What are dizziness and fainting?

Causes and Symptoms

In humans, several mechanisms have evolved by which adequate blood flow to organs
is maintained. Without a constant blood supply, the body’s tissues would die from
a lack of essential nutrients and oxygen. In particular, the brain and heart are
very sensitive to changes in their blood supply as they, more than any other
organs, must receive oxygen and nutrients at all times. If they do not, their
cells will die and cannot be replaced.

While the heart supplies most of the force needed to propel the blood throughout
the body, tissues rely on changes in the size of arteries to redirect blood flow
to where it is needed most. For example, after a large meal the blood vessels that
lead to the gastrointestinal tract enlarge (vasodilate) so that more blood can be
present to collect the nutrients from the meal. At the same time, the blood
vessels that supply muscles decrease in diameter (vasoconstrict) and effectively
shunt the blood toward the stomach and intestines. During exercise, the blood
vessels that supply the muscles dilate and the ones leading to the intestinal
tract vasoconstrict. This mechanism allows the cardiovascular system to supply the
most blood to the most active tissues.

The brain is somewhat special in that the body tries to maintain a nearly constant
blood flow to it. Located in the walls of the carotid arteries, which carry blood
to the brain, are specialized sensory cells that have the ability to detect
changes in blood
pressure. These cells are known as baroreceptors. If the
blood pressure going to the brain is too low, the baroreceptors send an impulse to
the brain, which in turn speeds up the heart rate and causes a generalized
vasoconstriction. This reflex response raises the body’s blood pressure,
reestablishing adequate blood flow to the brain. If the baroreceptors detect too
high a blood pressure, they send a signal to the brain, which in turn slows the
heart rate and causes the arteries of the body to dilate. These reflexes prevent
large fluctuations in blood flow to the brain and other tissues.

Most people have experienced a dizzy feeling or maybe even a fainting response
when they have stood up too quickly from a prone position. The ability of the
baroreceptors to maintain relatively constant arterial pressure is extremely
important when a person stands after having been lying down. Immediately upon
standing, the pressure in the carotid arteries falls, and a reduction of this
pressure can cause dizziness or even fainting. Fortunately, the falling pressure
at the baroreceptors elicits an immediate reflex, resulting in a more rapid heart
rate and vasoconstriction, minimizing the decrease in blood flow to the brain.

Blood pressure is not the only factor that is essential in maintaining tissue
viability. The accumulation of waste products and a lack of essential nutrients
and gases can also have a profound effect on how much blood flows through a
particular tissue and how quickly. In a region of the carotid arteries near the
baroreceptors are chemoreceptors. Chemoreceptors detect the concentration of the
essential gas oxygen and the concentration of the gaseous waste product
carbon
dioxide. When carbon dioxide concentrations increase and
oxygen concentrations decrease, the chemoreceptors stimulate regions in the brain
to increase the heart rate and blood pressure in an attempt to supply the tissues
with more oxygen and flush away the excess carbon dioxide. If the chemoreceptors
detect high levels of oxygen and low levels of carbon dioxide, an impulse is
transmitted to the brain, which in turn slows the heart rate and decreases the
blood pressure.

Normally, most of the blood flow to the brain is controlled by the baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes. However, the brain has a backup system. If blood flow decreases enough to cause a deficiency of nutrients and oxygen and an accumulation of waste products, special nerve cells respond directly to the lack of adequate energy sources and become strongly excited. When this occurs, the heart is stimulated and blood pressure rises.

Dizziness is a sensation of light-headedness often accompanied by a sensation of
spinning (vertigo). Occasionally, a person experiencing dizziness will
feel nauseated and may even vomit. Most attacks of dizziness are harmless,
resulting from a brief reduction in blood flow to the brain. There are several
causes of dizziness, and each alters blood flow to the brain for a slightly
different reason.

A person rising rapidly from a sitting or lying position may become dizzy. This is
known as postural hypotension, which is caused by a relatively slow reflexive
response to the reduced blood pressure in the arteries providing blood to the
brain. Rising requires increased blood pressure to supply the brain with adequate
amounts of blood. Postural hypotension is more common in the elderly and in
individuals prescribed antihypertensive medicines (drugs used
to lower high blood pressure).

If the patient experiences vertigo with dizziness, the condition is usually caused
by a disorder of the inner ear equilibrium system. Two
disorders of the inner ear that can cause dizziness are labyrinthitis
and Ménière’s
disease. Labyrinthitis, inflammation of the fluid-filled
canals of the inner ear, is usually caused by a virus. Since these canals are
involved in maintaining equilibrium, when they become infected and inflamed, one
experiences the symptom of dizziness. Ménière’s disease is a degenerative disorder
of the ear in which the patient experiences not only dizziness but also
progressive hearing loss.

Some brain-stem disorders also cause dizziness. The brain stem houses the
vestibulocochlear nerve, which transmits messages from the ear to several other
parts of the nervous system. Any disorder that alters the functions of this nerve
will result in dizziness and vertigo. Meningitis (inflammation of the
coverings of the brain and spinal cord), brain tumors,
and blood-flow deficiency disorders such as atherosclerosis may affect the function of the
vestibulocochlear nerve.

Syncope (fainting) is often preceded by dizziness. Syncope
is the temporary loss of consciousness as a result of an inadequate blood flow to
the brain. In addition to losing consciousness, the patient may be pale and
sweaty. The most common cause of syncope is a vasovagal attack, in which an
overstimulation of the vagus nerve slows the heart. Often
vasovagal syncope results from severe pain, stress, or fear. For example, people
may faint when hearing bad news or at the sight of blood. More commonly,
individuals who have received a painful injury will faint. Rarely, vasovagal
syncope may be caused by prolonged coughing, straining to defecate or urinate,
pregnancy, or forcing expiration. Standing still for long
periods of time or standing up rapidly after lying or sitting can cause fainting.
With the exception of vasovagal syncope, all the causes of syncope are
attributable to inadequate blood returning to the heart. If blood pools in the
lower extremities, there is a reduced amount available for the heart to pump to
the brain. In vasovagal syncope and some disorders of heart rhythm such as
Adams-Stokes syndrome, it is the heart itself that does not force enough blood
toward the brain.

Treatment and Therapy

Short periods of dizziness usually subside after a few minutes. Deep breathing and
rest will usually help relieve the symptom. Prolonged episodes of dizziness and
vertigo should be brought to the attention of a physician.

Recovery from fainting likewise will occur when adequate blood flow to the brain is reestablished. This happens within minutes because falling to the ground places the head at the same level as the heart and helps return the blood from the legs. If a person does not regain consciousness within a few minutes, a physician or emergency medical team should be notified.

The most common cause of syncope is decreased cerebral blood flow resulting from
the limitation of cardiac output. When the heart rate falls below its normal
seventy-five beats per minute to approximately thirty-five beats per minute, the
patient usually becomes dizzy and faints. Although slow heart rates can occur in
any age group, they are most often found in elderly people who have other heart
conditions. Drug-induced syncope can also occur. Drugs for congestive heart
failure (digoxin) or antihypertensive medications that slow the heart rate
(propranolol, metoprolol) may reduce blood flow to the brain sufficiently to cause
dizziness and fainting.

Exertional syncope occurs when individuals perform some physical activity to which
they are not accustomed. These physical efforts demand more work from the
cardiovascular system, and in patients with some obstruction of the arteries which
leave the heart, the cardiovascular system is overstressed. This defect, combined
with the vasodilation in the blood vessels that provide blood to the working
muscles, reduces the amount of blood available for use by the brain. If the person
also hyperventilates during exercise, he or she will effectively
reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood and rid the cardiovascular system
of this normal stimulus for increasing heart rate and blood flow to the brain.
Some persons also hold their breath during periods of high exertion. For example,
people attempting to lift something very heavy often take a deep breath just prior
to exerting and then hold their breath when they lift the object. This practice,
known as the Valsalva maneuver, increases the pressure within the chest cavity,
which in turn reduces the amount of blood returning to the heart. A decrease in
blood returning to the heart (venous return) causes a decrease in the availability
of blood to be pumped out of the heart and reduces cardiac output. The reduction
in cardiac output decreases the amount of blood flowing to the brain and initiates
a fainting response. It is interesting to note that humans also use the Valsalva
maneuver when defecating or urinating, particularly when they strain. These acts
can also lead to exertional syncope.

For a physician to diagnose and treat dizziness and fainting accurately, he or she
must take an accurate medical history, paying particular attention to
cardiovascular and neurological problems. In addition to experiencing episodes of
dizziness and fainting, patients often have a weak pulse, low blood pressure
(hypotension), sweating, and shallow breathing. Heart rate and blood pressure are
monitored while the patient assumes different positions. The clinician also
listens to the heart and carotid arteries to determine whether there are any
problems with these tissues, such as a heart valve problem or atherosclerosis of
the carotid arteries. An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) can
detect abnormal heart rates and rhythms that may reduce cardiac output. Laboratory
tests are used to determine whether the patient has low blood sugar
(hypoglycemia), too little blood volume (hypovolemia), too
few red blood cells (anemia), or abnormal blood gases
suggesting a lung disorder. Finally, if the physician suspects a neurological
problem such as a seizure disorder, he or she may run an electroencephalogram (EEG) to record brain activity.

Treatment for any of these underlying disorders may cure the dizziness and
fainting episodes. In patients with postural hypotension, merely being aware of
the condition will allow them to change their behavior to lessen the chances of
becoming dizzy and fainting. These patients should not make any sudden changes in
posture that could precipitate an attack. Often, this means simply slowing down
their movements and learning to assume a horizontal position if they feel dizzy.
Patients also can learn to contract their leg muscles and not hold their breath
when rising. This increases the amount of blood available for the heart to pump
toward the brain. If these techniques do not provide an adequate solution for
postural hypotension, then a physician can prescribe drugs to increase blood
pressure.

Heart rhythm disturbances (arrhythmias) that cause an abnormally
fast or slow heart rate can be corrected with drug therapy such as quinidine or
disopyramide (if the rate is too rapid) or a pacemaker (if the rate is too slow).
It is interesting to note that even too fast a heart rate can cause dizziness and
fainting. In patients with this type of arrhythmia, the heart beats at such a
rapid rate that it cannot efficiently fill with blood before the next contraction.
Therefore, less blood is pumped with each beat.

Other treatments for dizziness and fainting may include correcting the levels of
certain blood elements. Patients with hypoglycemia often feel dizzy. The brain and
spinal cord require glucose as their energy source. In fact, the brain and spinal
cord have a very limited ability to utilize other substrates such as fat or
protein for energy. Because of this, patients often feel light-headed when there
are inadequate levels of glucose in the blood. Patients can correct this condition
by eating more frequent meals, and if necessary, physicians can administer drugs
such as epinephrine or glucagon. These agents liberate glucose from storage sites
in the liver.

Individuals with a low blood volume are often dehydrated and upon becoming
rehydrated no longer have dizziness or fainting episodes. If dehydration
is not corrected and becomes worse, the patient can go into shock, a state of
inadequate blood flow to tissues that will result in death if left untreated. In
addition to being dizzy or fainting, the patient is often cold to the touch and
has a rapid heart rate, low blood pressure, bluish skin, and rapid breathing.
These patients are treated by emergency medical personnel, who keep the individual
warm, elevate the legs, and infuse fluid into a vein. Drugs may be used to help
bring blood pressure back to normal. The cause of the shock should be identified
and corrected.

Perspective and Prospects

As humans evolved, they assumed an upright posture. This is advantageous because
it allows for the use of the front limbs for other things besides locomotion.
Unlike most four-legged animals, however, humans have their brains above their
hearts and must continually force blood upwards to reach this vital tissue. This
adaptation to the upright posture is a continuing physiological problem because
the cardiovascular system must counteract the forces of gravity to provide the
brain with blood. If this does not occur, the individual becomes dizzy and
faints.

Another significant problem that humans face is adaptation to brain blood flow
during exercise. The amount of blood flowing to a tissue is usually proportional
to the metabolic demand of the tissue. At rest, various organs throughout the body
receive a certain amount of the cardiac output. For example, blood flow to
abdominal organs such as the spleen and the kidneys requires about 43 percent of
the total blood volume. The total flow to the brain is estimated to be 13 percent,
and the skin and skeletal muscles require 21 percent and 9 percent, respectively.
Other areas such as the gastrointestinal tract and heart receive the remaining 14
percent. During exercise, the skeletal muscles may receive up to 80 percent of the
cardiac output while the rest of the organs are perfused at a much reduced
rate.

Most data indicates that the brain receives only 3 percent of the total cardiac
output during heavy exercise. Even though there is a large change in the
redistribution of cardiac output, physiologists do not know the absolute amount of
blood reaching the brain or the mechanism for the change in the perfusion
rate.

With strenuous aerobic exercise such as jogging, there is an increase in cardiac
output. During strenuous anaerobic exercise such as weight lifting, however, there
may be a decrease in cardiac output, attributable to the Valsalva maneuver.
Therefore, it has been difficult to predict accurately, using available
techniques, the volume of blood reaching this critical tissue.

Bibliography

Babikian, Viken K.,
and Lawrence R. Wechsler, eds. Transcranial Doppler
Ultrasonography. 2nd ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.
Print.

Brandt, Thomas.
Vertigo: Its Multisensory Syndromes. 2nd ed. New York:
Springer, 2003. Print.

Furman, Joseph M., and
Stephen P. Cass. Vestibular Disorders: A Case-Study
Approach. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2010. Print.

Geelen, G., and J. E.
Greenleaf. “Orthostasis: Exercise and Exercise Training.” Exercise
and Sport Sciences Reviews 21 (1993): 201–30. Print.

Guyton, Arthur C.
Human Physiology and Mechanisms of Disease. 6th ed.
Philadelphia: Saunders, 1997. Print.

Leikin, Jerrold B.,
and Martin S. Lipsky, eds. American Medical Association Complete
Medical Encyclopedia. New York: Random House Reference, 2003.
Print.

When we inhale air, other gases are also inhaled in addition to oxygen. What happens to those gases?

It's worth taking a quick look at the average composition of the atmosphere to answer this question.

Nitrogen: 78%

Oxygen: 21%

Argon: 0.9%

Other gases: 0.1%

We should consider the three primary gases first. Nitrogen and oxygen are both dimolecular, meaning, each one is a pair of atoms bound together. These are pretty small in comparison to the membranes of your cells, let alone your lungs, so it should be fairly easy for them to get into your blood. Argon is an inert gas, so a small amount of it should be irrelevant. A good example of what happens with an inert gas in your body is when people inhale helium; no observable effect besides making your voice squeaky, and maybe lightheadedness, but in sufficient amounts helium can actually be used as a form of euthanasia, so it's entirely viable to say that inert gases don't have to react with anything in order to harm you. However, you're not going to breathe in a deadly amount of argon anywhere in the atmosphere.

This means our other primary consideration should be the nitrogen, which is three or four times more of every breath than the oxygen we actually want. They're similar enough in size and properties that it's not like our lungs can "choose" which one to allow into the blood, and in fact nitrogen does diffuse into our blood right alongside the oxygen. However, we don't have any use for it, and so our blood lacks the ability to bind with the nitrogen and allow it to accumulate in any significant amount. It's there, it just doesn't do anything.

Likewise, the other lesser concentrations of gases tend to either be too small to have a significant effect, like the argon, or not really viable reactants with our metabolism, and therefore just sit around dissolved in our blood in relatively small concentrations, ignored by the cells. 

Why does Paul refuse to be chloroformed after his injury in All Quiet on the Western Front?

Paul refuses to be "put under" because he fears that the surgeon will amputate his injured leg.

In Chapter 10 of All Quiet on the Western Front, after having three weeks of good food and relaxation as Paul and the others guard a deserted village and a supply dump, the men are sent to the front. There they see the few people who remain out. Soon, the air screams with shells, and Paul forgets to "do the right thing under fire" and a "blow sweeps like a whip" over his left leg. He hears Albert beside him cry out, and he yells for Albert to get up quickly. They run and fall over a hedge. With their faces smothered with duck-weed, they stay in the ditch that is filled with water and keep their heads down when they hear shells whistling. When they can, they run until they reach a small dug-out. There they bandage each other. Albert's shot is just above his knee on his right leg; Paul is injured in both leg and arm, but Albert dresses his wounds. 

Because he can crawl some, Paul calls out to a passing ambulance. The driver gives them an anti-tetanus shot and takes them to a dressing station, where they fear that the surgeon will amputate their legs. Paul knows that 

...the surgeons in the dressing stations amputate on the slightest provocation...[because it] is much simpler than complicated patching"

He and Albert both fear being made cripples for the rest of their lives. When Paul refuses the chloroform, the doctor pokes around in his wounded leg, causing Paul such pain that he tries to "crash into the surgeon's spectacles" until the angered surgeon orders, "Chloroform the scoundrel." So, Paul begs him not to use the chloroform, promising to hold still. As the young surgeon continues probing, Paul realizes that he is simply tormenting him, for he looks up over his glasses to watch Paul's face. Finally, the surgeon tosses a piece of shell to Paul, saying, "Tomorrow you'll be off home." His leg is set in plaster and he takes a hospital train in the morning.
Kropp tells Paul that they must "work" the army medical sergeant so that they can stay together. They give the sergeant-major some cigars and promise more. "I understand," the sergeant says and they are allowed to stay together. On the train they ride to a hospital. At this hospital is a Dying Room where some men are taken, but one of them with a lung injury somehow survives and returns.  Unfortunately, Albert's leg is amputated and he is sent to a hospital where he will be fitted with a prosthetic. Paul is operated on because his leg will not heal from the setting. But, he does better after the operation, and is sent home to recuperate.

Which parts of the human circulatory system are xylem and phloem most similar to?

The xylem and phloem of plants are most similar to veins, arteries, and capillaries.

In a plant, xylem are used to transport water, while the phloem are used to transport nutrients via sap. Xylem are deep into the plant, around the core of a branch, while the phloem are near the surface behind the bark. Inside the circulatory system, arteries and veins are deep in the body, beneath layers of protective flesh, whereas capillaries are found closer to the surface in many areas, such as the surface of skin and the surfaces of organs. Here, I would compare the xylem to arteries and veins, and the phloem to capillaries.

In the circulatory system, however, there is no system that distributes just water. Rather, all parts of the system distribute blood. In this sense, xylem are completely unlike the circulatory system. Even the sap that flows in a tree has no transport cells like red blood cells and white blood cells; it is a fluid containing loose sugars and nutrients.

Finally, I would comment on how the circulatory system uses the heart to pump blood through the body. Xylem and phloem use gravity, transpiration, and root pressure to move things through the plant, expending no energy in the process.

What four major changes and/or accomplishments do you predict for Randy's future in The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton?

Randy is different from the other Socs because he is willing to talk to Ponyboy, a greaser, and because he decides to stop fighting. He will likely not participate in any more gang activities and will go on to be a respectable citizen. Compared to other Socs, he will probably not drink as much and will be more accepting of greasers.

Randy is one of the Socs who attacks Johnny and Pony in the park. He makes a pretty dramatic turnaround after Johnny kills Bob. He asks to talk to Pony before the big rumble. He is impressed by Pony, Johnny, and Dally’s efforts to save the children at the church.

Randy tries to help Johnny and Pony by telling the police that Bob is the one who provoked the attack in the park.

Cherry Valance, and she said Bob had been drunk and that the boys had been looking for a fight when they took her home. Bob had told her he'd fix us for picking up his girl. His buddy Randy Adderson, who had helped lump us, also said it was their fault and that we'd only fought back in self-defense (Chapter 7). 

When Randy first wants to talk to Pony, he doesn’t want to talk to “the tall guy that had almost drowned” him. He listens to Randy, though, because he seems sincere. 

I'm sick of all this. Sick and tired. Bob was a good guy. He was the best buddy a guy ever had. I mean, he was a good fighter and tuff and everything, but he was a real person too. You dig (Chapter 7)? 

Randy feels terrible about what happened to Bob. He likely will not get drunk as often as he used to. He says what Bob did was wrong, but his parents were overindulgent.  This leads me to infer Randy will stop engaging in the behaviors he blames Bob’s parents for accepting, such as drinking too much, staying out late, and fighting.

What is a quote that shows if Romeo is more in love with Juliet or Rosaline in "Romeo and Juliet"?

Romeo loves Juliet because she returns his affections.

Romeo was very depressed when Rosaline dumped him.  She told him that she was not interested in dating, and he considered this a waste. She was beautiful, and she should have had a man, in his opinion. He moped around, gloomily pining for her. He decried her decision to live “chaste.”

She hath, and in that sparing makes huge waste,
For beauty starved with her severity
Cuts beauty off from all posterity.
She is too fair, too wise, wisely too fair,
To merit bliss by making me despair:
She hath forsworn to love, and in that vow
Do I live dead that live to tell it now. (Act 1, Scene 1)

When Romeo’s friends convince him to go to the Capulet ball, one of the reasons that he agrees to go is because Rosaline will be there. His friends have encouraged him to look for other women, but Romeo is not really in a party mood. All of that changes when he sees Juliet. Romeo seems to fall head-over-heels in love in an instant.

O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright!
It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night
Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear;
Beauty too rich for use, for earth too dear!
So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows,
As yonder lady o'er her fellows shows. (Act 1, Scene 5)

When Friar Laurence finds out, he is not sure that Romeo’s love is true. He accuses him of going from one girl to another. Romeo tells reminds the Friar that he chided him for loving Rosaline. Juliet, Romeo says, is another matter. She loves him back. If I was going to choose one quote that proves Romeo loves Juliet more, it would be this one.

ROMEO

I pray thee, chide not; she whom I love now
Doth grace for grace and love for love allow;
The other did not so. (Act 2, Scene 3)

Friar Laurence believes he is sincere, and agrees to marry them. In fact, he has to marry them in secret because their two families would never approve. Romeo is in love with Juliet, and in fact cannot bear to part from her when he is banished. Romeo may fall in love easily, but he does seem to love deeply. Whatever he felt for Rosaline, it was fleeting. He is deeply in love with Juliet.

How are unicellular and multicellular organisms the same? How are they different?

The obvious differences in size and complexity between unicellular organisms such as bacteria and multicellular organisms such as animals obscure some more fundamental similarities. While a bacterium is a single cell that reproduces on its own and a large animal may consist of trillions of cells working together to reproduce, they are nonetheless both made of cells, and much of the functioning of those cells is shared between them. They all process nutrients, most of them breathe oxygen (anaerobic bacteria don't), and they all strive to survive and reproduce their DNA.

Multicellular organisms are all eukaryotes, while unicellular organisms can be either eukaryotes or prokaryotes. Eukaryote cells are much more complex, containing a nucleus and a variety of organelles such as mitochondria and lysosomes, while prokaryotes are much simpler and contain very little inner structure. In fact in many ways mitochondria themselves are basically prokaryotic organisms; they have their own DNA which is passed on differently. There is evidence that mitochondria actually emerged by ancient eukaryotic cells absorbing prokaryotic organisms into themselves.

Eukaryotic unicellular organisms are in some ways more similar to multicellular organisms than they are to prokaryotes; all the same basic cellular structures are already in place in a unicellular eukaryote such as the amoeba. To get from a prokaryote like E. coli to an amoeba you have to evolve a nucleus and a Golgi apparatus and transport proteins and so on; but put a whole bunch of amoeba together, and you sort of have a multicellular organism.

Indeed, that's basically what slime molds are; they straddle the line between unicellular and multicellular, consisting of many cells that join and split at different phases of their life cycle. But all these cells are basically the same.

The ancestor of all multicellular organisms was probably something like a slime mold; then at some point, hundreds of millions of years ago, it evolved the capacity to specialize its cells, making some perform different functions from others, despite having the same underlying DNA. (Think about all the different types of cells you have: brain cells, eye cells, skin cells, stomach cells, and so on; all of those cells share the same DNA, yet function quite differently.) That evolutionary innovation is possibly what made multicellular organisms as we know them possible.

How is Squealer able to convince the other animals to accept whatever Napoleon decides?

We learn from the start that Squealer is a persuasive speaker who "could turn black to white" (convince the animals of anything). He is a "brilliant talker." With this talent, Squealer becomes the chief propagandist for the pigs. After he takes on the role as spokesperson for Napoleon, he will often go to the animals and "explain" to them, for example, that Napoleon had never really opposed building the windmill. The animals, we are told, don't always understand what Squealer is talking about. They don't grasp what he means, for instance, when he says "tactics, tactics, tactics" to explain why Napoleon "pretended" to oppose the windmill, but he speaks "so persuasively" and the dogs growl so threateningly, that the animals come to accept what he says. Squealer will usually travel around the farm with dogs accompanying him. Their growls and the threat they might do harm, along with Squealer's tendency to ask confusing questions and provide smooth rationalizations for what Napoleon wants, keeps the animals off balance. Their confusion allows Napoleon to seize more and more power. We learn too that Squealer makes "excellent speeches." He represents the role of propaganda and doublespeak--saying the opposite of what you mean--in allowing a dictator to maintain control. 

I am doing a research paper about Ray Bradbury and I'm trying to develop a research question. The three questions I developed are, 1: Who is Ray...

You have a great start to your research question! Let's try to hone this question a bit more and consider the things you want to research (and ultimately produce an answer for). Your listed questions are:

1. Who is Ray Bradbury?


2. What inspired him to start writing?


3. What is his favorite part about his job/why does he love his job?

Now, your goal is to formulate these questions into a single, coherent research question that you can tackle in a single paper. Firstly, let's think about how these ideas may be related. Your first question seems to be an umbrella question that covers a lot of ground: Who is Ray Bradbury? The answer to this question may very well inspire answers to your other questions. You may learn something about Bradbury that enlightens you as to his motivations for writing and/or why he loves his job. Likewise, the answer to your second question may inspire answers for your third question.

Given the way these questions are related, it makes sense to me to combine them in a way that asks:

How did specific attributes of Ray Bradbury's personality inspire him to jump into a lifelong writing career?

The above question tackles all three of your points, while maintaining focus on your main point: who Bradbury is.

Good luck!

I am having difficulty understanding Faulkner's writing style in his work "Barn Burning." Was he writing such stories based off of what he was...

William Faulkner’s short story “Barn Burning” examines a young boy named Colonel Sartoris Snopes and his life with his violent, cold-blooded father. The boy’s father is an uncaring sociopath who has a tendency to burn the barns of his perceived enemies. Faulkner’s story is a prime example of Southern Gothic literature, or a subgenre within 20th and 21st Century American literature that emphasizes the violent and macabre nature of Southern settings. Readers can see this through the brutal nature of the father:

“But he did not think this now and he had seen those same niggard blazes all his life. He merely ate his supper beside it and was already half asleep over his iron plate when his father called him, and once more he followed the stiff back, the stiff and ruthless limp, up the slope and on to the starlit road here, turning, he could see his father against the stars but without face or depth—a shape black, flat, and bloodless as though cut from tin in the iron folds of the frockcoat which had not been made for him; the voice harsh like tin and without heat like tin” (6).  

Colonel Sartoris Snopes’ father is a two-dimensional man, a man only capable of anger.

Moreover, Faulkner does pull from his own experiences as a Southern writer to inform his prose. He characters in the story use racial slurs against African-American individuals. Racial discrimination was more rampant and accepted in the American South at the time that Faulkner was writing. He obviously draws on his experiences with Southern individuals and landscapes to illustrate a vivid portrayal of the South, but he distorts it; this is where his Southern Gothic influence is best seen.

Thus, Faulkner draws on his experiences as a Southern man to write short stories such as “Barn Burning,” but he foregrounds the violence and strained aspects of the area. In doing so, his stories are largely representative of the Southern Gothic style that Faulkner has become synonymous with.

How would you explain the poem "Advice to My Son" by Peter Meinke?

In this poem, a parent--either a mother or father--provides guidance to a son about how to live life. In the first stanza, the parent suggests that the son must "live your days / as if each one may be your last" (lines 1-2). The son must realize that life can be fleeting and, unfortunately, can end at any time. However, at the same time, the son must "plan long range" (line 5). If the son survives, he must plan ahead so that his days resemble heaven more than hell.

The parent's advice in the second stanza follows along the same lines, as it involves suggestions that the son balance the practical with the beautiful. For example, the son must plant not only peonies and roses, which are for beauty alone, but also practical foods such as tomatoes, squash, spinach, and others. This idea is metaphorical. The parent means that the son must cultivate activities that are for beauty at the same time that he attends to practical matters in life. Similarly, the son should marry a beautiful wife but, in a practical vein, investigate the wife's mother before he marries to see that she has aged well and is a good person. The son can be soulmates with one person but just work practically alongside another. In the last two lines, the parent suggests that the son always have bread--the practical part of life--along with wine--the beautiful part of life. 

What are controlled substances and precursor chemicals?

Controlled Substances and the Law

The Controlled Substances Act (part of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970), consists of many laws regulating the manufacture and distribution of substances that are illegal or that can become addictive or abusive. The term substance is used in the act rather than the term drug because substance is a more encompassing term.

Substances listed in the act are classified into five schedules. Schedule I substances have a high potential for abuse and have no accepted medical use. They are therefore illegal drugs and cannot be sold or used; violators of schedule I are prosecuted.

Schedules II through V substances have acceptable medicinal uses and are progressively less likely to be abused or to cause physical or psychological dependence. The rules for prescribing and dispensing of controlled drugs by physicians and pharmacists are most rigorous for schedule I drugs and are progressively less rigorous for schedule II to V substances.

Physicians must be registered with the US Drug Enforcement Administration to prescribe controlled substances, and they must maintain detailed records of all transactions. The number of authorized refills (if any) must be stated and adhered to. The act has been modified several times since its enactment in 1970, and the classification of specific substances is subject to change.

Controlled Substances Act: Schedule Characteristics

Schedule I includes a large number of substances classified as opioid drugs and hallucinogens and also a few depressants and stimulants. Opioid drugs have a chemical structure and physiological activity similar to opium that are derived from the poppy plant. Opioid drugs also are known as narcotic drugs or narcotics.

Opioid drugs such as heroin and several morphine and codeine drugs are useful in treating moderate to severe pain, but these drugs are listed in schedule I because of their potential for abuse and dependence.

Hallucinogens include the synthetic compound LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) and also peyote and mescaline, which are found naturally in certain cacti. Marijuana is a popular drug of abuse, whose classification is controversial. Although as of 2015 four US states and Washington, DC, have legalized recreational use of marijuana, and twenty other states have legalized the use of medical marijuana, it is still listed as a Schedule I substance.

Schedule II drugs include the opium poppy and the purified opium derived from the poppy. Other opioid drugs in schedule II include cocaine, methadone, oxycodone, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, and natural coca leaves. Oxycodone, sold under the trade name OxyContin, is a valuable drug for relieving chronic pain, but the drug has become popular with abusers.

Included in schedule II are the amphetamines, which act as stimulants. Methamphetamine is a synthetic compound made from amphetamine. Short-acting barbiturates, such as pentobarbital, also are in this schedule.

Schedule III substances include anabolic steroids, stimulants, and depressants. Drugs that have a depressant effect on the central nervous system act as sedatives. Intermediate-acting barbiturates are included in this category. Drugs that have a stimulant effect on the central nervous system include amphetamines and methamphetamines. Also included are drug formulations or preparations that have a limited quantity of narcotics.

Schedule IV drugs act as central nervous system depressants and produce sedation, induce sleep, and reduce anxiety. The most common drugs in this group are the barbiturates, including barbital, phenobarbital, and methylphenobarbital. Also included in this schedule are other drugs that have a similar effect, such as chloral betaine, meprobamate, and ethchlorvynol.

Schedule V drugs include formulations containing limited quantities of narcotic drugs in combination with other medically active drugs. The levels of narcotic drugs allowed are less than those in schedule III.

Many prescription drugs are controlled substances, and the diversion of these drugs for nonmedical uses is increasing rapidly. Opioids are by far the most common prescription drugs that are diverted to illicit uses. Some professionals in the medical community believe pain is actually undertreated. This belief is controversial because increased prescriptions for opioid drugs increases the supply for diverted uses. The overall effectiveness of opioids for pain relief remains a topic of debate.

The diversion of prescription drugs can occur by persons who sell or give their drugs to friends or associates. Diversion also can occur by theft or by what is called doctor shopping, visiting several doctors to obtain multiple prescriptions. The White House Office of National Drug Control Policy, established in 1989, addresses problems in illicit drug supply and use and coordinates efforts to control the problem.

Precursor Chemicals

Precursor chemicals are chemicals used in the synthesis and manufacture of controlled substances. They become part of the drug’s chemical structure. It is difficult to regulate these precursor chemicals because they also have valid commercial uses.

Also of concern to drug enforcement officials are essential chemicals. These chemicals are used in the extraction, purification, and concentration of drugs from natural sources. Essential chemicals do not become part of the molecular structure of a drug. Methamphetamine precursors such as pseudoephedrine, phenylpropanolamine, and ephedrine are most problematic.

The US Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act (1988), which amended the Controlled Substances Act of 1970, regulates forty chemicals as list 1 and list 2 chemicals in the US Code of Federal Regulations. In addition to administering regulatory controls, the act administers criminal sanctions that control the diversion of precursor chemicals; the act permits, however, access to chemicals necessary for legitimate commerce.

Bibliography

United States. Drug Enforcement Administration. “Drug Info: Drug Scheduling.” DEA.gov. US DEA, Dept. of Justice, n.d. Web. 29 Oct. 2015.

Manchikanti, Laxmaiah. “National Drug Control Policy and Prescription Drug Abuse: Facts and Fallacies.” Pain Physician 10 (2007): 399–424. Print.

“Marijuana and the Controlled Substances Act.” Congressional Digest 93.8 (2014): 2–6. Academic Search Complete. Web. 29 Oct. 2015.

Sevick, James R. “Precursor and Essential Chemicals in Illicit Drug Production: Approaches to Enforcement.” Washington, DC: Department of Justice, 1993. Print.

“Where Is Pot Legal?” CNN Money. Cable News Network, 2015. Web. 29 Oct. 2015.

What is Bruno's perspective on war/death and how does he react in The Boy in the Striped Pajamas by John Boyne?

Bruno's perspective on war and death is complete innocence.  In short, Bruno has no perspective.  In fact, if Bruno had one, he would disagree with both war and killing.  (Death, of course, is eventually inevitable.)  Look at the following quotation:

What exactly was the difference? He wondered to himself. And who decided which people wore the striped pajamas and which people wore the uniforms?

Here Bruno is pondering the difference between himself (a young German), the Nazi soldiers, and the Jewish people trapped in Auschwitz.  In his innocence, Bruno attains wisdom:  there are no real differences.  They are all people who are worthy of respect and friendship.  Bruno also has further revelations about himself and Shmuel.  Bruno says, "We're not supposed to be friends, you and me. We're meant to be enemies. Did you know that?"  Bruno is absolutely disgusted with this revelation.  Shmuel is Bruno's very best friend.  This friendship is proved in the deepest of ways.  Bruno escapes "into" Auschwitz in order to help Shmuel find his father.  Eventually, Shmuel and Bruno hold hands as they walk into the gas chamber together to their deaths.  In other words, everything about killing others (including while at war) is deplorable to Bruno.  Bruno is more interested in friendship and trust.

How are the stories of Tom Robinson and Boo Radley brought together at the end of To Kill Mockingbird?

Tom Robinson and Boo Radley are both victims of society, and at the end of the book Boo Radley defends the children from Bob Ewell.

The book ends where it begins, in some ways.  Boo Radley is a big focus of the early chapters.  Then in the middle everything is about the trial.  Although Tom Robinson is dead by the end of the book, he is the reason why Bob Ewell attacks Scout and Jem.  Ewell feels resentful that the trial showed Robinson in a more favorable light than him, and he feels that justice has not been done.

Tom Robinson and Boo Radley are both compared figuratively to birds.  Tom Robinson is accused by a white woman of rape.  Boo Radley is accused of all kinds of terrible things, like peeping in people’s windows.  People ostracize him because he is too shy to come out of his house. 

When Scout and Jem received new guns, Atticus told them it would be a sin to shoot mockingbirds.  This sentiment is expressed again by Mr. Underwood in an editorial about Tom Robinson’s death.  Robinson felt dejected when he was convicted, and decided to take his chances going over the prison fence.  He was shot.

Mr. Underwood didn’t talk about miscarriages of justice, he was writing so children could understand. Mr. Underwood simply figured it was a sin to kill cripples, be they standing, sitting, or escaping. He likened Tom’s death to the senseless slaughter of songbirds by hunters and children … (Ch. 25) 

Scout is puzzled that Underwood would consider it a miscarriage of justice when Robinson was convicted.  However, he was innocent and everyone knew it.  Bob Ewell felt humiliated because the jury deliberated so long.  He threatened Atticus and spit in his face.  He did not feel that Robinson’s death was enough. 

When Bob Ewell attacks the children and Boo saves them, Atticus and the sheriff Heck Tate decide to say Ewell fell on his knife.  Scout understands that they are trying to protect Boo Radley from everyone getting involved in his affairs. 

“Scout,” he said, “Mr. Ewell fell on his knife. Can you possibly understand?”

... “Yes sir, I understand,” I reassured him. “Mr. Tate was right.”

Atticus disengaged himself and looked at me. “What do you mean?”

“Well, it’d be sort of like shootin‘ a mockingbird, wouldn’t it?” (Ch. 30) 

Scout realizes that Boo Radley doesn’t like attention, and everyone in the neighborhood would be bugging him if they knew he was a hero.  It would be an invitation for people to re-engage in Boo’s life, when he would rather leave them out.  He is not a monster, but he is shy.

Both Boo Radley and Tom Robinson are good people.  They want nothing more than to help others.  They are different, and so people do not understand them.  Tom Robinson faces racism because of the color of his skin, and Boo Radley faces isolation due to his troubled past.

What is a character trait for Macduff in addition to his loyalty and his bravery in Macbeth?

Another character trait for Macduff is his hostility toward Macbeth. He puts into action the campaign to dethrone Macbeth while he also personally seeks revenge against Macbeth for the murder of his wife and son.

In Act II, Scene 3, Banquo declares, "Fears and scruples shake us" (2.3.123), adding that he will fight against the "treasonous malice" which has killed Duncan. Hearing this declaration of Banquo's, Macduff joins in: "And so do I" (2.3.127). Macduff's loyalty to King Duncan and his family thus impels him to journey to England in order to obtain aid there from King Edward and Lord Siward so that Macbeth can be removed and Duncan's son Malcolm be crowned as the rightful king. 

Later, in Act V, Macduff returns to Scotland with Malcolm, the rightful heir to the throne of Scotland. There in Dunsinane Macduff confronts Macbeth with hostility, calling him a "bloodier villain" than words can describe. But, Macbeth refuses to fight him, saying,

I bear a charmed life which must not yield
To one of woman born. (5.8.12-13)

When Macduff reveals that it was he who was not "woman born" since he was taken from his dead mother's womb, Macbeth then realizes that the witches' prediction is about to become true. Still, he refuses to yield to Macduff. So, the hostile Macduff calls Macbeth a coward and a tyrant. Enraged by Macduff's hostility toward him, Macbeth then declares he "will try the last" and fights, but is defeated by the avenging Macduff. 

How far do Sources A to F support the assertion that the Cold War began due to Stalin's intransigence? Note: Please refer to images that I...

These sources offer conflicting ideas about whether Stalin's intransigence was to blame in starting the Cold War. Source E, written by American diplomat Henry Kissinger in 1994, offers the strongest case that Soviet intransigence was to blame. Kissinger refers to the "Long Telegram" sent by American diplomat George Kennan, who was stationed in Moscow at the start of the Cold War. Kennan believed that the Soviets' refusal to cooperate with the U.S. after the war arose from their Communist ideology, not from anything the U.S. had failed to do with regard to diplomacy. Source B, a cartoon from an American newspaper in 1947, suggests that the Soviets played a role in starting the Cold War, along with the United States, as the picture shows Stalin, the Soviet leader, carving up the world, along with Uncle Sam. 

Sources A and C suggest that United States, not the Soviets, was responsible for starting the Cold War. Source A, written by a Soviet ambassador, states that the U.S. was bent on world domination after World War II, enforced through the arms race and the stockpiling of weapons. Source C, written by an American academic in 1959, states that the U.S. was pursuing an "open-door policy," enforced through use of the atomic bomb, that left the Soviets no choice but to either give in to American domination or to fight it. Source E, written by a Soviet ambassador, suggests that internal conflicts within the Democratic Party in the U.S. led America to take a more hostile approach to the Soviet Union.  Source F, written in 1986 by an historian, offers a slightly different view. This source suggests that Britain and the powers in Western Europe compelled the U.S. to intervene in Europe after the war. 

What are the origins, immediate causes, course of phenomenon and consequences of the Nazi rule?

The origins of the Nazis, also known as National Socialism, lie in the 1920s. The ideological origins of Nazism in part can be traced to the eugenic theories of the day that posited that white northern Europeans were superior in intellect and physical qualities to people of other ethnicities and backgrounds. The belief in eugenics also went along with a sense of wounded German nationalism. This sense of nationalism arose in Germany in the 18th century with thinkers such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte and others. In part a reaction to the horrors of World War I and the sudden growth of urbanization and industrialization in Germany, German nationalism called on traditional folk culture to reinstitute vigor and pride in the country. One strain of nationalism emphasized restoring the purity of the German people through expelling elements of what made Germany a cosmopolitan, modern culture, including the Jews. Hitler adopted the anti-Semitic nature of this aspect of German nationalism.

In addition, Nazism was a reaction to Germany's defeat in the World War I, including the abdication of the Kaiser and the provision in the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 that Germany accept responsibility for the war and pay reparations. As a result of this war guilt clause, Germans felt that their pride as a nation had been wounded. In addition, Germany lost a great deal of land and had to reduce their armed forces, adding to their injured sense of nationalism. In the early 1920s, political and economic instability also led to massive inflation  in Germany. Finally, the Russian Revolution of 1917 caused a feeling of anti-communism in Germany that was also absorbed into the Nazi program.

By 1921, Hitler became head of the Nazi party. In 1923, his coup attempt in Munich led to his imprisonment, during which time he wrote the book Mein Kampf, or My Struggle, about his anti-Semitic and fascist ideas to restore a sense of pride in Germany. In 1933, the Nazis gained control of the Reichstag, or Parliament, and Hitler became Chancellor. His belief in restoring German pride led to his attacking and conquering land that Germany had lost in World War I, including the Rhineland and the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. Eventually, Hitler joined the Axis powers, along with Italy and Japan, and fought in World War II. His "final solution" to exterminate Jews and other "undesirable" people led to the Holocaust in which over 6 million people were exterminated in ghettoes, concentration camps, and other places. 

As a consequence of Germany's defeat in 1945 by the Allied powers, many of the ideas of Nazism were widely discredited, including eugenics. West Germany was rebuilt in the western model, and East Germany was rebuilt in a communist model. They were reunited in 1990.

In the novel The Outsiders, what does Ponyboy learn about the way he has been acting?

In Chapter 12, Darry is arguing with Ponyboy about his bad grades and Darry tells Pony that he needs to stop acting like he doesn't care about his life. Sodapop is bothered by the fact that his relationship with Sandy is ruined and becomes sick of Darry and Ponyboy continually fighting. Out of nowhere, Sodapop runs out of the house. Darry and Ponyboy are shocked, and Darry holds up Sodapop's letter unopened. For the first time, Pony realizes that Soda has problems too. Ponyboy mentions that he had never really paid attention to Soda's problems because he took it for granted that Sodapop never had any.

Darry and Ponyboy decide to run after Soda, and when they finally catch up to him, Sodapop explains that he feels like Darry and Pony are playing tug-o-war with him. For the first time, Ponyboy realizes how it is hurting Sodapop to continually pick sides during arguments. Sodapop then tells Ponyboy that he needs to understand that Darry sacrificed a lot to keep the family together, and that Darry only wants what is best for him. Ponyboy finally realizes that Darry is only twenty years old and that he expected Darry to understand everything about himself. Pony feels ashamed for never trying to get to know Darry. At the end of the novel, Ponyboy learns that he was acting selfishly by not attempting to gain perspective into the lives of his brothers. He gains perspective into Sodapop's issues and becomes appreciative of Darry for his sacrifices.

What is abstinence-based treatment?

History

Abstinence-based treatment was first developed at Willmar State Hospital and Hazelden Treatment Center in Minnesota in 1949. The treatment was targeted at “hopeless” alcoholics and was based on the principles of Alcoholics Anonymous
(AA). Borrowing from the twelve-step meetings of AA, developed in the 1930s, these alcoholic treatment centers added residential treatment that included lectures, open discussions, small group therapy, and peer interaction.

First known as the Willmar or Hazelden model, and then the Minnesota model in the 1970s, abstinence-based treatment centers became the predominant model for treating both alcohol and drug abuse in the 1980s. Private treatment in twenty-eight-day residential treatment centers dominated the treatment landscape but was affected by cost-cutting managed-care by the 1990s.

Most abstinence-based treatment now occurs in outpatient settings. Treatment focuses on individualized treatment plans, family involvement, and frequent use of group meetings such as AA, Narcotics Anonymous, and Al Anon. Studies show that more than 90 percent of drug and alcohol treatment programs in the United States are abstinence-based, and most use the twelve-step program of AA as a core principle.

Basic Principles

The first treatment principle is that all addiction, no matter the substance, is caused by lifelong physiological, social, and psychological disease processes. No cure exists for the disease of addiction, but recovery is possible through peer support and positive change. This principle removes the guilt that is associated with addiction and focuses on the disease instead of the addicted person. The addicted person begins by admitting that the disscease makes him or her powerless over drugs and alcohol.

Recovery involves taking responsibility for the disease and making necessary changes in thinking and behavior. This type of cognitive behavioral therapy may include individual and group therapy. Personal change may include recognizing denial and other self-defeating behaviors and replacing these negative thoughts with gratitude, honesty, forgiveness, and humility. For many addicts and alcoholics, key components of successful abstinence include a spiritual awakening, faith in a higher power, and faith in the power of being part of a recovery community. A final principle is that without continued abstinence, addiction is a progressive and ultimately fatal disease.

Basic Components

Diagnosis should begin with a comprehensive evaluation that recognizes that addiction is a social, biological, and psychological disease. The initial phase of treatment may require medically supervised detoxification. Comorbid diseases related to alcohol or drug abuse and dual diagnosis such as bipolar disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or depression should also be recognized and treated.

Treatment for primary addiction may include the use of control-craving drugs, individual cognitive behavioral therapy, group therapy, family therapy, and relapse prevention therapy. Abstinence-based treatment may be adapted to a long period of residential treatment or may occur through outpatient care. Because this treatment considers addiction a lifelong disease, addicts are encouraged to attend after-care programs and twelve-step meetings, where they can benefit from the reinforcement of core principles and the support of other recovering people.

Success and Criticism

Abstinence-based treatment is often criticized for having a low success rate, but because relapse is accepted as part of the natural course of the disease of addiction, it is difficult to give much credence to studies that look at one-year or even five-year success rates. Many addicted people fail initial treatment, have several relapses, and then continue with many years of sustained abstinence. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, relapse rates for addictions are similar to those for other chronic diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension, and asthma.

The abstinence-based treatment model also is criticized for being one-size-fits-all; for not allowing other treatment options, such as the harm-reduction model; for not being adaptable to persons who cannot accept the spiritual concept of a higher power; and for encouraging unattainable goals. These criticisms and alternatives are under discussion and study.

Still, most experts agree that abstinence should be the first and primary goal of addiction treatment. In the United States, therefore, abstinence-based treatment remains the treatment of choice for drug and alcohol addiction.

Bibliography

Cherkis, Jason. "Dying to Be Free: There's a Treatment for Heroin Addiction That Actually Works. Why Aren't We Using It?" Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 28 Jan. 2015. Web. 26 Oct. 2015.

Galanter, Marc, Herbert D. Kleber, and Kathleen T. Brady. The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment. 5th ed. Washington, DC: Amer. Psychiatric Assn., 2015. Print.

Mignon, Sylvia I. Substance Abuse Treatment: Options, Challenges, and Effectiveness. New York: Springer, 2015. Print.

Ries, Richard, and Shannon C. Miller. Principles of Addiction Medicine. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 2009. Print.

Scott, Christy K., et al. “Surviving Drug Addiction: The Effect of Treatment and Abstinence on Mortality.” American Journal of Public Health 101.4 (2010): 737–44. Print. Print.

Spicer, Jerry. The Minnesota Model: The Evolution of the Multidisciplinary Approach to Recovery. Center City: Hazelden, 1993. Print.

What is the summary of the poem "The Old Vicarage, Grantchester," including the lines "Ah God! to see the branches stir / Across the moon at...

This passage is taken from the poem "The Old Vicarage, Grantchester" written by Rupert Brooke in 1912. The poem has a short line before it begins, after the title: (Café des Westens, Berlin, May 1912). This tells us that the poem is set in Berlin, Germany, at a French cafe; this seems to be where the poem was written, as opposed to where most of its imagery is set. The poem begins with the speaker talking about flowers in bloom nearby, and a river that is "green as a dream, and deep as death." The first stanza ends with the words "du Leiber Gott!" which is German for "Oh, God!" (or "good heavens!") and this line repeats in English later in the poem.

The next stanza describes how uncomfortable the speaker is, "sweating, sick and hot," and how he yearns to return to Grantchester, a village near Cambridge, England. He then discusses the different villages and towns near it, and brief images of the people and places that show how none of them compare to Grantchester. The line quoted in your question occurs near the end of the poem, relating the wish of the speaker to be there once again. Clearly he is homesick and these thoughts give him comfort.

It's important to know the historical setting and context of this poem; given the year and location, one cannot ignore that this is the beginning of World War I, a war that would decimate the English population and throw Europe into years of turmoil. The author died during the war in 1915, after joining the Royal Navy. He was considered one of England's finest poets and his death is considered tragic, as he may have continued to write great poems had he not been killed while serving.

What were the major developments in modern English fiction in the nineteenth century?

A major innovation in the novel in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was the "Gothic", a genre in which included such classics as The Mysteries of Udolpho by Ann Radcliffe, The Monk by Matthew Lewis, and The Castle of Otranto by Horace Walpole. In the nineteenth century, this genre evolved in two directions, as the Romantic novel, exemplified by Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë and Jane Eyre by her sister Charlotte, and the sensation novel, which included the works of M.E. Braddon and Ouida. While the Gothic was characterized by remote and exotic locations, its nineteenth century heirs domesticated its settings and often substituted minor gentry or the bourgeois for the nobles and monks populating the Gothic. 

A second innovation of the mid-nineteenth was a move towards realism and protagonists in the middle or even lower classes. Although the sensation novel continued to rely on action and suspense and even spawned the detective novel (Wilkie Collins' works are normally considered the transition from sensation to detective fiction), many of the realistic novels gained their effect from close portraits of characters' daily life or inner emotions, as is the case in the work of Trollope, Hardy, and Thackeray, albeit in different fashions. Novels of social justice or reform became popular, including the novels of Disraeli, some of Dickens' works, Sewell's Black Beauty, and many evangelical and temperance novels. 

The end of the nineteenth century was a period of technical innovation, with symbolism and decadence gradually evolving into modernism.

According to author, George Orwell, in Animal Farm, all animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others. I want to know whether or...

First of all, let's look at the definition of equality. According to Merriam-Webster equality is defined as: 

"the state or quality of being equal; the quality or state of having the same rights, social status, etc. "

In the United States, people are supposed to be equal, but all we have to do is look around to determine that this is not the case, at least according to the definition. Those with power and wealth are "more equal" than those who are poor or even than those who are part of the middle class. The very wealthy run the country and make the decisions for the rest of us. Our government is supposed to look at all of us as equal citizens, yet big money lobbies the government for their interests. Our representatives in Congress and the Senate are supposed to represent their constituents (us), but in order to stay in power, they have to raise huge sums of money; therefore, they are more likely to listen to those who have that money. According to behavioral economist Dan Ariely, Americans in the top 20% have 84% of the wealth, and those in the bottom 40% only have .2%. That is a huge disparity.

If we look at health, we see the same trend. Wealthy people have access to the best doctors and hospitals, while the poor often do not even have insurance so are sometimes forced to go without health care.

If we spread out across the world, equality becomes an even bigger issue. People who live in developing countries, like those in Africa and South America, do not have near the quantity or quality of resources that even some of the poorest Americans have. 

On the other hand, is it really possible to have true equality? A great story to read on this very subject is Kurt Vonnegut's "Harrison Bergeron," about a society where everyone is equal in every way--a cautionary, satirical tale that takes equality to an extreme. 

What are the negative and positive effects of peace?

If you are referring to peace as the absence of war, there are not many negative aspects.  The one positive effect of war, which is a negative effect of peace, is that war tends to spur the economy.  War is very good for business.  War creates jobs, because you need to manufacture weapons and employ people to do the actual fighting.  On the other hand, that is hardly worth the lives that are lost in fighting the wars.  After the war is over, the loss of life hurts the economy in the long run.

The positive effect of peace is that people can focus on creative endeavors.  The economy can thrive in peacetime too.  The greatest benefit of peace is that people are not afraid for their lives and people are not losing their lives fighting one another.  This benefits the economy because they are then contributing citizens.

Wars are usually fought defending ideology or territory or in pursuit of enhancing a country’s territory.  Whatever the country seeks to gain, in the long run it is not worth it.  Mankind would be much better off if there were less fighting.

What organs are considered chemical and mechanical in the digestive system?

First we should define these terms. A "chemical" aspect of the digestive system is one that employs molecules, typically ones secreted by the body, in order to break down and absorb food. "Mechanical" aspects are those which use macroscopic force or muscle action to break down the food. Typically, these terms refer specifically to the process of nutrient absorption, and exclude the excretion of waste. Additionally, mechanical digestion typically refers to digestion of food on a macroscopic scale, while chemical digestion is microscopic.

The three primary mechanical-digestion organs are the teeth, tongue and stomach. The teeth are the only ones which can be considered entirely mechanical, because they secrete no chemicals and do not aid in digestion beyond physically smashing the food into smaller pieces.

The tongue and stomach are also considered chemical digesters because they excrete chemicals; saliva is an enzyme that helps break down starch, and the stomach secretes hydrochloric acid which chemically tears apart the food as well as destroying contaminants.

The liver, gall bladder and pancreas are the other primarily chemical digestion organs, as they secrete a variety of chemicals that aid in the breakdown of food, particularly bile, which aids in digesting fats.

What is coal?

The term "coal" describes a variety of solid, combustible rock material. Coal is the result of layers upon layers of dead plant material being transformed through intense heat and pressure over millions of years. All coal looks like a black, sometimes brownish or grayish, flaky rock material. Coal may be found underground and is often mined to be brought to the surface and burned as an energy source. Coal is primarily made up of the carbon that was once bound up in living plant material, but other elements like sulfur, hydrogen, and oxygen may also be present in a sample of coal. Many people are critical of using coal as a fuel source because it produces high levels of carbon dioxide.

There are four sub-types of coal, which are classified according to their carbon and moisture content. From highest to lowest in carbon content, these are anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite coal. 

Show events where Othello is described as impulsive in addition to being violent and destructive.

Impulsiveness is one of Othello's major flaws in the play, as well as the one that gets him in the most trouble. Despite his insistence for a fair trial in the accusation that he tricked Desdemona into marrying him, he makes up his mind about Cassio's dismissal and Desdemona's infidelity almost immediately.

Even when he claims to Iago that he still trusts Desdemona, he shows in an aside that he has begun to make up his mind about the truthfulness of Iago's statements before even seeing proof: 

"Why did I marry? This honest creature doubtless
Sees and knows more, much more, than he unfolds" (3.3.248-9)

Likewise, after Iago orchestrates Cassio's street brawl, Othello fires him from his lieutenant office without even hearing his side of the story:

"Cassio, I love thee
But never more be officer of mine.—" (2.3.211-2). 

Quick decisiveness is a necessary skill in battle, but it is not serving Othello in his interpersonal interactions. Othello's violence and comfort with destruction is another aspect of his character that would be immensely helpful in combat, but harms his personal life.  

This is absolutely evident when he believes that Desdemona has cheated on him. The moment he gives in to Iago's persuading, he cries, "Oh, blood, blood, blood!" (3.3.461), demanding that blood be shed for this injustice. 

Instead of confronting Desdemona directly about his suspicions, Othello reacts by verbally and physically abusing her, including slapping her in public in act 4, scene 1. This is an action that those around him are horrified by, as it suggests uncivilized behavior (as well as a loss of the deep love the couple was known for previously). When Othello finally kills Desdemona as a final solution to his problem, it's clear that violence is the only way he knows how to deal with emotions of this magnitude. 

In Emily Dickinson’s poem “If you were coming in the fall,” what would the speaker do if her beloved didn't return to her in the fall?

Waiting for your beloved in the uncertainty of his or her return could be the most tormenting experience. The speaker is undergoing precisely the same agony. She’s not sure when her beloved is going to come back to her, or if he’s really going to return. Nevertheless, waiting won’t be a problem for her, however long it might be. What she asks for is the mere assurance that her beloved will come back. With that promise, she can happily spend the time in his absence by musing over the day of their union.

In the first stanza, the speaker says that if her beloved assures her that he will be back in the autumn, she will brush off the whole of summer in the same way as a wife does a fly. The analogy of shooing a fly away with spending a season is uncommon and interesting.

She is suggesting that spending the period of summer in the absence of her lover would certainly be unpleasant and difficult. Nevertheless, the assurance that he'll be back in the fall will be enough for her to spend the period with a smile. She says,

IF you were coming in the fall,
I ’d brush the summer by
With half a smile and half a spurn,
As housewives do a fly.

The poem is about true love that’s not going to change or die with time. It’s also about the agony of separation from the beloved, and the painful undefined longing.

The speaker needs the support of her beloved’s promise that he will return to her in a definite time limit . If she has it, she won’t mind waiting, even if it's for centuries. We feel much pity for the strong-willed speaker because she is denied the only thing that she seeks.

In the chapters in which the Ceremony takes place, what happens at the naming and the other age levels in The Giver?

It is a very controlled society that Lois Lowry creates in the dystopia of The Giver. In Chapters 6 through 7, the entire community assembles in the Auditorium for the yearly Ceremony arranged by the Committee of Elders. All the parents sit together in one area, and the children sit with their age groups until they step up to the stage, one by one.

The First Ceremony begins. The new children are brought up one-by-one and given names as they are handed by the Nurturers to the new family with whom they will live. One of the newborns is a replacement child for a boy named Caleb who drowned in the river. For the new Caleb, there is the Murmur-of-the-Replacement Ceremony as people repeat the name Caleb for the first time since the boy's death.

After the newborns, the other age groups come up in chronological order. When Jonas's sister Lily is pronounced an Eight, she receives the jacket that will identify her as such. This jacket has pockets, an indication that Lily is now old enough to keep track of her own things. Then, the ceremony of Nines takes place and children receive new bicycles. Jonas cringes some when his neighbor Fritz goes up to receive his bicycle, with its shining name tag on the back. He cringes because Fritz is always making some type of mistake; now, with a new bicycle, he may drop it sometimes on the front walk instead of parking it in its port.

The Tens all get haircuts. The boys receive a short, more manly haircut, and the girls lose their braids. The Elevens then receive new clothing: different undergarments for the girls, whose bodies are changing, and longer pants for the boys, with a specially shaped pocket for the calculator that they will use in school, a wrapped package received without ceremony.

The Twelves move to take a new place in the auditorium where they sit immediately before the stage. The first speech is made by the Chief Elder, who is the leader of the community, elected every ten years. Then, as the ceremony of Twelves is conducted, the Committee of Elders is recognized and, finally, number One is called to the stage. She is assigned as Fish Hatchery Attendant. After her, Inger is chosen as a Birthmother; then, Isaac is called to be an Instructor of the sixes. Asher follows, and is designated as the Director of Recreation. Next is Fiona, who approaches the stage and is assigned Caretaker of the Old. As the others are called in order, Jonas is skipped until the Chief Elder addresses him. She tells the audience that Jonas has the intelligence, integrity, courage, and wisdom to be the Receiver in Training. This means he will be trained to be the next Receiver of Memory.

When Jonas receives his folder, he is surprised that it is thin. In fact, inside is only one printed sheet which has his name on the top as the Receiver of Memory. Then, there are only eight rules, which include that he can be rude and ask anyone anything and he will receive an answer. He may no longer tell his dreams, and he is prohibited from discussing any of his training with anyone else. Strangely, he is prohibited from medication, except for a case of illness or injury. But, the oddest rule to Jonas is that he may now lie; he wonders if others been given this permission, too. For, how will he know who is telling him the truth?

Is Delia a meek or strong character? Why or why not?

In Hurston's story, "Sweat," Delia is a complex character. She tolerates a lot of bad treatment from her husband Sykes. He speaks to her disrespectfully, throws pretend snakes (whips) at her, and walks around town with his girlfriend. Yet, Delia does nothing about these things. She seems to be afraid of him and too focused on her job to do anything about his behavior.

However, by the end of the story, after Sykes has brought a real live snake into the house, Delia has changed. She has decided not to put up with her husband's abuse any more. When he is bitten by the snake, she refuses to go in and help him. Even though she appears not to be doing anything, her resistance itself is a kind of strength. While we see her being meek in many ways, by the end of the story she proves herself to be quite strong in not going inside to save Sykes.

What are tools to enhance globalization?

On the most general level, globalization is enhanced by removing barriers to trade in goods and services, including tariffs and other restrictions. This can be done by global organizations such as the WTO or regional agreements such as Mercosur or NAFTA. 

Global standards such as those promulgated by ISO can also facilitate trade, as it enables companies to produce uniform products on a large scale rather than having to create multiple versions tailored to individual national markets. Uniformity of regulations, which exists to some degree in the EU, also facilitates global trade. 

Ease of communication is also important. The use of English as an international language makes it easier for companies across the world to communicate with each other. The internet also makes international communications fast and cheap, meaning that communication ceases to act as a barrier to trade.

What is the area of a quadrilateral with sides 5, 6, 4 and 9.

Hello!

A quadrilateral, to the contrast with a triangle, usually cannot be uniquely determined by the lengths of its sides. And its area may be different, too.

I suppose the sides are go in the given order. Consider an angle `alpha` between sides 5 and 6. Then the corresponding diagonal c may be found by the Cosine law:

`c^2 = 5^2+6^2-2*5*6*cos(alpha)=61-60*cos(alpha).`

This diagonal also forms a triangle with the sides 4 and 9, so it cannot be greater than 4+9=13 and cannot be less than 9-4=5.

The area of a quadrilateral is the sum of the areas of these two triangles. It is

`1/2*5*6*sin(alpha) + 1/4* sqrt((169-c^2)(c^2-25))`

(Heron's formula is used for the second case). It is

`15sin(alpha) + 1/4* sqrt((108+60cos(alpha))(36-60cos(alpha))).`

This function is not a constant, please look at its graph by the link attached. There one can see limits for `alpha` and for the area.

How does the phrase “long I stood” (line 3) characterize the speaker’s deliberations when choosing which road to take?

First, it's clear that the line "long I stood" suggests that the poet thought carefully about his decision. Let's examine it in more detail. The first stanza of the poem poses a problem:

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;

The problem is, of course, which road to take? But this is not a problem of finding his way, exactly; presented with two routes, equally beautiful, which offers the greater pleasure? The poet is "sorry I could not travel both / And be one traveller"—that is, he is sorry he cannot somehow split himself into two and travel both roads simultaneously. There is only one of him. He has to choose.

Part of the power of the poem is its immediacy. The reader can easily visualize the "yellow wood" and the forked path. When the poet cranes his neck to look "as far as I could," it is as if we are looking with him. When he stands there deciding, we wait with him. In fact, the next two stanzas can be understood as what the poet is thinking about during this moment when "long I stood" trying to decide. If we understand the roads as different paths in life, the poet's problem becomes more urgent. In traveling one path, he forsakes the other; he thinks that maybe he can travel the other one later, but "knowing how way leads on to way, / I doubted if I should ever come back." He makes his choice: the path that appears less travelled.

The poem is less clear about the result of this choice, or if the poet's deliberation in making the choice was the right thing. For one thing, in the final stanza, he says, "I shall be telling this with a sigh," suggesting that perhaps he now regrets his choice. Secondly, the title of the poem, "The Road Not Taken," could mean that in choosing one road over the other, the poet has missed out on opportunities that he regrets. It's entirely possible that when the poet "stood long" to make his choice, he made the wrong one.

What is beta-carotene? How does it affect cancer?

Cancers treated or prevented: Studies have found that a diet high in fruits and vegetables containing beta-carotene reduces the risk of certain types of cancer, including those of the prostate and lung. Researchers believe that beta-carotene and other antioxidants in fruits and vegetables work together to lower cancer risk.

It was thought that beta-carotene supplements might reduce the risk of certain cancers, especially lung cancer, but according to the American Cancer Society, there is no evidence of any cancer preventive benefit when beta-carotene is taken alone in supplement form. In fact, studies have found that smokers and people who have been exposed to asbestos who take beta-carotene supplements have a significantly higher risk of developing lung cancer and of dying from their cancer than those who do not take the supplements.

Scientific evidence for beta-carotene elevating the risk of prostate cancer in men has been inconclusive. For instance, the National Cancer Institute’s Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial (1992–2001) found that men with the highest levels of beta-carotene in their blood were at increased risk for developing more aggressive and deadly prostate cancer. However, 2009 follow-up results from the long-term Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial (1983–95) reported neither positive nor negative effects of beta-carotene supplementation on the rate of new prostate cancer cases.

Delivery routes: Oral in capsule and tablet forms. The US National Library of Medicine reports that eating five servings of fruits and vegetables daily provides six to eight milligrams of beta-carotene.

How this substance works: Beta-carotene is an antioxidant. It protects cells and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) from damage caused by unstable molecules called "free radicals," which are produced during metabolic processes as cells burn up oxygen for energy. Free radicals are believed to contribute to cancer and other diseases. Vitamin A, which the body produces from beta-carotene, helps prevent the uncontrolled cell growth that occurs with cancer.

Side effects: Beta-carotene may increase the risk of lung cancer or prostate cancer in people who smoke or drink alcohol heavily or who have been exposed to asbestos. It also may increase the risk of more aggressive prostate cancers. In high doses, beta-carotene may interact with some types of chemotherapy drugs or radiation.

Bibliography

"Antioxidants and Cancer Prevention." Cancer.gov. Natl. Cancer Inst., Natl. Inst. of Health, 16 Jan. 2014. Web. 8 Sept. 2014.

The ATBC Cancer Prevention Study Group. "The Effect of Vitamin E and Beta Carotene on the Incidence of Lung Cancer and Other Changes in Male Smokers." New England Journal of Medicine 330.15 (1994): 1029–35. PDF file.

"Beta-Carotene." MedlinePlus. US Natl. Lib. of Medicine, 19 July 2011. Web. 8 Sept. 2014.

Calvagna, Mary, and Brian Randall. "Vitamin A." Health Library. EBSCO, Feb. 2013. Web. 8 Sept. 2014.

"Vitamin A, Retinoids, and Provitamin A Carotenoids." Cancer.org. Amer. Cancer Soc., 2 Apr. 2012. Web. 8 Sept. 2014.

What are three stories told in Chapter 7?

Three stories told in Chapter Seven are:

1)The story's narrator, Tim, relates about Bob Kiley/Rat writing to Curt Lemon's sister after Curt's death.

In this story, Tim tells us about Rat writing to Curt Lemon's sister. In his letter, Rat writes copiously about the heroic battlefield exploits of his late colleague, and he praises Curt for his nobility, unselfishness, and heroism. Apparently, Rat also tells Curt's sister that he had a close personal connection with her brother when he was alive; he maintains that he will look her up when the war is over. However, Rat supposedly never receives a reply from the young lady.

2)The story Mitchell Sanders tells about the strange music and sounds the soldiers hear in the Vietnamese jungle while out on a mission.

In this story, Mitchell Sanders tells about a six-man patrol on a reconnaissance mission up in the mountains. The group's task is to listen for enemy movements; however, they are instead treated to an eerie symphony of strange, instrumental music which seems to come out of nowhere.

According to Sanders, the symphonic music is blended in with the sounds of disembodied voices, Buddhist chanting, and orchestral singing. The soldiers become so paralyzed with fear that they order massive firepower against the unseen enemy. When the colonel demands to know how the patrol can justify their actions, the team is mute. They say nothing, because there are apparently certain stories that a soldier never tells.

3)The story Tim relates about Rat Kiley torturing a baby water buffalo after the death of Curt Lemon.

In this story, Tim tells how the platoon comes across a baby water buffalo after Curt Lemon's death. Initially, Rat offers the baby buffalo some pork and beans. When the animal refuses Rat's offer of food, the soldier picks up his rifle and begins to shoot at the baby buffalo. He shoots at different parts of the animal until the baby buffalo is too weak to stand.

Rat does not kill the water buffalo immediately; however, his torture of the defenseless animal is cruel and senseless. He continues shooting away chunks of flesh from the animal until the animal is barely alive. Then, without ceremony, Rat and his fellow soldiers throw the hapless animal down the village well.

Were there any constants in the experience of old age, whether rich or poor, in pre-industrial (early modern) England?

Aging was commonly viewed as divided into three functional stages in the early modern period, although some written works from the period use more complex forms of categorization. The first stage was youth, when people were still training to become fully functional members of society; for women, this stage was that of being a "maid" or virgin. The next major life stage was maturity, or adulthood, during which one was generally married and a parent. The third stage of life was old age, portrayed as a period of decline; for women this was marked by menopause or widowhood and for men by a less clearly demarcated sort of physical decline.

Old age was increasingly medicalized in the early modern period, regarded as the equivalent of an ailment, and thus as something potentially curable or at least treatable. For all classes, old age was regarded as a period of physical decline, and was generally portrayed negatively, especially in the case of women. The negative portrayal of the very old, as losing their wits as well as physical abilities, and often becoming greedy, miserly, or eccentric, seems to be uniform across classes and genders. 

As medical technology was quite primitive, although the wealthy might have a slightly greater degree of comfort as they aged, and servants might be able to compensate for declining physical abilities, in general old age was considered a period of physical discomfort that could not be alleviated by known medical technology. Also common was the problem of gender, with widows of all classes often being in an economically and socially precarious position unless their families had made the precaution of granting them some form of guaranteed life income in the form of a jointure or portion. 

How did life begin?

The short answer is that nobody really knows.

While we have a fiarly detailed and precise account of how life evolved from its initial state as some sort of single-celled prokaryote to the vast diversity of living organisms today, we know very little about how that first prokaryote got started in the first place.

Creationists often try to use this as an argument against evolution, but this makes very little sense; it would be like saying the theory of gravity is wrong because we don't have a solid theory of star formation.

One theory is that life on Earth came from outer space, panspermia, but that really just pushes the question back: Okay, but where did that come from?

Current theories include:

1. Ice sheets during one of the coldest ice ages could have shielded organic compounds from solar radiation, keeping them stable for long periods of time and allowing them to form more complex structures simply by natural chemical reactions.

2. We know that lightning can produce organic compounds in the atmosphere, so maybe lightning in volcanic clouds provided the right conditions for a simple organism to emerge.

3. DNA is very hard to create, but RNA is less so; so perhaps RNA emerged first, populating the world with RNA-based organisms, which then later evolved into DNA-based organisms.

4. Primordial organic chemicals could simply have gradually combined and randomly mixed enough to eventually create a living organism.

5. Hydrothermal vents deep in the ocean contain a lot of energy and organic compounds. They were well-shielded from radiation, and could have provided the catalyst for living organisms to emerge.

None of these are really convincing theories, but a lot of scientists are working on it. It's also important to keep in mind that the universe is very big, and so even a very small probability of creating life on any given planet could nonetheless be enough to ensure that it happened somewhere---and since we're alive, one would expect us to find ourselves on a planet where it had, rather than a planet where it hadn't. (This is an application of the Weak Anthropic Principle.)

Why can't machines convert all of the work put into the work coming of it?

When work is done on a system, it is converted into energy. There is no such thing as a machine that is 100% efficient. In a machine, work is converted into energy. Energy comes in many forms, including sound, heat, and light energy. In addition to these types of energies, there is an internal property of a system called internal energy which is always present. For a machine to function, there is typically some form of friction. When friction is present, some energy is lost from the machine as heat. Therefore, some of the energy is converted into internal energy. If all of the energy was converted to work, that would mean there is no internal energy in the system. This is impossible, meaning all energy cannot be converted into work.