In Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck, what does Lennie become so excited about?

Lennie becomes excited about petting or possessing soft animals, especially rabbits. At the beginning of Chapter One, he is carrying a dead mouse just so he could pet it while they walked. Throughout Steinbeck's book, Lennie is continually referring to the fact that one day he will get to "tend rabbits" on the farm which he and George hope one day to own. At the end of Chapter One, he is quite interested in having "different color rabbits" and "furry ones." In Chapter Two, Lennie becomes equally excited about having a puppy after overhearing a conversation between Slim and Carlson. He urges George to ask Slim for one of them:

“A brown and white one,” Lennie cried excitedly.

After receiving the puppy, Lennie is always in the barn with him and George is grateful to Slim for the gift. In Chapter Three, George says,

“It wasn’t much to you, maybe, but it was a hell of a lot to him. Jesus Christ, I don’t know how we’re gonna get him to sleep in here. He’ll want to sleep right out in the barn with ‘em. We’ll have trouble keepin’ him from getting right in the box with them pups.” 

Later, in Chapter Three, as George is telling his story about the dream of the farm, Lennie gets overly excited over the prospect of gathering alfalfa and feeding his rabbits. When George suggests that Lennie will need to keep the cats away from the rabbit hutches, Lennie responds angrily:

Lennie breathed hard. “You jus’ let ‘em try to get the rabbits. I’ll break their God damn necks. I’ll . . . . I’ll smash ‘em with a stick.” 

Ultimately, Lennie's obsession with petting soft things is fatal. As he is stroking Curley's wife's hair in Chapter Five, she begins struggling and Lennie, who often isn't aware of his own strength, accidentally breaks her neck. In Chapter Six, George has no other recourse than to kill Lennie, rather than allow him to fall into the hands of Curley.

What is Bolden's testimony in the book Monster?

Wendell Bolden takes the stand in chapter 4 of Walter Dean Myers' book Monster. Immediately from his responses to the lawyers, readers can see that he is a tough guy and not unfamiliar with the prison scene. His testimony shows a few things that are critical to the plot of the story. 

First, Bolden elaborates on how he heard about the murder. A man sold him some cigarettes and mentioned a few details – enough to let Bolden know that the cigarettes came from the robbery on Malcolm X Boulevard. Since Bolden knew someone was killed there and the suspects had not been caught, he filed the information away for later. When asked who gave him this information, Bolden says it was Bobo Evans. Later, when Bolden went to prison, he whipped out the info to get out, and here we all are.

When Briggs starts questioning Bolden, he pushes back on this part of the story, asking why Bobo would confide in him about something that could get Bobo in big trouble. Briggs also questions Bolden's honesty, claiming that Bolden would say anything to get out of prison. Bolden doesn't seem too intimidated by this, though, and it seems pretty likely that Bobo was just a blabber-mouth and Bolden is telling the truth (especially when we hear Bobo himself testify later).

In Elie Wiesel's Night, Juliek gives his final performance to a mass of dying people. In the morning, Elie describes Juliek's broken violin as...

In Elie’s Wiesel memoir, Night, Elie recounts a haunting scene after he and a group of other prisoners are forced to march between two camps on a cold winter’s night. Exhausted at the end of the journey, Elie is almost crushed by a mass of men trying to sleep. In the darkness he hears an impossible sound: Juliek playing his violin. In the morning, Juliek is dead, his crushed violin “an eerily poignant little corpse.”

There are many ways to interpret this visual metaphor. Like Juliek and the other men who did not survive the night, the violin will never ‘speak’ its beautiful music ever again. Also, something to note is that Juliek plays a Beethoven concerto. As Beethoven was German, this could represent the ‘death’ of what made Germany a noble country. Looking at the violin this way makes the moment extremely poignant for Elie, who after the Holocaust learned English and French so he would never have to speak German again.  

What are the ways the narrator in "The Black Cat" feels depraved? In other words, how does the theme of human depravity play into the story and how...

Depravity is defined as an action or series of actions that are morally corrupt or even wicked. In Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Black Cat,” the narrator, who is never named, describes several actions which he himself identifies as “depraved.” The development of his depravity is both interesting and frightful; readers do see a true descent into depravity as the narrator, sentenced to be executed the next day, describes the events that brought him into his present state.

A brief summary of the overall plot can help to illustrate how depravity plays into the story and its overall development. The story is told in flashbacks as the narrator is awaiting his execution. “But to-morrow I die, and to-day I would unburden my soul.” He narrates not only the events that led to his conviction; he also explains his childhood and the early years of his marriage. He describes himself as gentle to a fault. So gentle, in fact, that he was mocked for his kindness as a child. “My tenderness of heart was even so conspicuous as to make me the jest of my companions.”

He marries, and he and his wife share a deep love of animals. His wife buys him a black cat named Pluto, whom he describes as an animal “of the most agreeable kind.” In spite of his affection for the cat, the narrator commits two acts of violence against it: he carves out its eye, and then he hangs it from a tree by a noose. A fire soon after destroys their house and the narrator’s attention is called to witnesses seeing a soot mark that resembles a cat with a noose around its neck right above where his bed had been. The narrator explains the mark away, and, calm once again, he seeks the company of another cat. Soon, a cat that looks strikingly like Pluto, except for a large patch of white fur on its chest, seems to offer the narrator an opportunity for redemption. The cat loves him and follows him diligently, but this loyalty only activates deep rage within the narrator. One day, while he and his wife are walking to the basement, the cat runs down the stairs and almost trips the narrator, inciting him into a rage. He tries to kill the cat with an axe, but his wife stops him. Instead, then, he turns the axe on her and kills her.

He hides her body behind a wall in the basement and believes that he has successfully concealed his crime. As an added bonus, the cat seems to have been so frightened by the murder that it runs off, leaving the narrator free of its constant attention. Four days later, though, the police come to the door and ask to investigate. The narrator, overly-confident in a manner similar to the narrator in “The Tell-Tale Heart,” invites them in and raps on the wall with his cane to show the solid construction of the house. It is at this point that a sound is heard from behind the wall. The police tear it down and reveal the corpse of his wife—with the black cat sitting on the top of her head.

Throughout his retelling of the events that led him to his prison cell, the narrator cites several examples of his depravity, and a clear development of the depravity is visible to readers. First, he describes how his drinking, to which he refers as “the Fiend Intemperance,” changes his personality slowly but surely. “I grew, day by day, more moody, more irritable, more regardless of the feelings of others. I suffered myself to use intemperate language to my wife. At length, I even offered her personal violence. My pets, of course, were made to feel the change in my disposition. I not only neglected, but ill-used them.”

His depravity continues when, in spite of acknowledging specific feelings of affection still remaining for Pluto, he commits an act of violence against the cat after it nips his hand.

I seized him; when, in his fright at my violence, he inflicted a slight wound upon my hand with his teeth. The fury of a demon instantly possessed me. I knew myself no longer. My original soul seemed, at once, to take its flight from my body; and a more than fiendish malevolence, gin-nurtured, thrilled every fibre of my frame. I took from my waistcoat-pocket a pen-knife, opened it, grasped the poor beast by the throat, and deliberately cut one of its eyes from the socket!

The narrator knows that he has acted in a morally corrupt, depraved way. The next day he is remorseful, but, as time passes, he slips deeper into his alcoholic stupor and he forgets how upset he was by his own actions. Rather than use the violence against Pluto as an impetus to change his behaviors, his depravity grows. He describes his depravity in detail this time, which shows its development and escalation.

And then came, as if to my final and irrevocable overthrow, the spirit of PERVERSENESS. Of this spirit philosophy takes no account. Yet I am not more sure that my soul lives, than I am that perverseness is one of the primitive impulses of the human heart — one of the indivisible primary faculties, or sentiments, which give direction to the character of Man. Who has not, a hundred times, found himself committing a vile or a silly action, for no other reason than because he knows he should not?.... It was this unfathomable longing of the soul to vex itself — to offer violence to its own nature — to do wrong for the wrong's sake only — that urged me to continue and finally to consummate the injury I had inflicted upon the unoffending brute.

He hangs Pluto from a tree with a noose, and the cat dies. The narrator isn’t acting in a drunken rage, and the cat has done nothing to trigger an angry reaction; the narrator kills him for no reason other than, as he says, because he knows he should not.

Readers might think that, following the murder of his cat, the narrator might have been horrified enough by his actions to stop drinking and possibly reevaluate his life. The addition of a house fire that destroys everything only supports this notion, as well as the narrator’s desire to adopt another cat in order to make up for his actions against Pluto. He wants this opportunity for redemption so badly that the fact that his new cat resembles Pluto down to the same missing eye (except for the one difference of the white patch of fur on the new cat’s chest) doesn’t bother him, though he does notice quite specifically when the white patch seems to morph into the shape of a hanged cat.

A descent into depravity, though, is hard to stop once it starts, and it’s not long before the narrator feels the same stirrings of rage and violence toward the new cat.

For my own part, I soon found a dislike to it arising within me. This was just the reverse of what I had anticipated; but — I know not how or why it was — its evident fondness for myself rather disgusted and annoyed. By slow degrees, these feelings of disgust and annoyance rose into the bitterness of hatred.

The fact that his hatred is directly proportional to the cat’s increasing love for him only serves to push the narrator into deeper depravity. Conscious all the while of his thoughts and actions, the narrator knowingly gives in to his impulses and surrenders any remaining hope of his goodness.

...the feeble remnant of the good within me succumbed. Evil thoughts became my sole intimates — the darkest and most evil of thoughts. The moodiness of my usual temper increased to hatred of all things and of all mankind; while, from the sudden, frequent, and ungovernable outbursts of a fury to which I now blindly abandoned myself, my uncomplaining wife, alas! was the most usual and the most patient of sufferers.

The full extent of his depravity can be seen in the final incident with his wife as he murders her. He flies into a rage at the cat for nearly tripping him and tries to kill it, but his wife stills his hand. Readers see his depravity in his intention: he doesn’t kill his wife out of a lack of impulse control or because he is in a blind rage; he kills her because she tried to stop him from killing the cat.

Goaded, by the interference, into a rage more than demoniacal, I withdrew my arm from her grasp and buried the axe in her brain. She fell dead upon the spot, without a groan.

A story that begins with a character on death row will almost always have clear examples of moral corruptness, of depravity, throughout, and “The Black Cat” is no exception. Readers see the tragic descent into depravity of a character who was supposedly born docile and kind, but, for a variety of reasons—though he names alcohol, this is certainly not the only cause—loses this part of himself in an ocean of rage and evil. His first act of violence, cutting out Pluto’s eye as a retaliatory action for Pluto biting him, leads the narrator deeper and deeper into the world of moral corruption and depravity, the end result of which is the murder of his loving wife and, ultimately, his own scheduled death.

Define the words "indigenous" and "patriarchal."

These two words are terms that are often used in sociology or anthropology.  They are not necessarily related to one another but can be used together at times.

The word “indigenous” means more or less the same thing as “native.” Indigenous people are those who are native to a place.  The major difference between the two words is that an indigenous thing or person has to be native to a place going back in time.  In other words, though I was born in the United States I am not an indigenous person because my distant ancestors are not from here.  Indigenous people in the US are the Native Americans, not just people who were born here. 

The word “patriarchal” refers to a society that is dominated by men.  Such a society is called patriarchal or a patriarchy.  The United States was much more of a patriarchy in times past than it is today because women have much more power in society now than they previously did.

These words can be used together as many indigenous cultures are patriarchal.  However, the words are not necessarily connected to one another.

What is thrush infection?

Definition

Thrush is a fungal infection of the mouth caused by an overgrowth of the yeast organism Candida albicans. Thrush usually begins on
the tongue and inside the cheeks and may spread to the palate, gums, tonsils, and
throat. In severe cases, the infection may spread to the larynx (voice box),
digestive tract, respiratory system, and skin.

Causes

Many microorganisms, including yeast and bacteria, live in the mouth. Thrush occurs when the normal balance of these organisms is upset. This allows an overgrowth of Candida to occur.

Risk Factors

Risk factors for developing thrush include age (infants, toddlers, and the
elderly); a weakened immune system from human immunodeficiency
(HIV) virus infection, acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS), cancer, or medical treatments for cancer,
such as chemotherapy; stress; prolonged illness; use of antibiotics;
use of oral or inhaled corticosteroids; diabetes; hormonal
changes, such as those associated with pregnancy or the use of birth control pills; wearing dentures; conditions that cause a dry mouth; and
smoking.

Symptoms

The symptoms of thrush, which occur in the mouth, include white, raised
patches; red, slightly raised patches; discharge with a curdlike appearance (like
cottage cheese); thick, dark brownish coating in the mouth; dry mouth; and
fissures or cracks in the mouth. If the infection spreads into the esophagus, one
may also experience difficulty or pain with swallowing or a sensation of something
“stuck” in the throat. If thrush spreads systemically, one may develop a
fever.

Screening and Diagnosis

A doctor will ask about symptoms and medical history and will examine the patient’s mouth. A sample of cells from the affected area may be scraped off and examined under a microscope.

Treatment and Therapy

The goal of treatment is to restore the normal balance of bacteria and yeast in
the mouth. Treatments may include antifungal medications such as lozenges, troches
(a type of lozenge that dissolves in the mouth), tablets, or oral rinses;
medications that are active against yeast, such as nystatin (Bio-Statin and
Nilstat), clotrimazole (Lotrimin and Mycelex), miconazole, and gentian violet;
and, for breast-feeding mothers of infants with thrush, a topical antifungal
medication placed on the woman’s nipples to reduce the infant’s infection.

Oral hygiene practices that may aid in healing include rinsing one’s mouth with warm salt-water and gently scraping off patches with a toothbrush. Finally, underlying conditions that may contribute to thrush can be identified and treated.

Prevention and Outcomes

Preventive measures can be taken to reduce the risk of thrush. Thrush in adults is often associated with AIDS, so persons with thrush should obtain a blood test for HIV and follow recommended prevention guidelines, such as using condoms and other protection and avoiding needles except under sterile conditions.

Persons who are at high risk for or who are prone to thrush may be given an antifungal medication as a preventive measure. If prone to thrush, one should avoid overuse of mouthwashes and mouth sprays, which can upset the normal balance of yeast and bacteria in the mouth. If a baby is prone to thrush and if that baby drinks from a bottle, the baby should drink from the bottle with disposable nipples.

One should avoid unnecessary use of antibiotics; if avoiding antibiotics is not
an option, one should consider eating yogurt or using acidophilus tablets
(probiotics) during antibiotic treatment and for several
weeks thereafter. One should decrease his or her intake of sugar and
yeast-containing foods and beverages, such as bread, wine, and beer, and, if using
a cortisone inhaler, should rinse the mouth thoroughly after each use.

Bibliography

Greenspan, Deborah, and John S. Greenspan. “HIV-related Oral Disease.” The Lancet 348 (September, 1996): 729-733.

Langlais, Robert P., and Craig S. Miller. Color Atlas of Common Oral Diseases. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2009.

Mandell, Gerald L., John E. Bennett, and Raphael Dolin, eds. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 7th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2010.

Martin, Jeanne Marie. Complete “Candida” Yeast Guidebook: Everything You Need to Know About Prevention, Treatment, and Diet. Rev. ed. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2000.

Ohnmacht, Galen A., et al. “A Prospective, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial Evaluating the Effect of Nystatin on the Development of Oral Irritation in Patients Receiving High-Dose Intravenous Interleukin-2.” Journal of Immunotherapy 24, no. 2 (March/April, 2001): 188-192.

Winn, Washington C., Jr., et al. Koneman’s Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006.

The sun is one of the billions of ________.

Our sun is a star and is one of several billion-trillion stars out there in the universe. The sun is neither the most brilliant nor the largest star. It is neither the oldest nor is it at the center of the universe. Thus, there is nothing special about our sun as compared to countless other stars. In fact, it has been estimated that there are more than a few billion trillion stars in the universe. 

Our sun is a relatively young star and is in its main sequence (or main part of the life cycle). It uses nuclear fusion to convert hydrogen to helium and thus provides us with energy in the form of sunlight. Over time, when the hydrogen runs out, it will most likely become a red giant and ultimately end up as a white dwarf. 

Hope this helps. 

what does 5/6 mean, and how can it be written in division.

`5/6` represents a fraction. i.e ratio of two numbers.

In simple terms top number 5 represents the parts we have and the bottom number 6 represents the number of possible equal parts.

The top number in the fraction is known as the Numerator and the bottom number is known as the Denominator.

In division form it is written as `5-:6`

The Numerator of the fraction is also known as Dividend and the Denominator is known as the Divisor.

In The Great Gatsby, would you rather live in East Egg or West Egg? The North-East or the Mid-West? Why?

According to Nick, the people of the Midwest are much more down to earth. And given all the lying and deceitful behavior he experienced in the Northeast, Nick would characterize the Midwest as a more honest place. So, these are the benefits of living in the Midwest. By contrast, the Northeast (the city in particular) is more complicated but also more exciting. Nick calls the area of the two eggs "one of the strangest areas in North America." Clearly, there is a fascination for Nick. However, he does eventually long for the honesty of his native Midwest. If it was a choice between honesty (Midwest) and excitement (Northeast), I would most often take honesty. So would Nick. 

Nick lives in West Egg, the "least fashionable" of the two. Daisy and Tom live in East Egg. The glamour of East Egg is tempting but the social world seems to be quite elitist and superficial. If we just use Tom and Daisy as representatives of the area, we have to philandering people who are obsessed with money. And if we take Nick and Gatsby to represent West Egg, we have an honest man and a dishonest, yet romantically idealistic man. Again, based upon the character of the people Nick gets to know, West Egg (like the Midwest) emerges as a more genuine place. In the end, suppose the question is: Would you rather live next door to a man like Gatsby or Tom Buchanan? For all of his flaws, I think most people would pick the dreamer (Gatsby) over the racist adulterer (Tom) any day. 

What are some qualities of Jimmy Wells and Bob in the story "After Twenty Years"?

Jimmy Wells is a police officer in New York City, a place he loves. According to Bob, Jimmy is "the truest, staunchest old chap in the world," suggesting he is both loyal and lives with integrity. Although Bob says Jimmy was a "plodder," that could mean that he is persistent and willing to work hard for long-term goals. Jimmy is impressive as a policeman; even the way he walks shows he is reliable and adept at his profession. Thus it is not surprising that he is able to instantly recognize Bob's face as matching the description of a criminal wanted by the Chicago police. Jimmy has a certain amount of sensitivity for his old friend's feelings; he doesn't have the heart to personally arrest him, so he sends a "plain-clothes man" to do the job. He writes a personal note to Bob to make sure he knows that he, Jimmy, was "at the appointed place on time."

Bob is two years younger than Jimmy. When he was 18, he went West to make his fortune. He says the West has given him "everything I asked it for," although he also says he has had to compete with "some of the sharpest wits" in order to get his share. This makes it sound as if he was somewhat ruthless, especially when he says that only the West can put "a razor-edge" on a man. He has obviously been "successful" in the West; he wears a diamond scarf pin and carries a diamond-studded watch. He is proud of himself, and the reader may wonder whether he was keeping the appointment with Jimmy more out of loyalty or out of a chance to show off to his old pal. Nevertheless, there is an indication that Bob does care enough about Jimmy to be ashamed at being revealed to be a criminal, for when he reads Jimmy's note, his hand trembles a little. 

Clues to Jimmy that Bob is wanted by the Chicago police include his facial features--"a pale, square-jawed face with keen eyes and a little white scar near his right eyebrow." The diamond scarf pin and diamond-studded watch may have been additional clues. When Bob strikes a match to light his cigar, Jimmy is able to see his face and the scar clearly. The police bulletin may have also specified the height of the wanted man; Jimmy would have been able to guess his height by standing next to him. 

Readers get their own clues that Bob may be a criminal, but they may not be obvious until readers look back after reaching the surprise ending. First, the way Bob jumps in to talk to the policeman so quickly, assuring him that "it's all straight" shows that he is nervous around officers. The diamond scarfpin and watch also are ostentatious and don't seem to fit with the scar-faced, cigar-smoking character. Bob says when he was in the West, he "kept hustling around over it pretty lively" and that he eventually got his "pile." A hustler is a petty criminal, and "pile" sounds like a greedy approach to life. Bob's mention of a "razor-edge" is another term that suggests a rough or violent life, as well as his statement that the West "has given me everything I asked it for." That could refer to robbery. 

O. Henry strews plenty of clues throughout the story for Jimmy Wells and for the reader to figure out what kind of person Bob has become.

What does Buck find when he returns to camp after killing the moose? Why do the Yeehats consider Buck an Evil Spirit?

In Jack London's The Call of the Wild, Buck returns from his moose hunt to find his beloved master, John Thornton, and everyone else, including his dog friends,  dead. They had been killed by the Yeehats, some of whom are still there. An enraged Buck goes after them, ripping out throats and killing the Yeehats one by one. Some manage to get away and live to tell the story of how this "devil dog" took revenge on them. After this, Buck becomes a legend as an "evil spirit"--one for whom the Yeehats now have great respect and admiration. The Yeehats also fear Buck because they know he does not fear them. Buck goes on to become the leader of a wolf pack, and over time, the Yeehats begin to notice young wolves who resemble Buck.

Why is Tobe’s character essential to the story "A Rose for Emily" by William Faulkner?

It is, in large part, thanks to Tobe that the character of Miss Emily earns her symbolic "rose." Tobe's loyalty and dedication to Emily until her death infuses in her character a sense of worthiness, and helps her preserve her dignity despite of the fact that the town questioned a lot about her personality.

These are some of the reasons why Tobe, who is Miss Emily's manservant, is essential to the story "A Rose for Emily." While much has been written about the relationship between Emily and Tobe, the facts about his importance to the story that are most obvious are the following:

1. He was the liaison between Emily and the outside world. 

Notice that, as a manservant, it is only Tobe who would open the door to the household each time the people of Jefferson, namely the Board of Aldermen, would attempt to cross the threshold that is the gothic, crumbling old mansion where Emily resides.

Tobe would have also been the person responsible for announcing the death of Miss Emily's father to the townsfolk. After all, Emily's only relations were all the way in Alabama, and she had no friends in town. Could it be that Tobe also requested help to get the body of Emily's father, since she was unwilling to give it up? Was Tobe in any way responsible for luring Homer Barron into the house? 

2. He was the only person who was loyal to Emily.

There is something to be said to whoever wishes to typecast Emily's character. She is not entirely a loner, or entirely alone. She is not entirely unsupported, nor uncared for. This is because Tobe is there. Moreover, he was always there and remained there until the day that Emily died. He kept every one of her secrets, which helped her preserve some degree of dignity. It was his loyalty and his silence, despite of all that he knew, that helped Emily to continuously appear enigmatic and interesting to everyone. This is what built a lot of her legend in Jefferson. Tobe was instrumental in enabling and preserving that, thanks to his silence and loyalty. 

3. His silence shows respect for Emily.

Had Tobe chosen to speak up and tell everyone what was going on in the house, Emily's entire story would have been quite different. The townsfolk would have never had the time to connect with her at the psychological level that they did. After all, a story about "a crazy lady" would have been easier to take in than the exploration of who she really is, and what made her act the way that she did. These latter actions are the ones that drive the town to still hold respect for Emily, and Tobe is to take credit for this. 

Also, had Tobe decided to tell on Emily, her story would have been a tale of morbidity, debauchery, and insanity. Thanks to Toby, Emily, figuratively, earns her memorial "rose."

Other things are telling about Tobe. He ran away from town after Emily's death, likely because he knew what was coming.

The following passage is quite telling:

And so [Emily] died. Fell ill in the house filled with dust and shadows, with only a doddering Negro man to wait on her. We did not even know she was sick; we had long since given up trying to get any information from the Negro. He talked to no one, probably not even to her [this is what the town assumed], for his voice had grown harsh and rusty, as if from disuse.

From this excerpt, we gather that Tobe concedes nothing. We cannot quite ascertain what relationship he and Emily have, but definitely he keeps silence. Moreover, after Emily dies, he knows that "the big secret" will likely be discovered. ...

THE NEGRO met the first of the ladies at the front door and let them in, with their hushed, sibilant voices and their quick, curious glances, and then he disappeared. He walked right through the house and out the back and was not seen again.

Tobe remains loyal until the end and, rather than offering excuses or giving explanations, he majestically opens the doors to the household one last time, and does his job once more before going away forever. If any stories ever surfaced, or any conjectures were ever made about Emily, none of them came from the man who may have known her the most.

Therefore, Tobe is essential to the story for what he REFUSED to say and do, and for helping to preserve the legendary persona of Emily Grierson. 

What issue was a major source of friction between Heathcliff and Catherine in Wuthering Heights?

I think it is safe to say that Catherine's marriage to Linton was a source of friction for Heathcliff! And it is not simply because he was dumped. Catherine's marriage amounted to a betrayal of some fundamental truth Heathcliff shared with Catherine. Heathcliff and Catherine connected in a primal way; what they shared was beyond physical attraction, or simple friendship. When Catherine says to Nelly, "I am Heathcliff!" she means it in a literal sense -- so attuned is she to him, she feels she understands him utterly. Yet the scene where she says this is also the same scene where she confides to Nelly that she could never marry Heathcliff -- that he is too poor. For Heathcliff, who is listening, this is too much to bear. Catherine's deep connection to Heathcliff cannot outweigh her imagined mortification at being the wife of someone of such inferior social standing. We readers can perhaps forgive Catherine for thinking practically about marriage, given the dependent status of women in her time; but in a way Catherine is also betraying herself, her own personal agency, her own love of wildness and freedom. In the world Heathcliff and Catherine share, it should be impossible for her to marry Linton, but nevertheless it happens.

How is the changing relationship between humans and nature represented in British literature? How are Beowulf, Paradise Lost, Oroonoko, and Heart...

In British literature, nature was originally regarded as threatening, but before the modern era, nature came to be associated with noble simplicity and goodness. By the turn of the 20th century, however, some works of British literature such as Heart of Darkness regarded both nature and civilization as evil. In Beowulf (written down around 1000 CE), nature is regarded as threatening and scary. Grendel and his mother are creations of nature, and they threaten Hrothgar and his men. Hrothgar and his community only feel safe within the confines of their great hall, called Heorot. The hall is described as "lofty and broad-gabled" (Childs translation), while Grendel is "the fell prowler about the borders of the homes of men, who held the moors, the fens." In other words, the lands beyond the community's homes are held by a monster, and he rules over the moors and the wilds. In this epic, the hall is the center of comfort and civilization, while nature beyond it is terrifying and uncontrollable.

In Paradise Lost (published 1667), the natural world is also threatening in many ways. While the Garden of Eden is nature perfected, it is bound on all sides, and it is still vulnerable to intruders. In Book IV, Satan finds his way into the garden, and in Book IX, he corrupts humankind by enticing Eve to eat from the tree of knowledge. In Paradise Lost, nature, in the form of fruit from a tree, is the source of evil. While the natural world is beautiful at first, it can also be corrupted and become the source of unhappiness. Satan is motivated to bring about humans' fall because the beauty of the Garden of Eden makes him jealous; therefore, nature is beautiful but also a source of corruption.

In Oroonoko (published 1688), nature is a source of innocence and beauty. The people in Surinam live naturally, simply, and innocently like Adam and Eve before their fall, and they are corrupted by civilization. Oroonoko himself is the picture of physical grace, as he comes from this natural world.

Unlike in the earlier works, in Heart of Darkness, evil lurks both in civilization and in nature. In fact, it lurks deep in the hearts of men like Kurtz. Marlow, the narrator, compares the Congo to a "snake," and as he penetrates deeper and deeper into the Congo, nature becomes more and more evil and threatening. However, in Marlow's dark world, civilization is no better. He describes Brussels, Belgium as "a white sepulcher," or tomb. While Africa might be dark and evil, Brussels is white and evil. By the point at which Heart of Darkness was written (1899), evil and darkness lurked in both nature and civilization.

What is the spectrum of light?

The light spectrum refers to the quantitative differences in light - for example, what is the actual difference between red light and blue light, and what causes them to have those colors? While the term "light" is commonly used to refer to visible light only, the light spectrum can extend to include all types of electromagnetic radiation, and so it is a way of talking about the different properties of photons themselves.

Photons are massless particles that carry electromagnetic energy in a manner similar to both particles and waves. Photons can represent a broad range of energies; low-energy ones are found in sources such as radio, and high-energy ones are found in sources like X-rays, with a variety of different "states" in between, including visible light. The fact that different energies and properties of photons will change their appearance and interactions is the source of their identity along a spectrum. Technically, a spectrum refers to a range of continuous values, any of which might be assumed by a member of that spectrum. For light, any energetic value of the light spectrum may be assumed by a photon, but its location on the spectrum will determine its properties, and the photon will retain that identity for its lifetime.  

To refer specifically to the visible light portion of the spectrum, conversationally this refers to the colors and associated photon energies ranging from red to blue that humans can normally see. In terms of wavelengths and energies, this is about 400 to 700 nanometers, or about the range of one to two electrons worth of charge.

What does heterozygous mean?

Heterozygous and homozygous are terms used to describe the pair of alleles an organism possesses. Diploid organisms contain two sets of matching chromosomes and thus two copies of every gene. For every pair of matched chromosomes, diploid organisms receive one chromosome from each parent. The chromosomes contain many different genes. 

However, a single gene may have two different forms (called alleles) - a dominant allele and a recessive allele. The dominant allele is usually represented by a capital letter (A) and the recessive allele is represented by a lowercase letter (a). 

If the organism contains two identical alleles (AA or aa), it is referred to as homozygous. If the organism contains one of each allele (Aa) it is referred to as heterozygous. 

What are natural treatments for insomnia?

Introduction

Many people have a serious problem getting a good night’s sleep. Lives have become simply too busy for many to get the eight hours really needed. To make matters worse, many people have insomnia. When a person does get to bed, he or she may stay awake thinking for hours. Sleep itself may be restless instead of refreshing.

Most people who sleep substantially less than eight hours a night experience a variety of unpleasant symptoms. The most common are headaches, mental confusion, irritability, malaise, immune deficiencies, depression, and fatigue. Complete sleep deprivation can lead to hallucinations and mental collapse.

The best way to improve sleep involves making lifestyle changes: eliminating caffeine and sugar from one’s diet, avoiding stimulating activities before bed, adopting a regular sleeping time, and gradually turning down the lights. More complex behavioral approaches to improving sleep habits can be adopted too.

Many drugs can also help with sleep. Such medications as Sonata, Lunesta,
Ambien, Restoril, Ativan, and Xanax are widely used for sleep problems. Of these,
only Lunesta has been tested for long-term use. All of these medications are in
essence tranquilizers and, therefore, have a potential for
dependence and abuse; the newer sleep-inducing drug Rozerem (ramelteon) acts like
an enhanced version of the supplement melatonin and is not thought to have such
potential.

Antidepressants can also be used to correct sleep problems. Low doses of
certain antidepressants immediately bring on sleep because their
side effects include drowsiness. However, this effect tends to wear off with
repeated use. For chronic sleeping problems, full doses of antidepressants can
sometimes be helpful. Antidepressants are believed to work by actually altering
brain chemistry, which produces a beneficial effect on sleep. Trazadone and
amitriptyline are two of the most commonly prescribed antidepressants when
improved sleep is desired, but most other antidepressants also can be helpful.

Principal Proposed Natural Treatments

Although the scientific evidence is not definitive, the herb valerian and the
hormone melatonin are widely accepted as treatments for certain forms of
insomnia.

Valerian. Valerian has a long traditional use for
insomnia, and today it is an accepted over-the-counter treatment for insomnia in
Germany, Belgium, France, Switzerland, and Italy. However, the evidence that it
really works remains inconsistent and incomplete. A systematic review concluded
that valerian is safe but probably not effective for treating insomnia. However,
there have been some positive results, with both valerian alone and valerian
combined with other herbs.

Valerian is most commonly recommended to be used as needed for occasional insomnia. However, the results of the largest and best-designed positive study found benefits only regarding long-term improvement of sleep. In this double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, one-half of the participants took 600 milligrams (mg) of an alcohol-based valerian extract one hour before bedtime, while the other one-half took placebo. Valerian did not work right away. For the first couple of weeks, valerian and placebo had similar affects. However, by day twenty-eight, valerian’s effectiveness increased. Effectiveness was rated as good or very good by participant evaluation in 66 percent of the valerian group and in 61 percent by doctor evaluation, whereas in the placebo group, only 29 percent were so rated by participants and doctors.

Although positive, these results are a bit confusing, because in another large study, valerian was effective immediately. Other studies, most of relatively low quality, found immediate benefits too. To further confuse the matter, four later studies of valerian failed to find evidence of any benefit; one was a four-week study that included 135 people given valerian and 135 given placebo. The most recent trial, a two-week study of 405 people, reported “modest benefits at most.”

A study of 184 people that tested a standardized combination of valerian and
hops had mixed results. Researchers tested quite a few
aspects of sleep (such as time to fall asleep, length of sleep, and number of
awakenings) and found evidence of benefit in a few. This use of multiple outcome
measures makes the results somewhat unreliable.

Other studies have compared valerian (either alone or with hops or melissa) with benzodiazepine drugs. Most of these studies found the herbal treatment approximately as effective as the drug, but because of the absence of a placebo group, these results are less than fully reliable. Mixed results like these suggest that valerian is at most modestly helpful for improving sleep.

Melatonin. The body uses melatonin as
part of its normal control of the sleep-wake cycle. The pineal gland makes
serotonin and then turns it into melatonin when exposure to light decreases.
Strong light (such as sunlight) slows melatonin production more than does weak
light, and a completely dark room increases the amount of melatonin made. Taking
melatonin as a supplement seems to stimulate sleep when the natural cycle is
disturbed. It may also have a direct sedative effect.

Although not all studies were positive, reasonably good evidence indicates that
melatonin is helpful for insomnia related to jet lag. One
of the best supporting studies was a double-blind, placebo-controlled study that
enrolled 320 travelers crossing six to eight time zones. The participants were
divided into four groups and given a daily dose of 5 mg of standard melatonin, 5
mg of slow-release melatonin, 0.5 mg of standard melatonin, or placebo. The group
that received 5 mg of standard melatonin slept better, took less time to fall
asleep, and felt more energetic and awake during the day than the other three
groups. Mixed results have been seen in studies involving the use of melatonin for
ordinary insomnia, insomnia in swing-shift workers, and insomnia in elderly
people.

A four-week double-blind trial evaluated the benefits of melatonin for children with difficulty falling asleep. A total of forty children who had experienced this type of sleep problem for at least one year were given either placebo or melatonin at a dose of 5 mg. The results showed that the use of melatonin helped participants fall asleep significantly more easily. Benefits were also seen in a similar study of sixty-two children with this condition. The long-term safety of melatonin usage has not been established. One should not give a child melatonin except under physician supervision.

Many persons stay up late on Friday and Saturday nights and then find it difficult to go to sleep at a reasonable hour Sunday night. A small, double-blind, placebo-controlled study found evidence that the use of melatonin 5.5 hours before the desired Sunday bedtime improved the ability of participants to fall asleep.

Benefits were seen in a small double-blind trial of persons in a pulmonary intensive care unit. It is difficult to sleep in an ICU, and the resulting sleep deprivation is not helpful for those recovering from disease or surgery. In this study of eight hospitalized persons, 3 mg of controlled-release melatonin significantly improved sleep quality and duration.

Blind people often have trouble sleeping on any particular schedule because there are no light cues available to help them get tired at night. A small, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial found that the use of melatonin at a dose of 10 mg per day synchronized participants’ sleep schedules.

Some people find it impossible to fall asleep until early morning, a condition called delayed sleep phase syndrome. Melatonin may be beneficial for this syndrome.

In addition, people trying to stop using sleeping pills in the benzodiazepine family may find melatonin helpful. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of thirty-four persons who regularly used such medications found that melatonin at a dose of 2 mg nightly (controlled-release formulation) could help them discontinue the use of the drugs. There can be risks in discontinuing benzodiazepine drugs, however, so persons should consult a physician for advice.

Other Proposed Natural Treatments

Acupressure or acupuncture may be helpful for
insomnia, but the supporting evidence remains weak. A single-blind,
placebo-controlled study involving 84 nursing home residents found that real
acupressure was superior to sham acupressure for improving sleep quality. Treated
participants fell asleep faster and slept more soundly. In a similar study,
researchers found that performing acupressure on a single point on both wrists for
five weeks improved sleep quality among residents of long-term-care facilities
more than did lightly touching the same point. Another single-blind, controlled
study reported benefits with acupuncture but failed to include a proper
statistical analysis of the results. For this reason, no conclusions can be drawn
from the report. In a third study, ninety-eight people with severe kidney disease
were divided into three groups: no extra treatment, twelve sessions of fake
acupressure (not using actual acupressure points), or twelve sessions of real
acupressure. Participants receiving real acupressure experienced significantly
improved sleep compared to those receiving no extra treatment. However, fake
acupressure was just as effective as real acupressure. Also, a small
placebo-controlled trial involving sixty adults with insomnia found that three
weeks of electroacupuncture improved sleep efficiency and decreased wake time
after sleep onset.

In a trial involving twenty-eight women, six weeks of auricular acupuncture, in which needles are placed in the outer ear, was more effective than sham acupuncture. However, in a carefully conducted review of ten randomized trials involving auricular acupuncture or acupressure (using magnetic pellets), researchers were unable to draw conclusions because of the poor quality of the studies.

Preliminary evidence suggests that Tai Chi, an ancient Chinese practice
involving graceful movements combined with meditation, may benefit some people who
have trouble sleeping. In one randomized study, a certain form of Tai Chi was more
effective than health education after twenty-five weeks in persons with moderate
insomnia.

Numerous controlled studies have evaluated relaxation
therapies for the treatment of insomnia. These studies are
difficult to summarize because many of the trials involved therapy combined with
other methods, such as biofeedback, sleep restriction, and
paradoxical intent (trying not to sleep). The type of relaxation therapy used in
the majority of these trials was progressive muscle relaxation. Overall,
the evidence indicates that relaxation therapies may be somewhat helpful for
insomnia, although not dramatically so. For example, in a controlled study of
seventy people with insomnia, participants using progressive relaxation showed no
meaningful improvement in the time taken to fall asleep or in the duration of
sleep, but they reported feeling more rested in the morning. In another study,
twenty minutes of relaxation practice was required to increase sleeping time by
thirty minutes.

One small double-blind study found a particular Ayurvedic herbal combination
helpful for insomnia. Herbs used for anxiety are commonly recommended for insomnia
too. As noted, hops and lemon balm have been studied in combination with valerian.
One double-blind study found that the antianxiety herb kava taken
alone may aid sleep for people whose insomnia is associated with anxiety and
tension. However, a fairly large study failed to find kava helpful for ordinary
insomnia. There are serious concerns that kava may occasionally cause severe liver
disorders.

The substance GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is a naturally occurring neurotransmitter that is used within the brain to reduce the activity of certain nerve systems, including those related to anxiety. For this reason, GABA supplements are sometimes recommended for treatment of anxiety-related conditions, such as insomnia. However, there are no studies whatsoever supporting the use of GABA supplements for this purpose. It appears that, when taken orally, GABA cannot pass the blood-brain barrier and, therefore, does not even enter the brain.

One small study hints that the fragrance of lavender essential oil might aid sleep. Slight evidence exists to support the use of magnesium or probiotics (healthy bacteria) for insomnia in the elderly.

The herb St. John’s wort and the supplement 5-hydroxytryptophan have shown promise as treatments for depression. Because prescription antidepressants can aid sleep, these natural substances have been suggested for insomnia. However, there is no direct evidence that they are effective. A double-blind trial of twelve persons without insomnia found no sleep-promoting benefit with St. John’s wort.

Other herbs reputed to offer both antianxiety and anti-insomnia benefits include ashwagandha, astragalus, chamomile, He shou wu, lady’s slipper, passionflower, and skullcap. However, there is no supporting evidence to indicate that any of these really work. Finally, a number of supplements might offer benefits for improving mental function during periods of sleep deprivation.

Bibliography

Bent, S., et al. “Valerian for Sleep.” American Journal of Medicine 119 (2006): 1005-1012.

Buscemi, N., et al. “The Efficacy and Safety of Exogenous Melatonin for Primary Sleep Disorders.” Journal of General Internal Medicine 20 (2006): 1151-1158.

Edwards, B. J., et al. “Use of Melatonin in Recovery from Jet-Lag Following an Eastward Flight Across Ten Time-Zones.” Ergonomics 43 (2000): 1501-1513.

Irwin, M. R., R. Olmstead, and S. J. Motivala. “Improving Sleep Quality in Older Adults with Moderate Sleep Complaints: A Randomized Controlled Trial of Tai Chi Chih.” Sleep 31 (2008): 1001-1008.

Lewith, G. T., et al. “A Single-Blinded, Randomized Pilot Study Evaluating the Aroma of Lavandula augustifolia as a Treatment for Mild Insomnia.” Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 11 (2005): 631-637.

Sadeghniiat-Haghighi, K., et al. “Efficacy and Hypnotic Effects of Melatonin in Shift-Work Nurses.” Journal of Circadian Rhythms 6 (2008): 10.

Sjoling, M., M. Rolleri, and E. Englund. “Auricular Acupuncture Versus Sham Acupuncture in the Treatment of Women Who Have Insomnia.” Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 14 (2008): 39-46.

Sun, J. L., et al. “Effectiveness of Acupressure for Residents of Long-Term Care Facilities with Insomnia.” International Journal of Nursing Studies 47 (2010): 798-805.

Yeung, W. F., et al. “Electroacupuncture for Primary Insomnia.” Sleep 32 (2009): 1039-1047.

What is the connection between the allusion to Master Ridley and what is taking place in Bradbury's story Fahrenheit 451?

In Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451, the old woman at 11 N. Elm Street alludes to a famous quote by Hugh Latimer. As the firemen prepare to burn her home and books (and perhaps even then she knows she also will face a similar fate), she quotes the following:

Play the man, Master Ridley; we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace in England, as I trust shall never be put out.

In England in October of 1555, Latimer and Ridley were facing execution—being burned at the stake because of their religious beliefs. Latimer encourages his companion, Nicholas Ridley, to remain strong in the face of death. He believes that their deaths are not as important as is the message of their dedication to their beliefs: a dedication that will speak more loudly than anything they could say. The inference is that their sacrifice would not be in vain, but might spark deeper dedication in others, perhaps even a revival of faith for all Protestants—even the clergy—who were being persecuted and killed by Mary Tudor ("Bloody Mary").

This quote is especially relevant in Bradbury's novel. In this futuristic dystopian society, the government has banned books—and people discovered in possession of them are arrested, and their books and homes burned by firemen such as Montag and Beatty.

When Montag and the rest of the firemen arrive at 11 N. Elm Street, Montag is deeply distressed to discover the owner still in the house. At this point in the story, Montag has had no understanding or concern over the ramifications of how his job hurts others:

How inconvenient! Always before it had been like snuffing a candle. The police went first and adhesive-taped the victim's mouth and bandaged him off into their glittering beetle cars, so when you arrived you found an empty house. You weren't hurting anyone, you were hurting only things!

It is only as he witnesses the deep dedication of the woman for her books that he realizes something is taking place that he does not understand. He cannot conceive why books are so important that someone would give up her life (which she does) rather than live without the scores of printed works hidden in her home.

When the old woman quotes Hugh Latimer, Bradbury uses her character to present the idea that her life is not what is important, but that books be saved and knowledge be preserved. Whether she is aware of it or not (the author does not reveal this), Montag becomes changed by this event in a way he could never have imagined. From that moment, he does all he can to resist going to work. He hides books in his home. He seeks out the company and counsel of Faber, a retired English professor, to learn the truth. He stops living a superficial life centered on the government's control of people's thoughts.

It is when Montag finally breaks free of this desensitization visited upon this society that he kills Beatty to stop him from arresting Montag and hunting down Faber. Montag escapes the Mechanical Hound and the authorities, making his way to the river and then the railway track that leads him to others like himself—people dedicated to saving the knowledge and ideas held in books, and to eventually rebuilding society, even as it is bombed and rests burning in the distance.

Hugh Latimer's quote speaks of the promise that what he and Ridley sacrifice that day will live on to impact others in the struggle with their devotion to their faith. In Fahrenheit 451, the old woman quotes Latimer with (we can infer) the sense that her sacrifice will be for the greater good, inspiring others to give their all to save books and thereby, save society. Her hope is realized in Montag, a man who becomes dedicated to the same vision, to bring about change in the world.

In The Catcher in the Rye by Salinger, what type of places does Holden like?

In The Catcher in the Rye, Holden likes places that do not change.  Since the death of his brother Allie, Holden has a hard time dealing with change and wishes that life would just stay the same.  So, he likes places that are the same as they were during his childhood.  For example, Holden likes the Museum of Natural History because the exhibits are the same as they were when his teachers used to take the students in elementary school.  Thinking about seeing his sister Phoebe, Holden walks over to the museum and reminisces on the exhibits that never change, like the one showcasing Native American Indians.  If places like these never change, then Holden does not have to say goodbye to the old and usher in new places. 

How does the relationship between Boo Radley and the children change throughout To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee? What are the causes of the...

At the beginning of the novel, the children view Boo Radley as the "malevolent phantom" and expand upon the rumors and legends they hear about him. They fear Boo and believe that he is a grotesque monster who wreaks havoc throughout the neighborhood. The children even create a game called "One Man's Family" in which they act out their imaginative ideas of what takes place in the mysterious Radley home. Dill is infatuated with the idea of getting Boo out of the house and the children attempt to make contact with Boo several times by looking into his window and leaving him notes.

As the novel progresses, the children's relationship with Boo gradually develops. Scout learns from Maudie that Boo's real name is Arthur and Maudie tells Scout that he was a kind child with a tragic life story. After Jem loses his pants while escaping from the Radley yard, he returns that night to find them sewn and folded neatly across the fence. Jem begins to wonder if Boo was responsible for mending his pants but is unsure. Jem and Scout then begin receiving small gifts in the knothole of the Radley tree. They aren't entirely sure who is leaving them gifts, but Boo's brother, Nathan, ends their communication by filling the knothole with cement. At this point, Jem is mature enough to believe that Boo is not the "malevolent phantom" they had once imagined while Scout remains naive and fearful of Boo. In Chapter 8, Miss Maudie's house catches on fire, and the children are told to wait in the Radley yard. It is a cold night, and Boo covers Scout's shoulders with a blanket to warm her without anyone knowing. The next morning, Atticus asks Jem and Scout who gave Scout the blanket, and the children are both unable to answer him. Atticus laughs and tells them that Boo Radley must of have given it to Scout. Scout nearly vomits, and Jem begins to make fun of her by pretending to be Boo. This moment is significant because Scout realizes that if Boo were the malicious individual they thought he was, then Boo would have harmed her instead of graciously giving his blanket to warm her.

For the remainder of the novel, the children's view of Boo drastically changes as they mature. Both Scout and Jem stop attempting to see Boo and begin to sympathize with his situation. They realize that he is simply a shy person who chooses to remain secluded in his house. At the end of the novel, Boo saves Jem and Scout's lives by stopping Bob Ewell's vicious attack. After the incident, Scout finally gets a chance to meet Boo face-to-face and sits on the porch with him before walking Boo home. For the first time in her life, Scout views their neighborhood from Boo's perspective and truly understands him as a person. By the end of the novel, both Jem and Scout are thankful to have Boo as their neighbor, and cherish their unique friendship with him.

What are the various conflicts between the characters throughout The Lion and the Jewel by Wole Soyinka?

There is conflict between the characters of Lakunle and Baroka over who will marry the village jewel, Sidi. The two characters also represent the larger conflict that exists between impending modernity and traditional culture. Lakunle is an outspoken proponent of adopting Western civilization and culture, while Baroka supports traditional African ways of life. There is also conflict between Sidi and Baroka, as well as friction between Lakunle and Sadiku. Sidi becomes conceited after her images in a foreign magazine make her famous, and she mocks Baroka to his face. Sidi wants to be the most revered person in the village of Ilujinle and makes fun of the Bale for being old. Sadiku also challenges Lakunle's masculinity, and the two characters argue about the future of their village. At the end of the play, Baroka wins Sidi's heart and marries her, which also symbolically represents a victory for traditional Yoruba culture.

Scholars sometimes use Frankenstein as an argument against scientific technology that creates life forms; others argue that it is not technology...

Shelley's position seems to be that it is not technology itself that is problematic, but, rather, the use to which we put it is the problem.  After all, the creature Frankenstein makes is loving and gentle and kind by nature.  His feelings are all alive to the natural world around him, and he is particularly empathetic, especially in regard to the DeLacey family.  It is not until he is treated monstrously by society that he, in fact, becomes a monster.  However, she points the finger at Frankenstein fairly early.  His desire to somehow render humanity invulnerable to disease is a noble enterprise, but his ambition for glory, to be hailed as the father of a species, soon takes over, and he only sees his creature as an experiment -- not a person.  He raids morgues and mausoleums, illegally stealing parts from the recently deceased, acting against his own human nature, which turned from his occupation with "loathing," and then he selfishly abandons his creation and subsequently wonders why it hates him.  It is Victor's lack of ethics, his unscrupulous behavior, and then his total lack of responsibility that creates the problems in the story, and this indicates that Shelley holds him responsible; in short, he is the monster.  Therefore, it is not technology or science that is to blame, but the scientist who makes poor choices.

I tend to agree with Shelley.  Scientific advancement has helped to prevent and cure disease, to extend the life of those who are ill, to lessen their pain.  We depend on technology, and it has, in many ways, increased the quality of our lives.  However, experimentation for the sake of experimentation only, or experimentation as a way to enhance one's personal glory, is unacceptable.  

In Praying for Sheetrock by Melissa Fay Greene, what are some of the similarities and differences between Thurnell Alston and Sheriff Poppell?

Melissa Fay Greene’s Praying for Sheetrock: A Work of Nonfiction tells the story of McIntosh County, a small, isolated Georgia town, where, in the 1970s, the civil rights movement had bypassed entirely.  Despite the desegregation achievements that were sweeping across the nation in the 1970s, McIntosh County was heavily stratified by race, with the white sheriff presiding over all social, ethical, and legal affairs.  The story is essentially about two men:  Thurnell Alston, a black man who took on the white hierarchy of McIntosh County, and Tom Poppell, the white sheriff who ruled over the community. 

First and foremost, both men are strong, charismatic characters who are steadfast in their beliefs and use their power to influence those around them.  Thurnell Alston was a disabled boilermaker, but he was not afraid to voice his opinions or stand up for what he thought to be right.  He states, “There’s a lot of people have been intimidated in McIntosh, but there was no fear of things for me.  I would tell it the way I see it.  Regardless of who they are, I mean they could kill me for it, because I’m going to say it anyway” (Greene 54).   Similarly, the narrator describes Sheriff Poppell as a resolute and affecting man: “In modern times Sheriff Poppell was the neighborhood headman who exerted his will and shaped the county, and the people acquiesced as people do when they are not, themselves, hungry for power and when they are permitted to make a living far from the rumpus” (Greene 13).  Sheriff Poppell uses his uncontested control to have his way in the community, and, much like Alston, Poppell rises up from a body of people who are afraid to voice their opinions or simply do not care to challenge the existing status quo. 

Another similarity between Alston and Poppell is the fact that both men become involved in criminal activity despite their political standings.  From the beginning, Poppell is introduced as a corrupt official who blatantly denies equal rights to African Americans and pulls the cars of black people over, claiming it to be a routine search, but instead stealing their money and giving it to his officers.   Poppell also loots crashed or broken-down trucks unfortunate enough to cross his county line: “If the truck drivers had realized their trucks had crashed in McIntosh County, Georgia (431 miles of swamp, marsh, and forest: population 7,000) they would have known—that it was nearing time for a little redistribution of wealth” (Greene 3).  Yet, while Poppell enters the story as a known corrupted official, Alston’s corruption arrives later in the story when he becomes accused of drug trafficking: “Thurnell Alston was acquitted on the two charges alleging that he possessed, with intent to distribute, cocaine.  But he was convicted of conspiring to possess, with intent to distribute, cocaine; and two counts of using a telephone to facilitate a deal” (Green 321).  While Alston repeatedly denies the charges, he is sentenced to six-and-a-half years.  This similarity highlights how political standings can facilitate corruption. 

While both men appear powerful and unyielding at the surface, they do possess sympathy and compassion.  For example, Poppell looks the other way when poor black families pillage a wrecked semi-truck for shoes: “All day long under a sky like white coals the High Sheriff stood spread-legged on the highway, directing traffic; the road crews swept and shoveled; and hundreds of local families quietly harvest shoes” (Green 4).  Similarly, Greene makes it a point to devote a considerable portion of the story to Alston’s life as a father to develop his compassionate and loving side.  She states, “Four sons were born to her and Thurnell: Thun, Anthony, LeVan, and Keith; and four foster children were taken in by them.  Chickens in the backyard, dogs all around, mother-in-law and sisters-in-law and brothers and aunts in cabins and trailers in the pine woods about the house” (Green 48).  This description characterizes Alston as a caring, family man, and it is important because it arrives in conjunction with his drug conspiracy accusations, thus presenting him as a complex character, much like Sheriff Poppell.

There are several differences between Thurnell Alston and Sheriff Poppell.  First, both men are fighting on opposite sides: Thurnell Alston is advocating race equality while Poppell desperately clings to the status quo of white hierarchy.  Second, Sheriff Poppell is deeply rooted in historical precedent—he inherited his post from his father and rules the community “much as they had since emancipation” (Greene 23).  On the other hand, Thurnell Alston is invested in change and progress:  “Thurnell had something to give the black county again, and the immediate future seemed full of novelty and progress” (Green 299).  Finally, Thurnell Alston lacks the oratory skills often associated with an effective leader, while Sheriff Poppell is described as charismatic and charming.  Alston talks with a stammer in a high-pitched voice, and “he rarely matched words to thought very happily.  In fact, in an inverse relationship, the more he desired to express something of deep importance to himself, the more tongue-tied he became” (Greene 53).  Conversely, Sheriff Poppell “had a lot of charisma . . . He would handle everything just as cool and brilliant, just country brilliances is all I know how to describe it” (Green 5).  The difference in the delivery of both men is important because it characterizes their methods for change.  Whereas Alston fights against tradition and tries to convince the community that change is needed, Poppell placates any concerns with smooth talking and eloquent speeches. 

I am applying for ASB in middle school. One of the questions asks "How do your grades show me what kind of leader you will be?" I have a 3.43 GPA....

Good work on that GPA.  I think that your GPA is a strength in this case, because it shows that you aren't perfect.  Your grades are good, but not flawless.  This means that you know what it feels like to make a mistake on something, which is important.  If you know what it feels like to make a mistake, then you have experience with learning from your mistakes.  You should tailor your answer in a way that focuses on that aspect of your grades.  Somebody that has never gotten anything wrong doesn't know how to deal with mistakes and adversity.  ASB will be similar.  There are going to be things that you do and try that won't work out correctly on the first try, but you have experience with knowing how to adapt to negative feedback.  

Your grades also show that most of the work that you do is good work.  A 3.4 is better than a B+ average.  That tells me that most of the time, you are doing great work.  Some mistakes here and there, but overall you are a dedicated and trustworthy student.  Focus your answer on that too, because that is the kind of ASB leader you will be.  

What is a coronary artery bypass graft?

Indications and Procedures

Atherosclerosis is a disease in which fat deposits called plaque accumulate on the walls of arteries and restrict blood flow. Although plaque can form in any arteries in the body, the effect is most noticeable in the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart muscle. Since the heart must pump continuously, it needs a steady supply of oxygenated blood. When the plaque in a coronary artery gets too thick, an area of the heart muscle will not receive enough blood, resulting in a condition called ischemia. The result is often chest pain called angina. Patients with angina are high risk for having a heart attack.

To alleviate angina and restore sufficient blood flow to the heart muscle, coronary artery bypass graft
surgery
may be performed. The patient is given general anesthesia for the procedure. The breastbone or sternum is sawed in two, and the chest is opened to expose the heart. At the same time, an assistant removes a healthy vein from an arm or leg. Most commonly, the saphenous vein from the upper leg is used. The heart is stopped and the patient is put on a heart-lung bypass machine that pumps the blood during the surgery. While the heart is stopped, the surgeon cuts the coronary artery above the blockage, and the healthy vessel which was removed from another part of the body is attached. Then the coronary artery is cut below the blockage and the other end of the healthy vessel is attached. This procedure effectively reroutes the blood flow
through the grafted vessel and around the blockage, thereby giving it the name bypass graft. Because the normal blood flow is restored, the angina is alleviated and the risk of heart attack is decreased. Another approach is to use the internal mammary artery, which is already attached to the aorta, for a blood source. Only one incision below the blockage needs to be made to establish good blood flow. After the bypass is completed, the heart is restarted and the machine is removed. The sternum is wired together and the incision is sutured.

Uses and Complications

Coronary artery bypass surgery is used to restore sufficient blood flow through a coronary artery that is narrowed or blocked with plaque. In patients with coronary artery disease it is common to have more than one artery narrowed or blocked. In this case, multiple bypasses may be completed in one surgery. Double, triple, and quadruple bypass surgeries are common. In these cases, the grafting procedure is repeated as many times as necessary to bypass all narrowed or blocked arteries.

One major problem for postoperative cardiac patients who have had bypass surgery is the threat of additional blockages developing. Sometimes patients need to have additional bypass surgeries several years later to bypass new blockages that have developed. Therefore, after surgery most patients will be referred to a cardiac rehabilitation
program, or cardiac rehab. In cardiac rehab, patients learn to exercise safely, eat right, and manage stress better. By making lifestyle changes patients can delay or prevent the development of additional plaque obstructions.

Perspective and Prospects

Bypass graft surgery is one way to restore blood flow through a blocked coronary artery. It has been widely used since the 1970s and has been safe and effective. However, it is a major surgical procedure that causes great discomfort to the patient. With advances in technology that are less invasive, such as cardiac catheters, other options are now available.

A procedure that competes with coronary artery bypass surgery is angioplasty. Instead of a major incision through the chest, angioplasty uses a catheter inserted through a small incision in an arm or the groin. The catheter is run through the blood vessels and into the heart. When the catheter reaches the narrowed area, the surgeon inflates a small balloon that compresses the plaque against the wall of the artery. Like bypass surgery, this procedure also improves blood flow to the heart muscle. Unfortunately, not all patients are good candidates for angioplasty and the more invasive bypass surgery must be used. As technology continues to improve, however, more patients will be able to have angioplasty.

Bibliography

Chizner, Michael A. Clinical Cardiology Made Ridiculously Simple. 4th ed. Miami: MedMaster, 2012.

Health Library. "Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting." Health Library, September 26, 2012.

MedlinePlus. "Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery." MedlinePlus, June 10, 2013.

NIH National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. "What Is Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting?" NIH National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, February 23, 2012.

Rippe, James M. Heart Disease for Dummies. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2004.

Sheridan, Brett C., et al. So You’re Having Heart Bypass Surgery. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2003.

List three problems Pahom experienced as he increased his land holdings in "How Much Land Does a Man Need?"

The first time Pahom increased his land holdings, he faced significant challenges when he tried to deal with the peasants who were also his neighbors. The first problem he encountered was with his neighbors who trespassed on his land. Livestock belonging to his neighbors also entered his fields and destroyed his crops and pasture.  He tried to deal with the issues amicably but the problems continued, and he was forced to seek legal action. A number of peasants were summoned, tried and punished on Pahom’s account. However, his actions made the situation worse and created a second problem with his neighbors who became hostile and willfully destroyed his produce.

Pahom moved to a different part and acquired more land. He was successful in growing wheat but soon realized that he required more land to cultivate. In addition, wheat was only grown on virgin soil, and his entire holding was committed. The situation forced him to rent more land, an arrangement he was not comfortable with because of its complexities.

Why would William Shakespeare make Juliet twelve years old? Isn't that a little young to make her fall in love with a fifteen to eighteen year old?

While our society considers this to be inappropriate, it is important to keep in mind that Romeo and Juliet was written for a very different audience. In Elizabethan times, a girl could get married at the age of twelve if her parents gave their consent. While this was not a common practice, it was still considered acceptable. 

In addition, members of noble families married earlier than the lower classes. The Montagues and Capulets would both fit in the noble class. This was to build alliances between powerful families, which allowed the audience to accept the reality of a young girl getting married so early. 

One of the most important factors is that Romeo and Juliet is a Shakespearean tragedy. It is meant to make the audience feel, and hyperbole is one of Shakespeare's greatest tools. Having characters die at such a young age would have a more powerful impact than if they married when they were older. In the end, it is the drama of it all that wins over sense.

What does Jim's present in "The Gift of the Magi" tell you about his character?

Jim sells the gold watch, which O. Henry indicates was his "prized possession", in order to buy Della tortoise shell combs for her hair. His Christmas present shows that he is generous, even to the point of self sacrifice. He's a man who doesn't dwell on material objects. He readily gives up his watch just to make his wife happy. She is the most important thing in his life. He also seems to be a level-headed young man who takes things in stride. While he is slightly taken aback by Della's new hairstyle, he accepts it without negative comment and O. Henry reports that he was neither shocked nor surprised, as Della feared. He simply hugs Della and in this act shows the unqualified love he has for his wife. He tells her that they will put away their presents for now and use them at some future time. This shows a very sensible man who, despite the current financial situation he and Della find themselves in, knows things will get better in the future as long as he has Della's love. While O. Henry says that Jim and Della were "two foolish children" he strongly suggests that the strength of their love and willingness to sacrifice for the other makes them as wise as the Magi who brought presents to the baby Jesus so many Christmases ago. 

What is the fastest way to determine which element you are looking at while only using neutrons and nothing else?

It is not possible to positively identify an element based only on the number of neutrons.  Several different elements might even have the same number of neutrons.  For example, boron and carbon have 6 neutrons each.  Fluorine and neon each have 10 neutrons, so knowing neutron counts won't help a person positively identify the element.  

Additionally, different isotopes of the same element will have a different number of neutrons.  The element will have the same number of protons though.  

The only way to positively identify an element based on the number of subatomic particles is to know the number of protons present in the atom. The number of protons stays constant.  While looking at a periodic table, the atomic number provides a person with the number of protons.  The mass number tells a person how many protons and neutrons are present.  For example, the element fluorine has a mass number of 19 and an atomic number of 9.  Find the difference between the two numbers, and that is the number of neutrons.  19 - 9 = 10 neutrons.

How did geography limit the success of the Crusades?

Simply put, the Levant was too far away from Europe.  European armies had long supply trains.  They needed food for the army and fodder for horses.  There was also a need to bring weapons, clothing, and servants.  The roads in Medieval Europe were horrible, so it took a lot of time for the Crusaders just to leave Europe.  There were also warring factions inside of Christendom, so it was not uncommon to have a supply train looted by armies going to war against each other.  Once in Asia Minor, the Crusaders learned that the local populace was either afraid or hostile toward Europeans and would offer little in the way of food or supplies.  Arab fighters learned that the best way to control the Crusading armies was to control oases so that the armies could not get to water, thus leading to men and animals dying of thirst and starvation as their food supplies ran out.  

Another way geography hurt the Crusaders was the climate of the region.  Knights still relied on metal armor, which overheated the owner on long marches through the desert.  The European horse was also a heavier animal than his Arabian counterpart.  While the knight was good for direct charges, he was no match for the Arabian horse archer, who would rely more on mobility.  Climate and sheer distance limited the abilities of the Crusading armies, and it would have been difficult if not impossible for them to maintain control over the Middle East.  

How did General Zaroff first come to the island in "The Most Dangerous Game?"

General Zaroff bought the island after he got bored with hunting ordinary game. 

Zaroff was an aristocrat that got forced out of Russia with the revolution.  His family had been very rich, and he managed to hold onto his money despite the economic turmoil that followed.  

"After the debacle in Russia I left the country, for it was imprudent for an officer of the Czar to stay there. Many noble Russians lost everything. I, luckily, had invested heavily in American securities, so I shall never have to open a tearoom in Monte Carlo or drive a taxi in Paris.  …” 

Zaroff continued to travel the world hunting more and more exotic game, but it was boring for him.  He had been a hunter since he was a child, and it was the only thing he found exciting in life.  When Rainsford asks Zaroff what new animal he found to hunt, Zaroff explains the purpose of the island.

"I never joke about hunting. I needed a new animal. I found one. So I bought this island built this house, and here I do my hunting. The island is perfect for my purposes--there are jungles with a maze of traits in them, hills, swamps--"

The island had a reputation as dangerous among sailors.  It was called Ship-Trap Island.  Zaroff seeded the island with prey by placing lights to indicate a channel where there was none.  Ships would get grounded there and he would take the sailors prisoner.  These he forced to play his game.

Rainsford is horrified that Zaroff is actually hunting people on his island.  He knows that he is trapped on the island and has no way off.  He calls Zaroff’s activities murder, but Zaroff thinks he is being Puritanical.  In Zaroff’s world-view, only the strong deserve to survive.   He is strong, so he wins.

How did World War II impact Australia? List the long term and short term effects.

Australia was geographically close to Japan and its territories.  Japan occupied what are today Indonesia and the Philippines.  Both are located to the north of Australia.  This proximity made attacks on Australian soil by the Japanese feasible.  

Sydney Harbour was attacked by torpedoes from submarines in 1942.  Air raids by the Japanese in the northern part of Australia occurred nearly one hundred times during World War II.  The city of Darwin was attacked by bombers in 1942, and resulted in approximately two hundred deaths.  These attacks caused fear and anxiety among many Australians.  In addition to this fear, Australians lived with the daily realities of war.  Nearly one million Australians served in the armed forces during the war.  There was some rationing in Australia, though not as much as in Great Britain.

The Australians did not suffer as many attacks as expected despite their proximity to Japan.  After the war ended, the Australian government decided that the nation should be better prepared just in case war were to come again.  They desired a population increase to help build up a larger military.  They also wanted to rebuild and improve their military after the war.

In order to increase the population, the government encouraged increased immigration.  The post-war economy of Australia was much stronger than that of Great Britain, so new immigrants found jobs easily.

What are Macbeth's flaws that led to his demise ?

Macbeth's most crucial flaw is his ambition. It drives him to commit unnatural and evil deeds to fulfill the witches' prophecy as he understands it. At the beginning of the play Macbeth is described by his peers as a virtuous and loyal thane to the king, his kinsman Duncan. But as soon as he encounters the witches and hears their prophecy that he will become king, he is consumed by what he calls his "black desires." He acknowledges his own ambition when he vacillates over murdering Duncan, admitting that he has no cause to kill the king except his own ambition:

I have no spur
To prick the sides of my intent, but only
Vaulting ambition, which o'erleaps itself
And falls on the other...

The problem with Macbeth's ambition is that it drives him to rise above his place in society. It upsets the natural order of things, and unleashes a flood of violence that consumes Scotland. 

Another of Macbeth's flaws is his willingness to listen and to be directed by others. His wife, convinced that Macbeth might be too "full of the milk of human kindness" to carry out the brutal deeds necessary to fulfill what she sees as his destiny, challenges his masculinity and his courage to goad him into killing Duncan when he hesitates. Macbeth also places total faith in the witches, which causes him to interpret their cryptic prophecies in ways that turn out to be misguided. For example, he believes that the witches' statement that he can never be killed by anyone "of woman born" causes him to be overconfident, and when he discovers that Macduff was born by Caesarian section, thus technically fulfilling the prophecy, he feels that unnatural forces have tricked him. Still, it must be said, he allowed himself to be tricked, and doing so brought him to the fateful meeting with Macduff outside Dunsinane. 

If a culture from a wound was sent to the lab for work up, explain the steps you would take to isolate and identify the causative agent. (Include...

Common Pathogens Found in Wounds

Staph. aureus, Beta hemolytic Strep. (S. pyogenes, S. agalactiae), E. coli, Proteus, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Stenotrophomonas, anaerobic bacteria

Wound Infection Progress and Gram Test Results

Particular types of bacteria may be suspected based on the age of the wound and the gram test results.

• 
  Early Acute Wound: Normal skin flora, followed by Staph. Aureus and Beta-hemolytic Strep.; mostly gram positive bacteria


• 
  About Four Weeks: facultative anaerobic gram negative rods such as Proteus, E. coli, and Klebsiella


• 
  Longer Term Wound: Anaerobic bacteria become more common


• 
  Long Term Chronic Wound: Often contain more anaerobic bacteria than aerobic bacteria - aerobic gram negative rods also seen; Examples include Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Stenotrophomonas

Common Culture Media

The following culture media can be used to isolate specific types of organisms:

• 
  Mannitol Salt Agar: Use to isolate Staphylococci and Micrococci


• 
  Phenylethyl Alcohol Agar: Use to isolate gram positive bacteria


• 
  Blood Agar: Use to grow most bacteria


• 
  Chocolate Agar: Used to isolate Neisseria and Haemophilus 

Common Enzymatic Tests

• 
  Catalase: Positive - Staphylococci; Negative - Streptococci and most anaerobes


• 
  Coagulase: Positive - Staphylococcus aureus


• 
  Oxidase: Positive - most gram negative bacteria

*Please also see the first reference listed below, which shows a detailed flowchart for the identification of bacteria based on differential culture media, enzymatic tests, and resistance patterns.

In books 9-12 of The Odyssey, name one of Odysseus's strengths and one of his weaknesses. Explain your answer.

In book IX, Odysseus shows how clever he is.  He realizes that if he kills Polyphemus, the Cyclops, he and his men will perish inside the cave because they will have no way to move the stone from the door.  He comes up with a plan, instead, to blind the monster so that he will still be able to move the stone but he will not be able to see the men, and this will make it easier to evade him.  Further, he cleverly tells Polyphemus that his own name is "Nobody" so that, when other Cyclopes come to their brother's aid, he will have to tell them that "Nobody is hurting [him]!"  Pretty ingenious.  Certainly, his cleverness is a major strength.

However, at the end of this same book, Odysseus shows how proud he is, and it spells danger for him.  As his ship races away from the Cyclopes' island, he shouts back at Polyphemus and tells the monster that his real name is Odysseus.  He is gloating, and he wants the Cyclops to be able to tell people who it was that bested him.  However, Poseidon, the god of the sea, is Polyphemus's father, and Polyphemus prays to his father to avenge his injuries, and, because Odysseus revealed his identity to the monster, Polyphemus knows exactly whose name to give his daddy.  Thus, Odysseus's pride results in a lot more trouble for him on his way home and is a serious weakness.

What are natural treatments for diabetes?

Introduction

Diabetes has two forms. In the type that develops early in
childhood (type 1), the insulin-secreting cells of the pancreas are destroyed
(probably by a viral infection) and blood levels of insulin drop
nearly to zero. However, in type 2 diabetes (usually developing in adults),
insulin remains plentiful, but the body does not respond normally to it. (This is
only an approximate description of the difference between the two types.) In both
forms of diabetes, blood sugar reaches toxic levels, causing injury to many organs
and tissues.

Conventional treatment for type 1 diabetes includes insulin injections and careful dietary monitoring. Type 2 diabetes may respond to lifestyle changes alone, such as increasing exercise, losing weight, and improving diet. Various oral medications are also often effective for type 2 diabetes, although insulin injections may be necessary in some cases.

Principal Proposed Natural Treatments

Several alternative methods may be helpful when used under medical supervision as an addition to standard treatment. They may help stabilize, reduce, or eliminate medication requirements or may correct nutritional deficiencies associated with diabetes. However, because diabetes is a dangerous disease with many potential complications, alternative treatment for diabetes should not be attempted as a substitute for conventional medical care. Other natural treatments may be helpful for preventing and treating complications of diabetes, including peripheral neuropathy, cardiac autonomic neuropathy, retinopathy, and cataracts.

Treatments for improving blood sugar control. The following treatments might be able to improve blood sugar control in type 1 or type 2 diabetes, or both. However, for none of these is the evidence strong. The mere fact of joining a study tends to improve blood sugar control in people with diabetes, even before any treatment is begun. Presumably, the experience of being enrolled in a trial causes participants to watch their diet more closely. This indicates that for diabetes, as for all conditions, the use of a double-blind, placebo-controlled method is essential. Only if the proposed treatment proves more effective than placebo can it be considered to work in its own right.

For those persons in which a natural treatment for diabetes works, it is
essential to reduce their medications to avoid hypoglycemia.
For this reason, medical supervision is necessary.

Chromium. Chromium is an essential trace mineral that plays a
significant role in sugar metabolism. Some evidence suggests that chromium
supplementation may help bring blood sugar levels under
control in type 2 diabetes, but it is far from definitive.

A four-month study reported in 1997 followed 180 Chinese men and women with type 2 diabetes, comparing the effects of 1,000 micrograms (mcg) chromium, 200 mcg chromium, and placebo. The results showed that HbA1c (glycated hemoglobin) values (a measure of long-term blood sugar control) improved significantly after twp months in the group receiving 1,000 mcg, and in both chromium groups after four months. Fasting glucose (a measure of short-term blood sugar control) was also lower in the group taking the higher dose of chromium.

A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of seventy-eight people with type 2 diabetes compared two forms of chromium (brewer’s yeast and chromium chloride) with placebo. This rather complex crossover study consisted of four eight-week intervals of treatment in random order. The results in the sixty-seven participants who completed the study showed that both forms of chromium significantly improved blood sugar control. Positive results were also seen in other small, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies of people with type 2 diabetes. However, several other studies have failed to find chromium helpful for improving blood sugar control in type 2 diabetes. These contradictory findings suggest that the benefit, if it exists, is small.

A combination of chromium and biotin might be more effective.
Following positive results in a small pilot trial, researchers conducted a
double-blind study of 447 people with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes. One-half
of the participants were given placebo and the rest were given a combination of
600 milligrams (mg) of chromium (as chromium picolinate) and 2 mg of biotin daily.
All participants continued to receive standard oral medications for diabetes.
During the ninety-day study period, participants who were given the
chromium-biotin combination showed significantly better glucose regulation than
participants who were given placebo. The relative benefit was clear in levels of
fasting glucose and in levels of HgA1c (glycated hemoglobin).

One placebo-controlled study of thirty women with gestational
diabetes (diabetes during pregnancy) found that
supplementation with chromium (at a dosage of 4 or 8 mcg chromium picolinate for
each kilogram of body weight) significantly improved blood sugar control. Chromium
has also shown some promise for helping diabetes caused by corticosteroid
treatment.

Ginseng. In double-blind studies performed by a single research group, the use of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) appeared to improve blood sugar control. In some studies, the same researchers subsequently reported possible benefit with Korean red ginseng, a specially prepared form of P. ginseng.

A different research group found benefits with ordinary P. ginseng. However, in other studies, ordinary P. ginseng seemed to worsen blood sugar control rather than improve it. (Another research group found potential benefit.) It seems possible that certain ginsenosides (found in high concentrations in some American ginseng products) may lower blood sugar, while others (found in high concentration in some P. ginseng products) may raise it. It has been suggested that because the actions of these various ginseng constituents are not well defined, ginseng should not be used to treat diabetes until more is known.

Aloe. The succulent aloe plant has been valued since
prehistoric times as a topical treatment for burns, wound infections, and other
skin problems. Today, evidence suggests that oral aloe might be useful for type 2
diabetes.

Evidence from two human trials suggests that aloe gel (the gel of the aloe vera plant, and not the leaf skin, which constitutes the drug aloe) can improve blood sugar control. A single-blind, placebo-controlled trial evaluated the potential benefits of aloe in either seventy-two or forty people with diabetes. (The study report appears to contradict itself). The results showed significantly greater improvements in blood sugar levels among those given aloe over the two-week treatment period.

Another single-blind, placebo-controlled trial evaluated the benefits of aloe in people who had failed to respond to the oral diabetes drug glibenclamide. Of the thirty-six people who completed the study, those taking glibenclamide and aloe showed definite improvements in blood sugar levels over forty-two days compared with those taking glibenclamide and placebo. While these are promising results, large studies that are double-blind rather than single-blind will be needed to establish aloe as an effective treatment for improving blood sugar control.

Cinnamon.
Cinnamon has been widely advertised as an effective
treatment for type 2 diabetes and for high cholesterol. The primary basis for this
claim is a single study performed in Pakistan. In this forty-day study, sixty
people with type 2 diabetes were given cinnamon at a dose of 1, 3, or 6 grams (g)
daily. The results reportedly indicated that the use of cinnamon improved blood
sugar levels by 18 to 29 percent, total cholesterol by 12 to 26 percent, LDL (bad)
cholesterol by 7 to 27 percent, and triglycerides by 23 to 30 percent. These
results were said to be statistically significant compared to the beginning of the
study and to the placebo group.

However, this study has some odd features. The most important feature is that the study found no significant difference in benefit among the various doses of cinnamon. This is called lack of a “dose-related effect,” and it generally casts doubt on the results of a study.

In an attempt to replicate these results, a group of Dutch researchers performed a carefully designed six-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of twenty-five people with type 2 diabetes. All participants were given 1.5 g of cinnamon daily. The results failed to show any detectable effect on blood sugar, insulin sensitivity, or cholesterol profile. Furthermore, a double-blind study performed in Thailand enrolling sixty people, again using 1.5 g of cinnamon daily, also failed to find benefit. However, a double-blind study of seventy-nine people that used 3 g instead of 1.5 g daily did find that cinnamon improved blood sugar levels. In addition, a small study evaluated cinnamon for improving blood sugar control in women with polycystic ovary disease, and it too found evidence of benefit. Regarding type 1 diabetes, a study of seventy-two adolescents failed to find benefit with cinnamon taken at a dose of 1 g daily.

A meta-analysis (formal statistical review) of all published evidence concluded that cinnamon has no effect on blood sugar levels in people with diabetes. The evidence regarding cinnamon as a treatment for diabetes is highly inconsistent, suggesting that if cinnamon is indeed effective, its benefits are minimal at most.

Other treatments studied for their effect on blood sugar control.
The food spice fenugreek might also help control blood sugar, but the
supporting evidence is weak. In a two-month double-blind study of twenty-five
people with type 2 diabetes, the use of fenugreek (1 g daily of a standardized
extract) significantly improved some measures of blood sugar control and insulin
response compared with placebo. Triglyceride levels decreased and HDL (good)
cholesterol levels increased, presumably because of the enhanced insulin
sensitivity. Similar benefits have been seen in animal studies and open human
trials. However, it is possible that the effects of fenugreek come from its
dietary fiber content.

A few preliminary studies suggest that the Ayurvedic (Indian) herb
gymnema may help improve blood sugar control. It might be
helpful for mild cases of type 2 diabetes when taken alone or with standard
treatment (under a doctor’s supervision in either case).

Studies in rats with and without diabetes suggest that high doses of the mineral vanadium may have an insulin-like effect, reducing blood sugar levels. Based on these findings, preliminary studies involving humans have been conducted, with some promising results. However, of 151 studies reviewed, none was of sufficient quality to judge if vanadium is beneficial in type 2 diabetes. The researchers did find that vanadium was often associated with gastrointestinal side effects. Furthermore, there may be some cause for concern given the high doses of vanadium used in some of these studies.

The following herbs are proposed for helping to control blood sugar, but the supporting evidence regarding their potential benefit is, in all cases, at best preliminary; for some, there are as many negative results as positive: agaricus, blazei, berberine (goldenseal), black tea, caiapo, cod protein, cayenne, Coccinia indica (also known as C. cordifolia), garlic, green tea, guggul, holy basil (Ocimum sanctum), maitake, milk thistle, nopal cactus (Opuntia stredptacantha), onion, oolong tea, oligomeric proanthocyanidins, Salacia oblonga, Salvia hispanica (a grain), and salt bush. Additionally, the supplements arginine, carnitine, coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), glucomannan, lipoic acid, melatonin with zinc, and vitamin E might also help control blood sugar levels to a slight degree.

One placebo-controlled study found hints that the use of medium-chain
triglycerides by people with type 2 diabetes might improve insulin sensitivity and
aid weight loss. The herb bitter melon (Momordica charantia) is
widely advertised as effective for diabetes, but the scientific basis for this
claim is limited to animal studies, uncontrolled human trials, and other
unreliable forms of evidence. The one properly designed (that is, double-blind,
placebo-controlled) study of bitter melon failed to find benefit. Conjugated
linoleic acid (CLA) has shown promise in preliminary trials. However, other
studies have found that CLA might worsen blood sugar control.

One study found that insulin metabolism in 278 young, overweight persons
improved on a calorie-restricted diet rich in fish oil from
seafood or supplements compared with those on a diet low in fish oil. Though
preliminary, the results suggest that fish oil may help delay the onset of
diabetes in susceptible persons. In another study of fifty people with type 2
diabetes, 2 g per day of purified omega-3-fatty acids (fish oil) was able to
significantly lower triglycerides levels. However, it had no effect on blood sugar
control.

Other herbs traditionally used for diabetes that might possibly offer some benefit include Anemarrhena asphodeloides, Azadirachta indica (neem), Catharanthus roseus, Cucurbita ficifolia, Cucumis sativus, Cuminum cyminum (cumin), Euphorbia prostrata, Guaiacum coulteri, Guazuma ulmifolia, Lepechinia caulescens, Medicago sativa (alfalfa), Musa sapientum L. (banana), Phaseolus vulgaris, Psacalium peltatum, Rhizophora mangle, Spinacea oleracea, Tournefortia hirsutissima, and Turnera diffusa.

Combination herbal therapies used in Ayurvedic medicine have also shown some
promise for improving blood sugar control. One study attempted to test the
effectiveness of whole-person Ayurvedic treatment involving exercise, Ayurvedic
diet, meditation, and Ayurvedic herbal treatment. However, minimal benefits were
seen.

A double-blind study of more than two hundred people evaluated the
effectiveness of a combination herbal formula used in traditional Chinese herbal
medicine (Coptis formula). This study evaluated Coptis
formula with and without the drug glibenclamide. The results hint that Coptis
formula may enhance the effectiveness of the drug but that it is not powerful
enough to treat diabetes on its own. Another randomized trial, this one lacking a
control group, found no added benefit for Tai Chi in the treatment of blood
glucose and cholesterol levels among fifty-three people with type 2 diabetes
during a six-month period.

One study claimed to find evidence that creatine
supplements can reduce levels of blood sugar. However,
because dextrose (a form of sugar) was used as the “placebo” in this trial, the
results are somewhat questionable. In another study, the herb Tinospora
crispa did not work, and it showed the potential to cause liver
injury.

One study found hints that the supplement DHEA might improve insulin sensitivity. However, a subsequent and more rigorous study failed to find benefits. Relatively weak evidence hints that genistein (an isoflavone extracted from soy) might help control blood sugar.

It has been suggested that if a child has just developed diabetes, the
supplement niacinamide (a form of niacin, also called vitamin
B3) might slightly prolong what is called the honeymoon period. This
is the interval during which the pancreas can still make some insulin and the
body’s need for insulin injections is low. However, the benefits (if any) appear
to be minor. A cocktail of niacinamide plus antioxidant vitamins and minerals has
also been tried, but the results were disappointing. Niacinamide has also been
tried for preventing diabetes in high-risk children. According to most studies,
fructo-oligosaccharides (also known as prebiotics) do not improve blood sugar
control in people with type 2 diabetes.

Massage
therapy has shown some promise for enhancing blood sugar
control in children with diabetes. A review of nine clinical trials found
insufficient evidence to support the traditional Chinese practice of qigong as
beneficial for treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Treating Nutritional Deficiencies

Both diabetes and the medications used to treat it can cause people to fall short of various nutrients. Making up for these deficiencies (through either diet or the use of supplements) may or may not help with diabetes specifically, but it should make a person healthier overall. One double-blind study, for example, found that people with type 2 diabetes who took a multivitamin-multimineral supplement were less likely to develop an infectious illness than those who took placebo.

People with diabetes are often deficient in magnesium, and inconsistent
evidence hints that magnesium supplementation may enhance
blood sugar control. People with either type 1 or type 2 diabetes may also be
deficient in the mineral zinc. Vitamin C levels have been found to be
low in many people on insulin, even though these persons were consuming seemingly
adequate amounts of the vitamin in their diets. Deficiencies of taurine and
manganese have also been reported. The drug metformin can cause vitamin
B12 deficiency. Taking extra calcium may prevent this.

Prevention

Niacinamide. Evidence from a large study conducted in New Zealand suggests that the supplement niacinamide might reduce the risk of diabetes in children at high risk. In this study, more than twenty thousand children were screened for diabetes risk by measuring certain antibodies in the blood (ICA antibodies, believed to indicate risk of developing diabetes). It turned out that 185 of these children had detectable levels. About 170 of these children were then given niacinamide for seven years (not all parents agreed to give their children niacinamide or to have them stay in the study for that long). About ten thousand other children were not screened, but they were followed to see if they developed diabetes.

The results were positive. In the group in which children were screened and given niacinamide if they were positive for ICA antibodies, the incidence of diabetes was reduced by almost 60 percent. These findings suggest that niacinamide is an effective treatment for preventing diabetes. (The study also indicates that tests for ICA antibodies can very accurately identify children at risk for diabetes.)

An even larger study that attempted to replicate these results in Europe (the European Nicotinamide Diabetes Intervention Trial) failed to find benefit. This study screened 40,000 children at high risk and selected 552. The results were negative. The rate of diabetes onset was not statistically different in the group given niacinamide compared with those given placebo. Another study also failed to find benefit.

Dietary changes. The related terms “glycemic index” and “glycemic load” indicate the tendency of certain foods to stimulate insulin release. It has been suggested that foods that rank high on these scales, such as white flour and sweets, might tend to exhaust the pancreas and therefore lead to type 2 diabetes. For this reason, low-carbohydrate and low-glycemic-index diets have been promoted for the prevention of type 2 diabetes. However, the results from studies on this question have been contradictory and far from definitive.

There is no question, however, that people who are obese have a far greater tendency to develop type 2 diabetes than those who are relatively slim; therefore, weight loss (especially when accompanied by increase in exercise) is clearly an effective step for prevention. One review suggests that a weight decrease of 7 to 10 percent is enough to provide significant benefit.

Other natural treatments. Studies investigating the preventive
effects of antioxidant supplements have generally been disappointing. In an
extremely large double-blind study, the use of vitamin E at
a dose of 600 international units every other day failed to reduce the risk of
type 2 diabetes in women. Another large study, which enrolled male smokers, failed
to find benefit with beta-carotene, vitamin E, or the two taken together. Another
large study of female health professionals who were more than forty years old with
or at high risk for cardiovascular disease found that long-term supplementation
(an average of just more than nine years) with vitamin C, vitamin E, or
beta-carotene did not significantly reduce the risk of developing diabetes
compared with placebo. In a smaller (but still sizable) trial involving a subgroup
of these same women, supplementation with vitamins B6 and
B12 and folic acid also did not reduce risk of type 2 diabetes.

Several observational studies suggest that vitamin D may also help prevent diabetes. However, studies of this type are far less reliable than double-blind trials. One observational study failed to find that high consumption of lycopene reduced risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

Supplements to Use Only with Caution

In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of sixty overweight men, the use of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) unexpectedly worsened blood sugar control. These findings surprised researchers, who were looking for potential diabetes-related benefits with this supplement. Other studies corroborate this as a potential risk for people with type 2 diabetes and for overweight people without diabetes. Another study, however, failed to find this effect. Nonetheless, people with type 2 diabetes or who are at risk for it should not use CLA except under physician supervision.

Unexpected results also occurred in a study of vitamin E. For various theoretical reasons, researchers expected that the use of vitamin E (either alpha tocopherol or mixed tocopherols) by people with diabetes would reduce blood pressure; instead, the reverse occurred. People with diabetes should probably monitor their blood pressure if they take high-dose vitamin E supplements.

There are equivocal indications that the herb ginkgo might alter insulin release or insulin sensitivity in people with diabetes. The effect, if it exists, appears to be rather complex; the herb may cause some increase in insulin output and, yet, might actually lower insulin levels overall through its effects on the liver and perhaps on oral medications used for diabetes. Until this situation is clarified, people with diabetes should use ginkgo only under the supervision of a physician.

Despite hopes to the contrary, it does not appear that selenium
supplements can help prevent type 2 diabetes, but rather
might increase the risk of developing the disease. Contrary to earlier concerns,
vitamin B3 (niacin) and fish oil appear to be safe for people with
diabetes. A few early case reports and animal studies had raised concerns that
glucosamine might be harmful for persons with diabetes, but subsequent studies
have tended to allay these worries.

Finally, if any herb or supplement does in fact successfully decrease blood sugar levels, this could lead to dangerous hypoglycemia. A doctor’s supervision is strongly suggested

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