most Middle Eastern nations freely express their desire to annihilate Israel, although this seems unlikely due to Israel's superior military might and the support it gets from the United States.   

What are two methods used to mine coal out of the ground so that we can use it to make electricity?

Two methods used to remove coal from the ground are:

• 
  Surface Mining: Surface mining is used when the coal is located within 200 feet of the surface. Large machines are used to remove soil and rock on top of the coal seam. When coal seams are located close to the top of a mountain, dynamite is used to remove the mountaintop and expose the coal seams. This type of surface mining is called mountaintop removal. Once the coal has been removed, the surface is covered with new soil and replanted.

• 
  Underground Mining: Underground mining is used when coal is deep underground. Miners use man-made elevators and underground tunnels to reach the coal. The miners are then able to use machines to remove the coal from the ground and transport it to the surface.

The coal is then processed and used to generate about 39% of the electricity produced in the United States. 

Is Omelas a true utopia in "The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas" by Ursula Le Guin?

Omelas is not a true utopia because suffering exists within its community.

Omelas is described as an idyllic community, but the conditions for this happiness are "strict and absolute"; therefore, there are flaws in its perfection. For one thing, the structure of happiness is fashioned by man, who is himself imperfect. Yet, the evil is walled in, so some feel that they are safe in Omelas. Or, they feel that the child who is confined so that they can be happy is "too degraded and imbecile to know any real joy," and he/she cannot be freed, anyway.

Omelas is a town that holds that the greater good is served by having the one miserable being confined.

If the child were brought up into the sunlight out of that vile place, if it were cleaned and fed and comforted, that would be a good thing, indeed; but if it were done, in that day and hour all the prosperity and beauty and delight of Omelas would wither and be destroyed.

Some stay because they accept the concept of the "greater good" on which Omelas is based. Those who cannot accept this miserable being's existence as the condition for the happiness of others must walk away from Omelas. They feel that Omelas is no utopia because there is suffering, and it is selfishness to continue to allow the single person to suffer.  

How many elements are there on Earth?

So far, scientists have found out 118 chemical elements. All these elements are listed and arranged in the periodic table of elements. Out of these known elements, only 98 are naturally occurring; the rest are synthesized. Thus, we can say that 98 elements are there on Earth. The heavier elements are synthesized in controlled conditions by combining smaller elements, using a particle accelerator. Many of the heavier elements are very unstable and are also radioactive. 

The elements can be divided into metals, non-metals and metalloids. Most of the known elements are metals. Many of these known elements are present in pure forms, while others are found in combined forms, on Earth. 

Elements consist of atoms, which are formed by protons, neutrons and electrons. While the protons and neutrons constitute the nucleus, electrons are located outside of it. 

Hope this helps. 

What are linkage maps?

Linkage and Crossing Over

When Gregor Mendel
examined inheritance of two traits at a time, he found that the dihybrid parent (Aa or Bb) produced offspring with the four possible combinations of these alleles at equal frequencies:¼AB,¼Ab, ¼aB, and¼ab. He called this pattern “independent assortment.” The discovery of meiosis explained the basis of independent assortment. If the A locus and the B locus are on nonhomologous chromosomes, then segregation of the alleles of one locus (A and a) will be independent of the segregation of the alleles of the other (B and b).

Even simple plants, animals, fungi, and protists have thousands of genes. The number of human genes is unknown, but with the completion of the human genome in 2003 it appeared that the actual number of protein-coding genes was only about 21,000. Human beings have forty-six chromosomes in each cell (twenty-three from the mother and twenty-three from the father): twenty-two pairs of autosomal chromosomes plus two sex chromosomes (two X chromosomes in females and an X and a Y chromosome in males). Since humans have only twenty-four kinds of chromosomes, there must be less than a few thousand genes on the average human chromosome.

If two loci fail to show independent assortment, they are said to be linked and are therefore near one another on the same chromosome. For example, if the alleles A and B are on one chromosome and a and b are on the homologue of that chromosome, then the dihybrid (AB/ab) would form gametes with the combinations AB and ab more often than Ab and aB. How much more often? At one extreme, if there is no crossover between these two loci on the two homologous chromosomes, then ½ of the gametes would be AB and ½ would be ab. At the other extreme, if the two genes are so far apart on a large chromosome that crossover occurs between the loci almost every time meiosis occurs, they would assort independently, thus behaving like two loci on different nonhomologous chromosomes. When two genes are on
the same chromosome but show no linkage, they are said to be “syntenic.”

In the first stage of meiosis, homologous chromosomes pair tightly with one another (synapsis). At this stage of meiosis, each homologous chromosome is composed of two chromatids called sister chromatids, so there are four complete DNA molecules (a tetrad) present in the paired homologous chromosomes. A reciprocal exchange of pieces of two paired homologous chromosomes can produce new combinations of alleles between two linked loci if a crossover occurs in the right region. Chromosomes that display a new arrangement of alleles due to crossover are called recombinants. For example, a crossover in a dihybrid with AB on one chromosome and ab on its homologue could form Ab and aB recombinants. The average number of crossovers during a meiotic division differs from species to species and sometimes between the sexes of a single species. For example, crossover does not occur in male fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), and it may occur slightly less often in human males than in females. Nevertheless, within a single sex of a single species, the number of crossovers during a meiotic division is fairly constant and many crossovers typically occur along the length of each pair of chromosomes.

Constructing the Maps

If two loci are very close together on the same chromosome, crossover between them will be rare, and thus recombinant gametes will also be rare. Conversely, crossover will occur more frequently between two loci that are farther apart on the same chromosome. This is true because the location for any particular crossover is random. This fact has been used to construct linkage maps (also called crossover maps or genetic maps) of the chromosomes of many species. The distances between loci on linkage maps are expressed as percent crossover. A crossover of 1 percent is equal to one centiMorgan (cM). If two loci are 12 cM apart on a linkage map, a dihybrid will form approximately twelve recombinant gametes for every eighty-eight nonrecombinant gametes. Linkage maps are made by combining data from many different controlled crosses or matings. For instance, suppose that a cross between a dihybrid AB/ab individual and a homozygous
ab/ab
individual produced 81 AB/ab + 83 ab/ab progeny (noncrossover types) and 20 Ab/ab + 16 aB/ab progeny (crossover types). The map distance between these loci would be 100(20 + 16)/(81 + 83 + 20 + 16) = 18 cM.

The table shows the frequency of recombinant gametes from test crosses of three different dihybrids, including the one already described:

It is clear that the C locus must be between the other two loci on the linkage map. The absolute order, ACB or BCA, is arbitrarily defined by the first person who constructs a linkage map of a species.

In this example, the linkage map is exactly additive. In real experiments, linkage map distances are seldom exactly additive, because the longer the distance between two loci, the greater chance there will be for double crossovers to occur. Double crossovers give the same result as no crossover, and are therefore not detected. Thus, the greater the distance between two loci, the more the distance will be underestimated.

Once a large number of genes on the same chromosome have been mapped, the linkage map is redrawn with map positions rather than map distances. For example, if many other experiments provided more information about linked genes, the following linkage map might emerge:

The A and C loci are still 7 cM apart (21 - 14 = 7), and the other distances on the first map are also still the same.

Very detailed linkage maps have been constructed for some plants, animals, fungi, and protists that are of particular value to medicine, agriculture, industry, or scientific research. Among them are Zea mays
(maize), Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly), and Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(baker’s yeast). The linkage map of Homo sapiens (humans) is not very detailed because it is unethical and socially impossible to arrange all of the desired crosses that would be necessary to construct one. Other techniques have allowed the construction of very detailed physical maps of human chromosomes.

Genetic Linkage Maps and the Structure of Chromosomes

It should be emphasized that the linkage map is not a scale model of the physical chromosome. It is generally true that the relative order of genes on the linkage map and the physical chromosome map are the same. However, the relative distances between genes on the linkage map may not be proportionately the same on the physical map. Consider three loci (A, B, and C) that are arranged in that order on the chromosome. Suppose that the AB distance on the physical map is exactly the same as the BC distance. If the crossover frequency between A and B is higher than between B and C, then the AB linkage map distance will be larger than the BC linkage map distance. It is common to find small discrepancies between linkage maps and physical maps all along the chromosome. Large discrepancies are usually limited to loci close to centromeres. Crossover frequencies are generally very low near centromeres, apparently due to the structural characteristics of centromeres. If two loci are on opposite sides of a centromere, they will appear farther apart on the physical map and much closer on the linkage map.

Key terms



alleles

:

different forms of the same gene locus; in diploids there are two alleles at each locus




crossing over

:

an event early in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes exchange homologous regions




dihybrid

:

an organism that is heterozygous for both of two different gene loci




homologous chromosomes

:

chromosomes that are structurally the same and contain the same loci, although the loci may each have different alleles




locus (

:

pl. loci) The specific region of a chromosome that contains a specific gene




meiosis

:

cell division that reduces the chromosome number from two sets (diploid) to one set (haploid), ultimately resulting in the formation of gametes (eggs or sperm) or spores





Bibliography

Griffiths, Anthony J. F., Susan R. Wessler, Sean B. Carroll, and John Doebley. Introduction to Genetic Analysis. 10th ed. New York: Freeman, 2010. Print.

Liu, Ben-Hui. Statistical Genomics: Linkage, Mapping, and QTL Analysis. Boca Raton: CRC, 1998. Print.

Neale, Benjamin M. et al, ed. Statistical Genetics: Gene Mapping Through Linkage and Association. New York: Taylor, 2008. Print.

Ott, Jurg. Analysis of Human Genetic Linkage. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1999. Print.

Smith, Douglas. “The First Genetic Linkage Map.” Caltech. Caltech, 21 Mar. 2013. Web. 31 July 2014.

Terwilliger, Joseph Douglas, and Jurg Ott. Handbook of Human Genetic Linkage. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1994. Print.

“What Is a Linkage Map?” Vegetable Genetic Improvement Network. U of Warwick, 5 Apr. 2013. Web. 31 July 2014.

Wu, Rongling, Chang-Xing Ma, and George Casella. “Linkage Analysis and Map Construction.” Statistical Genetics of Quantitative Traits: Linkage, Maps, and QTL. New York: Springer, 2007. Print.

What is the significance of the Jones' house at the end of Part IV?

F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the home of Mortimer Jones as a symbol at the end of Part IV of his short story “Winter Dreams.”

As an adolescent Dexter idolized all that Mortimer Jones stood for, and as a young man he longed for a relationship with Mortimer’s daughter, Judith Jones. Dexter planned his adult life to emulate the likes of Mortimer Jones as he worked to be rich, successful, and accepted by high society.

At the end of Part IV, Dexter is driving Judith Jones home. When he pulls up in front of the house he is struck by its architectural permanence. This permanence and rigid construction are the opposite of Judith’s temperament and fleeting beauty. The house is a permanent testament to the wealth and success Dexter aspired to, but in this scene he can feel the hollowness of the structure.  This portends the hollowness of Judith’s character as she pulled him away from a stable relationship back into his fantasy world of life with the beautiful yet fickle Judith, who was a flighty as a “butterfly.”

The dark street lightened, the dwellings of the rich loomed up around them, he stopped his coup_ in front of the great white bulk of the Mortimer Joneses house, somnolent, gorgeous,

drenched with the splendor of the damp moonlight. Its solidity startled him. The strong walls, the steel of the girders, the breadth and beam and pomp of it were there only to bring out the contrast with the young beauty beside him. It was sturdy to accentuate her slightness--as if to show what a breeze could be generated by a butterfly's wing.

Did Brutus want to be king and rule Rome in William Shakespeare's The Tragedy of Julius Caesar?

What makes Brutus a tragic figure is precisely that he did not wish to be an emperor or dictator. Brutus was an avid supporter of the Roman Republic and saw imperial rule as a form of tyranny. Far from wanting to be a ruler, he opposed all forms of monarchical rule, believing strongly in representative government. He felt that any form of autocracy transformed the ruler into a tyrant and the subjects into slaves, corrupting not only the nature of the body politic but also the ethical formation of its citizens. 

Unlike many of his co-conspirators, Brutus was a friend and protégé of Julius Caesar. Brutus did not even think Caesar was a bad leader. In fact, he was concerned Caesar's personal popularity and benevolence made tyranny palatable and thus, paradoxically, that it was necessary to assassinate Caesar precisely because he was a good leader who could use his charisma to quell the Republican spirit.

Antony sums up the nobility and selflessness of Brutus' goals in his final eulogy for Brutus at the end of the play:

This was the noblest Roman of them all:

All the conspirators save only he

Did that they did in envy of great Caesar;

He only, in a general honest thought

And common good to all, made one of them.

What is the plot of "American History" by Judith Ortiz Cofer?

"American History" is a short story set in New Jersey in the 1960s. The story's protagonist, Elena, is a Puerto Rican girl who is largely an outcast in her school and has difficulty connecting with others. Other students call her "Skinny Bones" and ridicule her on a daily basis.

Because of the struggles she faces as an outcast, she is attracted to others who—like her—don't fit in. This affinity for others who are also outcast leads her to Eugene, a transplant from Georgia who is quickly labeled to be a hick by other students.

As Elena and Eugene's friendship blooms, she desires to be invited to his home—which she can see from her apartment window—to study. On the day that she is to come over to study with Eugene, President John F. Kennedy is shot and killed.

Though her mother wanted her to stay in the apartment and mourn the president, Elena is excited to go to Eugene's home and study with him. Upon arriving at Eugene's home, Elena is greeted at the door by his mother. She tells Elena she doesn't want one of the "people" from the apartment building to be Eugene's friend and she informs Elena that Eugene will be moving shortly anyway, so there is no reason to try to be friends.

The story ends with Elena in bed. She wants to mourn for President Kennedy, but ends up crying for herself instead.

What is triple x?

History and Symptoms

In 1914, Calvin Blackman Bridges discovered nondisjunction of sex chromosomes in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. In 1925, he proposed the genic or sex balance theory, which defined the relationship between sex chromosomes and autosomes (A) for sex determination. According to this theory, the following ratios of sex chromosomes and numbers of sets of autosomes determine what sex phenotype will emerge in humans. For example, XX + 2 sets of autosomes (2X:2A, ratio = 1.0) = normal female; XY + 2 sets of autosomes (1X:2A, ratio = 0.5) = normal male; and XXX + 2 sets of autosomes (3X:2A, ratio = 1.5) = metafemale, or superfemale.

The term “metafemale” was first applied to the XXX (triple X) condition by Curt Stern around 1959. The US National Library of Medicine stated in 2014 that the frequency of the triple X phenotype in the general human population was approximately one in one thousand newborn girls. The XXX females are characterized by the presence of two Barr bodies in their cells. They have a total of 47 chromosomes instead of the normal complement of 46.

Affected individuals have variable fertility, ranging from normal to sterile. They may be phenotypically normal but are often slightly taller than average, with longer legs. These individuals may have widely spaced nipples and a webbed neck. Studies have shown that most affected individuals lead a normal sexual life and have normal children. In some cases, menstruation may begin at an older age, menstrual cycles may be irregular or temporarily interrupted, and menopause may begin earlier compared to normal XX women. Abnormal kidney development and seizures may occur in as many as 10 percent of those with triple X syndrome, as reported by the US National Library of Medicine.

Genetic Cause

The basic causes of XXX females are best explained through meiosis, the cell division that halves the number of chromosomes in gametes, and nondisjunction. From a single human cell (46 chromosomes) designated for sexual reproduction, meiosis produces four cells, each with 23 chromosomes. Thus, normal human eggs carry one-half (22A + 1X = 23) of the total number of chromosomes (44A + 2X = 46). Occasionally, a mistake occurs during meiosis, called nondisjunction. Nondisjunction during meiosis I or meiosis II can produce eggs with 2X chromosomes (22A + 2X = 24). Usually the nondisjunction that gives rise to XXX females occurs in the female parent during meiosis I.

Fertilization of an egg carrying two X chromosomes by an X-bearing (22A + 1X = 23) sperm results in an individual with 44A + 3X = 47 chromosomes, or triple X. The extra X chromosome is not usually transmitted to the children. Thus, affected individuals can have normal children. Triplo-X, trisomy X, and 47 XXX are also the names given to the triple X phenotype. This genetic condition has also been referred to as extra X aneuploidy, multiple X syndrome, or metafemale.

Social Issues

The intelligence quotient (IQ) of affected individuals is usually low normal to normal. In some studies, IQ was found to be lower by 30 points than that of their normal siblings; only a few had an IQ lower than 70. Language learning in XXX children is usually delayed. Emotional maturation may also be delayed. These delays in development are preventable by providing increased psychological, social, and motor stimulation both at home and at school. Tutoring is often needed at some time during development.

The 47 XXX condition can put some affected individuals at risk for speech disorders, learning disabilities, and neuromotor deficits, which ultimately could lead to decreased psychosocial adaptation, especially during adolescence. One study found young females with 47 XXX to be less well adapted in both their teen and adult years; they described their lives as more stressful. On average, they experienced more work, social, and relationship problems than their siblings. Affected individuals may encounter behavioral problems, including mild depression, conduct disorder, immature behavior, and socializing problems. Good parenting and a supportive home may assure a better social and behavioral development.

Key Terms



autosomes

:

all chromosomes other than sex chromosomes in a cell nucleus




Barr body

:

named after its discoverer, Murray L. Barr, a dark-stained sex chromatin body in nuclei of females, which represents the inactivated X chromosome; the number of Barr bodies in any cell is generally one less than the number of X chromosomes




Lyon hypothesis

:

proposed by Mary Lyon in 1962, a hypothesis that during development one of the two X chromosomes in normal mammalian females is inactivated at random; the inactivated X chromosome is a Barr body





meiosis


:

the process by which gametes (sperm and eggs) are produced in sexually reproducing organisms





nondisjunction


:

the failure of homologous chromosomes to disjoin during meiosis I, or the failure of sister chromatids to separate and migrate to opposite poles during meiosis II





sex chromosomes


:

the homologous pair of chromosomes that determines the sex of an individual; in humans, XX is female and XY is male; XX females produce one kind of gamete, X (homogametic sex), and XY males produce two kinds of gametes, X and Y (heterogametic sex)





Bibliography

Bender, B., et al. “Psychological Competence of Unselected Young Adults with Sex Chromosome Abnormalities.” American Journal of Medical Genetics 88.2 (1999): 200–206. Print.

Jones, Kenneth Lyons, Marilyn Crandall Jones, and Miguel del Campo Casanelles. “XXX and XXXX Syndromes.” Smith’s Recognizable Patterns of Human Malformation. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders, 2013. Print.

Migeon, Barbara R. Females Are Mosaics: X Inactivation and Sex Differences in Disease. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2014. Print.

Redei, G. P. Genetics Manual. River Edge: World Scientific, 1998. Print.

Rovet, J., et al. “Intelligence and Achievement in Children with Extra X Aneuploidy.” American Journal of Medical Genetics 60.5 (1995): 356–63. Print.

"Triple X Syndome." Genetics Home Reference. US National Library of Medicine, June 2014. Web. 1 Aug. 2014.

Walsh, Beth. "Chromosomal Abnormalities." Health Library. EBSCO, May 2014. Web. 1 Aug. 2014.

How do Cecily and Gwendolen from The Importance of Being Earnest compare and contrast?

Cecily and Gwendolen are presented as character foils in this satirical play by Oscar Wilde. Both are supposedly engaged to a man named Ernest, a girlhood dream of them both, and both are victims of two men's deception.

However, the two women are also quite different. Cecily is a younger woman, still girlish in many ways, who lives a rather isolated life. As a result, she has created a vast romantic and imaginative world for herself in which she has been wooed through a series of love letters, received a proposal, accepted a ring, broken off the engagement, and then reconciled with her man. Of course, all of this has happened in her own mind and diary, without Algernon's knowledge. Cecily does not feel the need to hide this fact from him, for when he protests that he has not written any letters, she announces, "You hardly need to remind me of that, Ernest. I remember only too well that I was forced to write my letters for you."

In contrast, Gwendolen has been raised in a more social environment under the tutelage of her pretentious mother. Polite society does not intimidate her, and she goes more directly for what she wants. She knows the societal expectations and navigates them well. She has known Jack for quite some time and is obvious about her feelings for him. She also is thrilled to be marrying a man named Ernest; as the reader knows, both men are pretending their names are Ernest. Despite her mother's disapproval, she is able to reunite herself with her man in the country.

After a rather humorous moment when both girls believe they are engaged to the same man named Ernest, Gwendolen and Cecily bond through their strength to stand against the men who have lied to them—at least for a few seconds. In true comedic style, the two couples are happy in the end.

What quote sums up Miss Maudie's reaction to Tom Robinson's verdict in Chapter 22 of To Kill A Mockingbird?

One of the best quotes that sums up Miss Maudie's reaction to Tom Robinson's verdict is when she says,

I waited and waited to see you all come down the sidewalk, and as I waited I thought, Atticus Finch won’t win, he can’t win, but he’s the only man in these parts who can keep a jury out so long in a case like that. And I thought to myself, well, we’re making a step—it’s just a baby-step, but it’s a step.

Although the jury's decision saddens Miss Maudie, it does not surprise her. As a pragmatist, she always knew Tom Robinson stood little chance of prevailing in the court of public opinion, but she notes that Judge Taylor's decision to name Atticus as Tom's defense lawyer was no accident. Atticus was specially chosen for the job because he was the only one who could argue a strong case for Tom's innocence.

Although Atticus fails to clear Tom's name, he manages to draw attention to the injustices the black community faces on a daily basis (a very important accomplishment on Atticus's part). During the trial, Atticus skillfully exposes to the jury and courtroom audience Bob Ewell's ugly attitudes about race. Prior to this, Maycomb has never candidly discussed the prevalence of bias within its communities in such a public setting. This is possibly what Miss Maudie refers to when she rejoices in the "baby step" Maycomb takes on the day of the trial.

Miss Maudie thinks things are actually going in the right direction. Atticus's work inspires an ongoing conversation about race and bias:

“We’re the safest folks in the world,” said Miss Maudie. “We’re so rarely called on to be Christians, but when we are, we’ve got men like Atticus to go for us."

What is the pituitary gland?

Structure and Functions

The pituitary gland is similar in size to a pea and has two lobes, the anterior (adenohypophysis) and the posterior (neurohypophysis). The anterior lobe accounts for a greater proportion of the total weight, approximately 80 percent. The pituitary gland is involved in the release of numerous hormones that have a multitude of effects throughout the body; as a result, it is often referred to as the “master” gland. The functions of the hormones released from the pituitary gland include reproductive functions (including childbirth and lactation), bone growth and development, and regulation of metabolic processes, body temperature, water balance, circulation, and blood pressure. Therefore, a normally functioning pituitary gland is essential to the health and maintenance of homeostasis in humans.

Hormones released from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland include thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or thyrotropin, growth hormone (GH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and prolactin (PRL). The hypothalamus, which is located just superior to the pituitary gland, regulates the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland by releasing hormones that travel through a blood network called the hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary. For example, the hypothalamus releases growth-hormone-releasing hormone
(GHRH), which travels to the anterior pituitary and stimulates the release of growth hormone. Alternatively, if the body wants to decrease the secretion of GH, the hypothalamus may do so by releasing growth-hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH), also known as growth-hormone-release-inhibiting hormone (GHRIH) or somatostatin. Another common inhibiting hormone released from the hypothalamus is prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), which reduces the release of PRL from the anterior pituitary.

In contrast to the anterior lobe, the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland releases two hormones: oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which is commonly referred to as vasopressin. The release of these hormones is influenced by blood pressure, osmolarity of the blood, and other inputs, such as those from the nervous and reproductive systems.

Several hormones released by the pituitary gland stimulate other organs or tissues directly, resulting in changes in overall physiologic function. For example, GH increases protein synthesis and the related growth of muscles, bones, and tissues. GH also increases the release of glucose and fat breakdown to fuel these anabolic processes. PRL stimulates the mammary glands and causes lactation, and oxytocin also stimulates lactation and causes contraction of the uterine wall during labor. Finally, ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb or retain water, aiding in the body’s ability to regulate water balance and hydration levels.

Other hormones released by the pituitary gland stimulate the release of still other hormones from subsequent endocrine glands. These include TSH, which stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones; ACTH, which stimulates the cortex of the adrenal glands to release cortisol; and the sex hormones FSH and LH, also called gonadotrophs, which stimulate the sex organs in males and females to release hormones involved in the production of sperm and the function of the menstrual cycle, respectively.

The release of most hormones from the pituitary gland is controlled by classic negative-feedback loops. In these systems, an increase in product feeds back to inhibit further stimulation of that system. Using the thyroid hormones as an example, the hypothalamus releases thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release TSH, which then causes the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones. When circulating levels of thyroid hormones are higher than normal or necessary, they feed back to inhibit or slow the release of TRH from the hypothalamus and TSH from the anterior pituitary. Conversely, when circulating levels of thyroid hormones are low, they feed back to increase the release of TRH and TSH, which will ultimately increase the release of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland. Therefore, there are several sites of control involved in the release of products from the pituitary gland.

A notable exception to this trend is the presence of a positive-feedback process involving the pituitary gland and the hormone oxytocin. In this system, the stretching of the cervix during labor causes the release of oxytocin, which increases contractions in the uterus to assist with the progression of labor and eventual childbirth. The oxytocin feeds back in a positive fashion by increasing the stretching of the cervix, which then leads to the release of even more oxytocin. This cycle continues until the child is born, at which time the stimulus of cervix stretch and the related oxytocin release both cease.

Disorders and Diseases

Pituitary dysfunction is typically characterized by an oversecretion or undersecretion of pituitary hormones. An overactive pituitary gland is an endocrine defect characterized by excessive growth in stature and mass, plus a variety of other symptoms, depending on which hormones are elevated. The increased hormone release from the pituitary gland is often attributed to a pituitary tumor. If this is the case, then the tumor may be treated with radiation therapy, surgical removal, or the use of an antagonist to decrease the release of pituitary hormones.

Individuals with underactive pituitary glands, or hypopituitarism, experience symptoms such as short stature, low body mass, infertility or reproductive difficulties (including the inability of women to lactate following childbirth), low energy levels, perpetual feeling of cold due to an inability to regulate body temperature, and fatigue. Hypopituitarism may also be caused by a pituitary tumor, as well as injury to or infection of the hypothalamus or pituitary gland. The treatment for hypopituitarism involves stimulating the release of hormones from the target organs or tissues, rather than stimulating the pituitary gland itself.

Bibliography

Baylis, P. H. “Posterior Pituitary Function in Health and Disease.” Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 12, no. 3 (November 1983): 747–770.

Besser, G. M. “Pituitary and Hypothalamic Physiology.” Journal of Clinical Pathology Supplement (Association of Clinical Pathologists) 7 (1976): 8–11.

Daniel, P. M. “Anatomy of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland.” Journal of Clinical Pathology Supplement (Association of Clinical Pathologists) 7 (1976): 1–7.

Freeman, Susan, L. “The Anterior Pituitary.” In Endocrine Pathophysiology, edited by Catherine B. Niewoehner. 2d ed. Raleigh, N.C.: Hayes Barton Press, 2004.

Harris, G. W. “Neural Control of the Pituitary Gland: I. The Neurohypophysis.” British Medical Journal 2, no. 4731 (September 8, 1951): 559–564.

Harris, G. W. “Neural Control of the Pituitary Gland: II. The Adenohypophysis, with Special Reference to the Secretion of ACTH.” British Medical Journal 2, no. 4732 (September 15, 1951): 627–634.

Klibanski, Anne, and Nicholas Tritos, eds. "Pituitary Disorders." Hormone Health Network, May 2013.

"Pituitary Disorders." MedlinePlus, July 11, 2013.

In the second scene (the restaurant scene) of Death of a Salesman, where does the conflict lie and how is the conflict developed or resolved?

In the restaurant scene, Biff and Happy are supposed to be meeting Willy and Biff is supposed to report on his visit to Bill Oliver to ask for a loan. Happy gets to the restaurant first, and Biff arrives before Willy does. Before Willy gets there, Biff reveals to Hap that Oliver only saw him for a minute and that Biff ended up stealing Oliver's fountain pen. Fleeing from the office, Biff has a revelation. He finally realizes that he has been engaging, along with Hap and Willy, in rewriting his history. Although they have all pretended Biff was a salesman with Oliver, in fact he was only ever a shipping clerk, and he stole some balls from Oliver when he worked for him previously. Having finally faced the truth himself, Biff wants to get Happy, and more importantly, Willy, to face reality.

Happy strenuously objects to Biff's idea, telling him he is crazy. Biff insists, "Hap, he's got to understand that I'm not the man somebody lends that kind of money to. He thinks I've been spiting him all these years and it's eating him up." In other words, Willy believes that Biff deliberately sabotages himself in order to punish his father.

This relates to the conflict between Biff and Willy that goes all the way back to Biff's senior year in high school. Biff had failed his math class because he was too focused on sports. That meant he couldn't get into the University of Virginia because he didn't have enough credits. Biff surprises his dad at his hotel room in Boston because he wants Willy to come back home and talk to the math teacher before school closes for the year. Biff learns that Willy is having an affair and he actually sees the "woman." Biff's response is to burn his University of Virginia tennis shoes, and after that he never succeeds at anything he does. Willy interprets Biff's behavior as "spite" towards him. After the revelation Biff received after seeing Oliver, he now accepts that his failures are his own, not Willy's, and he wants to share that with Willy so that Willy will stop being tormented by Biff's failures.

Back at the restaurant, Biff tries repeatedly to share the reality of what happened at Oliver's. Hap keeps interrupting with deceptive comments, trying to lie to Willy to make him think Biff had been successful. Happy believes it is best to keep lying to Willy because "Dad is never so happy as when he's looking forward to something." Happy sees no value in telling the truth; he thinks of short-term consequences only while Biff wants to bring about an actual resolution to the problem. Willy also keeps interrupting Biff's story, first to try to interpret it in a way that makes Biff look good, and then blaming Biff for ruining the opportunity. Biff lies about having an appointment with Oliver the following day, then says he can't go because of the pen. Willy accuses Biff of spiting him and strikes him. As Willy becomes more upset, he loses touch with reality and goes into a flashback in his mind of the time Biff came to Boston. Willy wanders into the washroom and the boys leave him behind.

The restaurant scene ends with Biff having been able to tell his father some but not all of the truth, but Willy still believing Biff fails on purpose to punish his father. After Willy goes to the washroom, Biff shows the hose to Hap and lets him know Willy plans to commit suicide. He pleads for Hap's help, but Hap goes off with the women he has picked up.

What is the mood of "Miss Brill" up until the very end?

The mood of "Miss Brill" is fairly whimsical and imaginative in the beginning. The first line of the story and the initial description of the setting is quite pretty and cheerful, introducing this mood, with "the blue sky powdered with gold and great spots of light like white wine splashed over the Jardins Publiques." The connotation of words like powdered and gold are quite positive, and the simile which compares the light to splashes of white wine feels both fun and sophisticated. Further, Miss Brill's own jaunty mood, especially as regards her little fox fur, which she refers to affectionately as a "Little rogue!" confirms the whimsy of the mood as well.

We do get small clues throughout the story that not all is as it seems to Miss Brill, though, so the mood change isn't as abrupt as it might seem at first glance. Miss Brill's fantasy that "They were all on a stage" is imaginative, but the strength with which she seems to believe and commit to the idea should strike us as a bit strange. Moreover, her plans to tell the man she reads to that she is "'an actress'" and has been "'for a long time'" make her seem rather more delusional than whimsical. In addition, the strange sentence, "No doubt somebody would have noticed if she hadn't been there," begins to point to Miss Brill's loneliness and sense of emptiness in her life, feelings of which she seems to be in denial until the end.

How might I write a paper on this topic? ''The history of English literature is the autobiography of English."

It is important to know that English is a Germanic language. The Celts invited Germanic tribes -- people from present-day Denmark and Germany -- to remove the Romans from their land, what was then Brittania. However, these tribes, most of whom were Angles and Saxons (from which we get the contemporary designation of Anglo-Saxon), decided to stay. By 450 AD, shortly after the Romans had been driven out, the Anglo-Saxons conquered England. In doing so, they also made their language dominant. The Anglo-Saxon tongue was comprised mostly of Middle High German and some Old Norse. From this, we get Old English.

The best known work of Old English literature is Beowulf. Any exploration into the history of English literature and language must begin here. 

The centuries from 1100-1500 are the period of Middle English. After the Norman Conquest in 1066, England became "French." That is, the ruling class of England was comprised of French people from Normandy. A lot of new vocabulary was introduced into English, particularly that which was related to law and government, chivalry (which would become very important in Middle English romances), hunting, cooking, arts and letters, gardening and the organization of landscapes, etc. Much of the Old English pronunciation would remain, but Middle English literature is peppered with many French words and expressions. 

One of the most important pieces of Middle English literature is Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. This lengthy poem is considered especially important in the canon because of its use of a "bob-and-wheel" rhyme scheme, which is composed of five lines. At the end of a stanza there is a "bob," which is an alliterative line. The bob is followed by a short, four-line wheel -- a group of couplets in an abab rhyme. 

After Sir Gawain, consult Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. It is one of the most important works in English literature. It is different from everything that came before, as it is not about courtly life, like other Middle English literature, it is about the common people of London. Sir Thomas Malory's work Morte D'Arthur is the legend of King Arthur has been very popular since its inception. There have been literary revisions of the tale and movies.

By 1500, the English language saw changes in pronunciation that made it more akin to our modern English. Whereas in Middle English, the final "e" on a word was pronounced, that becomes no longer true. Whereas in Middle English, all consonants were pronounced separately, as in German (e.g., knight was "k-nig-ht), now sounds are fused together. This is the Elizabethan Age of literature. The most important authors are Edmund Spenser (The Faerie Queene), Christopher Marlowe (Doctor Faustus), possibly Ben Jonson (depending on whom you ask), and, of course, Shakespeare. The importance of theater in the dissemination of literature and language, particularly at this time when theater-going was an extremely popular form of entertainment, should not be underestimated.

In the seventeenth century, poetry develops as a form, particularly by John Milton (Paradise Lost) and John Donne. 

By the eighteenth century, prose becomes more popular. Samuel Richardson's Pamela is considered to be the first novel, though there is much debate about this. Satire and essays also enter the canon. Jonathan Swift's fantasy novel Gulliver's Travels was very popular, but his essay "A Modest Proposal" is an important piece of political satire. 

Under Samuel Johnson, literary criticism develops as an art form. This would continue in the Romantic period in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in England. William Blake, Mary Wollstonecraft (author of A Vindication on the Rights of Woman, an early feminist tract), Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and William Wordsworth are majorly important here. The latter two are connected to the development of Transcendentalist literature in the United States. 

The kind of language used in English literature does not change significantly until we get to the twentieth-century. As new voices enter, they bring in their different dialects and idioms. Moreover, subject matter becomes raw and grittier. Writers not only focus on the external world, but also on people's inner lives. Profanity, racist language, and talk about sexuality -- all of which had been a part of the lexicon -- now enter print. In the twentieth century, the most important authors to consult are Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, Joseph Conrad, William Butler Yeats, and T.S. Eliot. 

I have omitted American literature because you asked about specifically about English literature. Also, because the American literary canon has developed so richly in the last few centuries, it requires its own conversation. However, depending on the length of your paper and the breadth of subject matter you wish to cover, it might be a good idea to include some American writers.

What quotes from "The Pearl" both support and counter the claim "struggling does more harm than good"?

Your topic can be interpreted different ways, but my first thought is that if Kino had not been so desperate to improve his family’s situation with the pearl, things would have turned out better.  To say that something does more harm than good means that Kino did not help his family with the pearl but rather caused them harm.  The harm he caused is obvious.  He killed a man, went on the run, and got Coyotito killed.

Kino’s wife Juana also begins to think that the pearl is evil and tells him to throw it away.  She sees the influence the pearl has on those around them.  It has not been a positive thing.  People are either envious or try to get the pearl from them.  Juana says the pearl will destroy them all. 

"This thing is evil," she cried harshly. "This pearl is like a sin! It will destroy us," and her voice rose shrilly. "Throw it away, Kino. Let us break it between stones. Let us bury it and forget the place. Let us throw it back into the sea. It has brought evil. Kino, my husband, it will destroy us." (Ch. 3) 

She is right. Sometimes it is not a good thing to want more than you have.  Kino was happy with his life, and the pearl gave him delusions of grandeur.  He wanted to provide for his family in ways he could not before, but he did not see the danger the pearl was causing.

For the opposing side, I would say that Kino and Juana’s struggle to help their baby did more good than harm.  The baby did survive (until it was shot).  Juana did not just throw up her hands and wait for her baby to die when the scorpion stung him.  She acted, sucking the poison out. 

But Juana had the baby in her arms now. She found the puncture with redness starting from it already. She put her lips down over the puncture and sucked hard and spat and sucked again while Coyotito screamed. (Ch. 1)

She saved his life.  If she had not struggled, the baby would have died then of the scorpion poison.  Sometimes a struggle is the right thing to do.  If someone is in immediate danger, you should act.

What is a do-not-resuscitate (DNR) order?

Purpose: The purpose of the order is to allow a cancer patient to experience a natural death while under the care of medical personnel. The order is enacted only when the patient stops breathing or the heart stops beating because of the terminal illness. Even with a DNR, a natural death may not be allowed if heart or respiratory failure is caused by an unrelated event such as a car accident. Health care professionals providing care to patients without DNR orders, regardless of the severity of disease, are legally required to provide cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and perform medical interventions at the time of death. These efforts must not only be initiated but also be continued until they are deemed futile by the physician or a designated professional.

The extraordinary measures performed by health care professionals in the event of respiratory or heart failure include CPR and placing the patient on life support. These procedures are invasive and often considered painful. Appropriately performed CPR can cause broken bones and punctured organs even in generally healthy individuals, such as accident victims. Such injuries are more likely to occur in frail individuals who are near death. Life support may consist of intravenous (IV) drugs that cause the heart to continue to beat. Without the medications, the heart will stop and death will be irreversible in a few minutes, even with aggressive treatment. Mechanical ventilation (a breathing machine) is another form of life support. A tube is inserted into the patient’s throat and is attached to a mechanical ventilator. If the patient needs the ventilator for a long period of time, a tracheostomy (a surgical opening in the neck) will be created to attach to the machine. The ventilator causes artificial breathing. Without the machine, the patient would be unable to breathe, and life would not be sustained. Life support requires that an individual has continuous care, often in a medical facility.

Procedure: In the United States, an adult who receives health care services and wants to be allowed to die a natural death must consult with a physician before a DNR order is written. The majority of individuals with DNR orders have a terminal illness such as advanced or aggressive cancer. Electing to die a natural death allows the individual to have some control in the death process. Most individuals report they would prefer to die in their own home rather than in a hospital or nursing home. Terminally ill patients may be able to stay at home if nursing or other care is provided. If they want to die naturally at home, a DNR is needed. These patients may be transferred to the hospital if a higher level of care is needed. The DNR order must be provided to ambulance personnel transporting the patient to prevent unnecessary interventions in the event of respiratory or cardiac failure on the way to the hospital.

The first step in obtaining a DNR order is for cancer patients to discuss the issue with their medical provider. The best time to discuss these issues is before death is imminent. This allows for a less emotional and more rational discussion of the situation. Any adult who is mentally competent and his or her physician can determine if a DNR order is appropriate. If the patient is not competent to discuss the issue, family members may approach the physician. If the patient (or family if the patient is not competent) and physician are in agreement, the physician can write the DNR order. If the patient disagrees with the physician’s recommendations, he or she may select another health care provider or the physician may ask for a medical ethics consultation. The consultation is provided by a professional in medical ethics who is not involved in the direct care of the patient.

Medical care: Many cancer patients and their families are afraid of having a DNR order. There is concern that inadequate medical care may be provided to those who have a DNR order. However, these orders do not interfere with routine medical care. Care of the patient changes only in its focus, not in its provision. Pain management, comfort, and end-of-life issues become the priority rather than disease management. The patient may have extensive health care needs, such as personal grooming, bathing, and feeding, and these activities are continued. A DNR order prohibits only extraordinary measures that would prevent death or prolong life unnecessarily. For the DNR order to be active, a copy of the order must be submitted when entering home health care, hospice, or any other medical facility. If the order is not present and respiratory or cardiac failure occurs, cardiopulmonary resuscitation is medically obligated. A DNR order can be revoked by a patient at any time.

Bibliography

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Fromme, Erik K., et al. "POLST Registry Do-Not-Resuscitate ORders and Other Patient Treatment Preferences." JAMA 307.1 (2012): 34–35. Print.

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Santonocito, Cristina, et al. "Do-Not-Resuscitate Order: A View Throughout the World." Jour. of Critical Care 21.8 (2013): 14–21. Print.

Torke, Alexia M., et al. "Timing of Do-Not-Resuscitate Orders for Hospitalized Older Adults Who Require a Surrogate Decision-Maker." Jour. of the Amer. Geriatrics Society 59.7 (2011): 1326–31. Print.

Yuen, Jacqueline K., et al. "Hospital Do-Not-Resuscitate Orders: Why They Have Failed and How to Fix Them." Jour. of General Internal Medicine 26.7 (2011): 791–97. Print.

Why is Faber an outcast in Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury?

In Fahrenheit 451, Faber is portrayed as an outcast in a number of ways.

First of all, Faber is an outcast because he has not embraced the new regime of his society in which books are forbidden. As a former professor, Faber cannot let go of his love of books and learning. This makes Faber suspicious of others. We see this when Montag calls him to ask about the Bible:

This is some sort of trap! I can't talk to just anyone on the phone.

Secondly, Faber is an outcast because he does not have the television broadcast directly onto his parlour walls. As he tells Montag:

As you see, my parlour is nothing but four plaster walls.

Moreover, Faber is completely opposed to all types of entertainment which are glorified by his society. He believes that entertainment, like television and fast driving, are just designed to distract people's attention and force them to absorb society's messages:

The televisor is 'real.' It is immediate, it has dimension. It tells you what to think and blasts it in.

Finally, Faber is an outcast because he wants to rebel. Despite his initial cowardice, Faber finds an ally in Montag and helps him where he can. Faber offers to make contact with a printer, for example, and gives Montag an earpiece to wear so he can talk to Montag when he goes to face Beatty.  Faber also helps Montag toward the end of the novel, arranging to meet with him in St. Louis after he has fled the society.

Meeting Montag, then, transforms Faber from an outcast into a rebel, ready to contribute to the destruction of the old society and the creation of a new, liberated world.

What are some excerpts from the novel To Kill a Mockingbird that portray Jem's dream of being a football player when he is older?

Scout begins narrating the story by mentioning her brother's injury to his left arm and commenting on his passion to become a football star. She says,

"His left arm was somewhat shorter than his right; when he stood or walked, the back of his hand was at right angles to his body, his thumb parallel to his thigh. He couldn’t have cared less, so long as he could pass and punt" (Lee 1).

In Chapter 11, Atticus rewards Jem for his first day reading to Mrs. Dubose by giving him a football magazine. Atticus is aware that Jem
fantasizes about becoming a football star which is why he chooses an appropriate gift. Scouts says,

"Atticus had two yellow pencils for me and a football magazine for Jem, which I suppose was a silent reward for our first day’s session with Mrs. Dubose" (Lee 67).

In Chapter 23, Bob Ewell spits in Atticus' face, and the children begin to worry about their father's safety. Atticus notices that his children are dragging around the neighborhood and not eating. Scout says,

"He tempted Jem with a new football magazine one night; when he saw Jem flip the pages and toss it aside, he said, “What’s bothering you, son?”" (Lee 134).

Later on in the chapter, Jem tries to comfort Scout after Alexandra tells her that she cannot play with Walter because he is trash. Jem walks into his room and takes off his shirt to show Scout that he is growing hair on his chest. He proudly says, "Goin’ out for football next year" (Lee 138).

At the beginning of Chapter 27, Scout mentions that Jem is in the seventh grade and goes to the high school. She says,

"He went out for football, but was too slender and too young yet to do anything but carry the team water buckets. This he did with enthusiasm; most afternoons he was seldom home before dark" (Lee 149).

Later on in the chapter, Scout returns from school and decides to question Jem about Miss Gate's hypocritical statements. She walks into Jem's room and mentions,

"Jem was worn out from a day’s water-carrying. There were at least twelve banana peels on the floor by his bed, surrounding an empty milk bottle" (Lee 151).

When Scout asks Jem why he is eating so much, he says, "Coach says if I can gain twenty-five pounds by year after next I can play...This is the quickest way" (Lee 151).

How can messages be adapted for various audiences in the workplace?

Messages can be adapted for various audiences in a workplace through tailoring the message to the needs of each intended audience. For example, upper management in an organization may want to institute a new initiative to grow a company, like a new inventory management system for a retailer. They must get the message out about this new initiative to the company’s various departments.

The Information Technology (IT) department may need to know the technical requirements of the initiative to ensure they are instituted properly so the initiative will be successful and implemented cost effectively. Therefore, company management will adapt its message to this department accordingly. The message will have to be full of technical terms and IT jargon so as to speak properly and on the same “wavelength” as the personnel in the IT department.

Now, the company typically will not convey this message in the same way to say, the sales staff. It may in plain, everyday language present a message to sales staff that just talks about the initiative and that it will be something new for the company and that the sales staff should be aware of it.

This department may not need to know the “nuts and bolts” of the new inventory control system. Sales staff just have to know that the inventory system will be a new feature of the company. Sales staff may want to mention to customers that the shelves will always be stocked with popular items in the proper quantities because of the new inventory control system. Upper management doesn’t have to get technical in their message to the sales staff regarding the new inventory system.

In addition, the Human Resource Department of the retailer may receive a message that’s ultra short and sweet. It may say, “We are going to hire three new employees to be overseers of the new inventory control system we’re instituting.” Upper Management will provide the precise details and job description of the new initiative – the new inventory control system. They want the Human Resources Department to do a preliminary screening of applicants and pass on the best candidates to upper management, who will conduct the in-depth interviews. Therefore, as with the sales staff, the Human Resources personnel may receive a basic, simplified message concerning the new initiative.

So, we see from the above that upper management will fine tune their message appropriately for each department, with the IT Department getting the most involved and technical message because of the computer hardware and software requirements of this new inventory control initiative.

How does substance abuse affect military personnel?

Alcohol and Drugs

Mental health disorders are strongly linked to substance abuse. Post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) is a medically diagnosed anxiety disorder and believed to be common and underdiagnosed among military personnel, especially those who have been in combat. A person with PTSD continually relives in his or her mind a highly traumatic event. This manifests itself in an involuntary flood of thoughts related to the trauma. It includes nightmares, an adrenaline rush, and spikes of anxiety when visual or audible reminders of the experience appear.

Many who have PTSD placate symptoms with alcohol and drugs such as marijuana and prescription pain killers. These drugs slow brain activity and reduce chronic anxiety during the substance high.

The authors of the book After the War Zone (2008) recommend that military personnel experiencing PTSD and substance abuse disorders be treated for both conditions at the same time. Explaining the common parallel occurrence of both, the authors write that
Some say that substance abuse needs to be dealt with before you can deal with PTSD symptoms. Some say that you need to get treatment for PTSD before you can deal with the substance abuse. Since it’s really difficult to disentangle these two conditions, we strongly urge that you seek treatment for both at the same time.

PTSD and substance abuse disorders are underdiagnosed among military service members. PTSD and substance abuse carry a heavy stigma in the military; the inclusion of such conditions as part of one’s official record often means that the service member may not be able to pursue a career in, for example, defense or law enforcement after military service. Therefore, both disorders are believed to be highly underreported by service members and their supervisors. Until PTSD and substance abuse disorders are addressed in a way that does not lead to stigmatization, service members will likely continue to self-medicate.

The danger in self-medicating is that the method (drinking alcohol or taking drugs) used for short-term relief of the emotional pain inevitably worsens emotional conditions later. The release of dopamine in the brain triggered by alcohol or drugs results in impairment of emotion-regulation in the brain, once the high wears off.

According to National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) director Nora D. Volkow, “Demographic factors and the military’s unique organizational structures, culture, and experiences contribute to service members’ overall high prevalence of smoking and binge drinking and low prevalence of illicit substance abuse, when compared with civilian rates.” According to NIDA studies, tobacco use is 50 percent higher among active military personnel than the general civilian population. Among military personnel, smoking is another 50 percent greater among those who have been deployed. A Department of Defense study found that less than 3 percent of military personnel had used illicit drugs in the past month, but nearly half reported binge drinking. Abuse of prescription drugs is also an According to NIDA, one in four veterans of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom, and who were in combat, presented symptoms of a mental or cognitive disorder and one is six veterans of these two missions showed signs of PTSD.

Alcohol and Drug Use Policy

In 2001, the US Army revised Army Regulation 600-85, which changed the name of the Alcohol and Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Program to the Army Substance Abuse Program (ASAP). The regulation also changed the requirements and process for the administrative separation of soldiers using drugs or alcohol illegally. The regulation also prescribed random drug-testing and deployment restrictions on soldiers undergoing rehabilitation for substance abuse. The new policy, however, conflicted with existing separations regulations for active enlisted personnel, so commanders were directed to use the latter as their policy for confronting drug and alcohol use among their subordinates.

While the new ASAP regulation directed commanders to initiate separation for first-time offense, the legacy policy on enlisted separations allowed for more leniency. Coupled with modern military living-arrangements designed to allot soldiers more privacy, this conflict and confusion in regulations makes standardized enforcement more difficult.

In 2009, an Army Times article brought to light the consequences of commander discretion trumping ASAP regulation. An investigation led by Army vice chief of staff, General Peter Chiarelli, found that among all soldiers who tested positive for illegal drug use, only 70 percent were referred to ASAP for treatment. The most common illegal drug found through urine tests was marijuana, followed by cocaine, LSD, methamphetamine, heroin, and illicitly used prescription drugs. Brigadier General Colleen McGuire found that among 1,000 soldiers who tested positive for drug use, 372 were repeat offenders and none had been sent to treatment.

Major General Anthony Cucolo, who reviews substance abuse cases for the Army, said that alcohol use is the most prevalent substance-abuse concern. Commander rejection of a standard separation policy, given the urgent need for retaining soldiers during wartime, compounds the substance-abuse issue and generates a need for case-by-case analysis of each offender’s need for treatment and level of readiness to serve.

Treatment

According to a 2010 article in the journal Addiction Professional, increasingly, more veterans are seeking treatment at the community level rather than through the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). There remains a degree of distrust in relying on the government to treat drug and alcohol abuse. Any diagnosis or treatment given through the VA will show up on the service member’s record.

Knowing that military personnel are more inclined to seek help outside the military structure, the VA is seeking to partner with community resources. Treatment strategies include twelve-step therapies, “stop, think, act” impulse-control programs, and “soldiers helping soldiers” programs, in which soldiers are trained to help their peers in dealing with combat-related stress. According to a June 2010 poll by Addiction Professional, more than 90 percent of respondents felt that there is a shortage of community-based assistance for returning veterans, many citing the lack of PTSD treatment.

Intervention and Rehabilitation Outlook

Mental health and military experts agree that more investigation is needed into how to better support military personnel emotionally during and after deployment. Though recognition of depression, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse is pervasive, more needs to be understood about wartime stress on military personnel and their families, so that techniques for early intervention and treatment can be developed.

In July of 2010, the US National Institutes of Health announced the approval of $6 million in federal funding to support research by institutions in eleven states specializing in substance abuse among military personnel, veterans, and their families. NIDA partnered with the VA to award the grants earmarked for investigating the links between deployment and combat-related trauma to the prevalence of substance abuse, mainly among veterans returning from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.

In 2010, the Army transferred its outpatient substance-abuse treatment services from medical to non-medical leadership, which some have argued has led to substandard care from underqualified and overextended personnel. Between 2010 and 2015, according to USA Today, ninety soldiers committed suicide within three months of receiving substance-abuse treatment through the military. In one case, the soldier had been stated to be in good mental health by an unlicensed counselor hours before his death. Many soldiers who seek treatment are also turned away—in 2014, 7,000 soldiers were denied help by the military substance-abuse program.

Bibliography

“Army Substance Abuse Program.” Army Lawyer (Sept., 2002): 51–53. Print.

Bray, Robert M., et al. Understanding Military Workforce Productivity: Effects of Substance Abuse, Health, and Mental Health. New York: Springer, 2014. Print.

Cavallaro, Gina. “Army Cracks Down as Drug, Alcohol Cases Rise.” Army Times, 8 Jun. 2009.

Enos, Gary A. “Doing Whatever It Takes: Treatment Programs Try to Employ a Full Arsenal to Meet the Complex Needs of Veterans.” Addiction Professional 8.4 (2010): 16. Print.

Hoggatt, Katherine J., et al. "Alcohol and Drug Misuse, Abuse, and Dependence in Women Veterans." Epidemiologic Reviews 37.1 (2015): 23–37. Print.

Kelsall, Helen Louise, et al. "Alcohol Use and Substance Use Disorders in Gulf War, Afghanistan, and Iraq War Veterans Compared with Nondeployed Military Personnel." Epidemiologic Reviews 37.1 (2015): 38–54. Print.

Slone, Laurie B., and Matthew J. Friedman. After the War Zone: A Practical Guide for Returning Troops and Their Families. Cambridge: DaCapo, 2008.

“Studies on Combat-Related Substance Use and Abuse to Be Funded by NIH and VA.” Defense and Aerospace Week 15 Sept. 2010: 142. Print.

Volkow, Nora D. “Substance Abuse among Troops, Veterans, and Their Families.” NIDA Notes 22.5 (2009). PDF file.

Zoroya, Gregg. "Investigation: Army Substance Abuse Program in Disarray." USA Today. Gannett, 12 Mar. 2015. Web. 30 Oct. 2015.