What are examples of two helpful Bacteria and two harmful Bacteria?

Examples of helpful bacteria:

Lactobacillus Bacteria: There are several different species of this type of bacteria. These include: Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus reuteri, and Lactobacillus planatarum. They are gram-positive, rod shaped bacteria. Lactobacillus bacteria are beneficial in several ways:

• They make up parts of the normal human oral, intestinal, and vaginal flora. 


• They are able to ferment lactose to lactic acid. This makes them important as a preservative and in yogurt production.

Streptomyces Bacteria: There are several different species of this type of bacteria. These include: Streptomyces aureofaciens, Streptomyces rimosus, and Streptomyces griseus. They are gram-positive, filamentous bacteria. Streptomyces bacteria are beneficial in the following ways:

• They are important in the decomposition of organic substances in soil.


• Some species are used in the production of antibacterial and antifungal substances.

Examples of harmful bacteria: 

Helicobacter pylori: These bacteria colonize the lining of the stomach. They are gram-negative rod shaped bacteria. H. pylori bacteria cause stomach ulcers by producing ammonia and cytotoxins which damage the lining of the stomach.

Clostridium tetani: These bacteria enter the body through wounds. They are gram-negative rod shaped bacteria. These bacteria produce the disease tetanus. Tetanus causes muscle spasms and death from respiratory failure. 

What are some historical facts from the book Lyddie that don't relate to the labor movement, women's rights, slavery, or child labor laws?

This question is hard.  Really hard.  The reason is because the book mainly focuses on the items that you have listed in the question.  I believe that I can provide you with two pieces of historical evidence that the novel mentions that do not deal with the topics mentioned in the question.  

The first historical fact is the emergence of colleges being open to women, and women seeking to further their education.  The novel ends with Lyddie deciding to go to college after being fired, which absolutely would have been possible for her.  Lyddie mentions Oberlin College by name.  The college was founded in 1833 and began regularly accepting female students in 1837.  It was the first college to do so.  

A second historical fact that the novel makes in a very brief passing is the fact that tuberculosis was quite common in the textile mills.  When Diana shows Lyddie how to pull the weft thread through the shuttle with her breath, she calls it the "Kiss of Death."  At the time, nobody knew it was tuberculosis or that it could be spread through saliva.  But Diana's reference does point out that it was common knowledge that the disease was more common in the textile factories than in other places.  

Why was David ready to leave Waknuk society?

David was ready to leave Waknuk society and his home because his life was at risk.

David is what Waknuk society would call a "deviant." His genetic structure is a far enough deviance from the norm that Waknuk society would purge his DNA from the gene pool. The society would do this by either killing him or banishing him to the Fringes.

Throughout the first half of the novel, David and his fellow deviants have been able to hide the fact that they have telepathic abilities. Unfortunately, their secret doesn't stay hidden, and David and his friends are forced to flee from Waknuk society. The Waknuks are not content with simply letting David and the group escape. The Waknuks, led by David's father, pursue David's group all the way into the Fringes. It is there that a big battle occurs, and David and his friends are rescued by the Sealand people.

What is the nervous system?

Structure and Functions

The nervous system serves as the major control system of the human body. It is responsible for the synchronization of body parts, the integration of physiologic activity, the interpretation of incoming stimuli, and all intellectual activity, including memory and abstract reasoning. The nervous system regulates these activities by communication between various nerve cells; by controlling the actions of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle; and by stimulating the secretion of products from various glands of the body.

Anatomically, the nervous system is divided into the central nervous system, which is composed of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which includes all nervous structures outside the central nervous system—primarily nerve processes, sensory receptors, and a limited number of cells of the nervous system that are located in special structures known as ganglia. Ganglia are found at various locations throughout the body. They are the only locations of neurons outside the central nervous system. Information from incoming cells can be transmitted to the ganglion cells, which in turn can transmit that information to other locations.

Although the brain and the spinal cord contain several different types of cells that are morphologically unique, there is only one type of functional cell present, which by convention is always referred to as the neuron. The neuron is one of the few cells in the body that cannot reproduce; a fixed number of these cells develop in infancy, and the number never increases, though it can decrease in the event of injury or disease.

The neuron consists of a cell body that is similar to that of the typical animal cell familiar to most people. In addition, the neuron has extensions called processes. In the typical neuron, there are two types of processes: dendrites and axons.

Usually a neuron has many dendrites. Dendrites are very short; they receive information from nearby cells and relay that information to the cell body. Each cell has only a single axon, which may be very long, extending up and down the spinal cord or from the spinal cord to the ends of the fingers or toes. The axons conduct information from the cell bodies to the effectors—that is, the muscles and glands—or to other neurons.

Functionally, the nervous system is divided into two areas: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic system controls posture and locomotion by stimulating the skeletal muscles. It is responsible for knowing where the body is in space and for ensuring that there is sufficient muscle contraction (tone) to maintain posture. Responses of the somatic system occur through the motor neurons.

The
autonomic nervous system regulates internal activities through the innervation, or nerve stimulation, of the smooth muscles or the glands. It is anatomically different from the somatic nervous system in that the stimulation of body parts always involves two neurons. The cell body of the second neuron in the sequence is located in a ganglion outside the central nervous system.

The autonomic nervous system is broken down further into two divisions: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic. The sympathetic system is also known as the “fight or flight” reaction, since it evolved from the mechanism in lower animals by which an animal would prepare to fight a predator or run from it. More commonly, it is referred to in humans as the adrenaline response, which is active during stressful situations, strenuous physical activity, public performance, or competition.

The parasympathetic system, which is responsible for the digestive functions of the body, controls stimulation of salivary gland secretions, increased blood flow to digestive organs, and movement of material through the digestive system. The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems usually function in balance; the parasympathetic system predominates after meals, and the sympathetic system predominates during periods of stress or physical activity.

Neurons communicate with other neurons or effectors through the release of chemical messengers known as neurotransmitters. At the termination of the axon, there is a widened area known as the synaptic knob, which produces and stores neurotransmitters. The effects of neurotransmitters are always localized and of short duration. There are many types of neurotransmitters, some of which are well known, such as acetylcholine and norepinephrine.

Neurotransmitters are released in response to an electrical impulse that is conducted along the axon. Once released, a neurotransmitter binds to cells that have appropriate receptors on their dendrites. Neurotransmitters may either stimulate or inhibit the activity of the second cell. If there is significant stimulation of the second cell, it will conduct the information along its axon and release a neurotransmitter from the axon terminal, which will in turn stimulate or inhibit the next neuron or effector. There must be a mechanism for the immediate removal of neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft if the stimulation of the second neuron is to cease and if other impulses are to be conducted.

Neurotransmitters can influence only those cells that have the appropriate receptors on their surfaces. It is through the neurotransmitter-receptor complex that neurotransmitters are able to influence cells, and any alteration of the number or type of receptors on a cell membrane will lead to an alteration of cellular functioning.

The axons of some neurons are covered with multiple layers of a cell membrane known as myelin. The myelin is produced by specialized cells in the brain known as oligodendrocytes and by cells in the peripheral axons known as Schwann cells. Myelin serves as an insulator for axons and is effective in speeding up the conduction of nerve impulses. It is essential for the normal functioning of the nervous system.

The brain and spinal cord are enclosed by three membranes of dense connective tissue called the meninges, which separate the nervous system from other tissue and from the skull and spinal cord. From the outside inward, they are the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater. Many of the blood vessels of the brain travel through the meninges; therefore, the surface of the brain is very vascular and is subject to bleeding or clotting after trauma.

Disorders and Diseases

Diseases of the nervous system can be arranged into several general categories: infections, congenital diseases, seizure disorders, circulatory diseases, traumatic injury, demyelinating diseases, degenerative diseases, mental diseases, and neoplasms.

Infections of the nervous system are described according to the tissues infected. If the meninges are infected, the disease is known as meningitis; if the brain tissue is infected, the disease is referred to as encephalitis. The development of abscesses in the nervous tissue can also occur. The conditions described can be caused by viruses, bacteria, protozoa, or other parasites.

In most cases, the organism that causes meningitis is spread via the bloodstream. It is also possible for infections to be spread via an infected middle ear or paranasal sinus, a skull fracture, brain surgery, or a lumbar puncture. The infectious agent can usually be determined by analyzing the spinal fluid. Bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics, while viral infections receive only supportive treatment.

An abscess of nervous tissue is usually a complication resulting from an infection at some other anatomical site, particularly from middle-ear infections or sinus infections. Abscesses may also occur following penetrating injuries. The abscess can create pressure inside the skull and, if left untreated, may rupture and lead to death.

Viral encephalitis is an acute disease that is often spread to humans by arthropods from animal hosts. After a carrier insect bites a human, the virus is spread to the brain of the human via the bloodstream. The specific causative agent often goes undiagnosed. Some well-known forms of encephalitis are herpes simplex encephalitis, poliomyelitis, rabies, and cytomegalovirus encephalitis. In addition, some forms of encephalitis fall into the category of slow virus infections, which have latent periods as long as several years between the time of infection and the development of encephalitis.

Other serious infections include neurosyphilis, which occurs in the late stages of untreated syphilis infections; toxoplasmosis, a protozoan infection that is extremely dangerous to fetuses but rarely causes serious problems in adults; cerebral malaria; and African trypanosomiasis, which is also known as sleeping sickness.

Congenital diseases of the brain vary in the degree of malfunction they produce. Spina bifida is a general term for a group of disorders in which the vertebrae do not develop as they should. As a result, the spinal cord may protrude from the lower back. In some cases, the effects may be so minimal as to produce no symptoms; in other cases, however, these malformations may lead to major neurologic impairment.

Hydrocephalus is another congenital malformation, one that may lead to an increase in the size of the ventricles of the brain. It may be caused by blockage of the flow of spinal fluid in the fetus. In some cases, the spinal fluid produced by the nervous system fills the ventricles and limits the space available for the growing brain and nervous tissue. The result under these conditions is the presence of larger-than-normal ventricles and a smaller-than-normal amount of nervous tissue.

A seizure disorder is any sudden burst of excess electrical activity in the neurons of the brain. Epilepsy is a general term for seizure disorders. The condition may be mild and have only minimal effects, or it may be severe, leading to convulsions. The cause is often unknown, but epilepsy may result from infection, trauma, or neoplasms.

Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) is the term used to describe a variety of malfunctions of blood circulation in the nervous system that are not a result of trauma. More commonly, the term stroke is used to describe the condition. Strokes have many causes that generally fall into two categories: ischemic and hemorrhagic.

Ischemic strokes are those in which the nervous tissue is deprived of oxygen as a result of an impairment of blood flow to the area. An ischemic stroke is most commonly the result of a blood clot that blocks the blood vessels leading to the brain or the blood vessels in the brain itself. Since the cells can live for only a few minutes without oxygen, an ischemic stroke can result in neurological impairment or even death.

In hemorrhagic strokes, there is bleeding in the brain itself. It may be caused by hypertension or by the rupture of a weakened blood vessel, which is known as an aneurysm. Both ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes lead to the death of neurons in the affected area. The degree of damage to the brain is determined by the number of cells destroyed by the oxygen deprivation.

Traumatic injury to the brain can generally be classified as penetrating or nonpenetrating. Penetrating injuries produce a risk of infection as well as bleeding at the site of the wound. Since many large blood vessels are located in the meninges, even injuries that penetrate only into the meninges may be sufficient to cause serious injury. Nonpenetrating injuries may also cause bleeding of the meninges, which can limit blood flow to the nervous tissue or put excessive pressure on the tissue.

Injury to the spinal cord may result in severing the spinal cord from the brain. If this should occur, communications between the brain and any structures below the area of the injury are lost, as is all sensory and motor function in those areas. Since neurons are unable to regenerate and axon repair is limited, there is little hope for reversal of this condition, although extensive research is being conducted in this area.

Demyelinating diseases are those that result in changes in the myelin sheaths of neurons. The most common example is multiple sclerosis, which affects myelin in the central nervous system but not in the peripheral nervous system. Although there are varying degrees of severity, the condition causes limb weakness, impaired perception, and optic neuritis, among other things. Some cases present only mild symptoms, while others are degenerative and can lead to death, sometimes within months. Many patients, however, survive for more than twenty years. The cause of these diseases is not yet clear, although viral infections have been associated with some demyelinating diseases.

Degenerative diseases are those in which there is a gradual decline in nervous function. The disease may be hereditary, as in the case of Huntington’s disease, or may occur without any apparent genetic basis, as in the case of Parkinson’s disease. Parkinson’s disease involves the death of certain neurons in the brain and a decreased concentration of neurotransmitters. As the disease progresses, there is a gradual loss of motor ability and, ultimately, a complete loss of motor function. Not much is known about neurotransmitter replacement or mechanisms to stop degenerative diseases.

Little is known about mental diseases such as
schizophrenia and manic depression. They appear to involve abnormal levels of neurotransmitters or errors in the membrane receptors associated with those neurotransmitters. Success in localizing the causes of these diseases has been slow in coming; there has been much more success in the development of medications to treat them.

Cancer of the brain can be primary or metastatic. Metastatic tumors, the more common variety, can arise from any source. Of the primary neoplasms, the most common are those derived from glial cells, which are responsible for more than 65 percent of all primary neoplasms. The second most common are neoplasms resulting from transformation of cells of the meninges. Since neurons cannot divide, neuron tumors are almost nonexistent except in children.

Perspective and Prospects

When the control system of the body experiences a malfunction, the effects are wide ranging. Since the nervous system is responsible for regulating so many diverse activities, nervous-system injury or disease must be treated immediately if the patient is to survive. This problem is further complicated by the fact that the brain is a difficult organ to study, because of its location within the skull and because its cells are vital and can be studied only after they have died.

Disease or injury of the cells of the nervous system, especially the brain, creates problems that are unique to that organ for several reasons, including the fact that those cells cannot repair themselves and cannot divide. In addition, the cells of the brain are restricted to a limited area. The cells of the nervous system are unique in that they are so highly specialized that they are not capable of cell division. As a result, humans have the greatest number of neurons during early childhood. Any neural injury or disease that kills cells results in a decreased number of neurons. Furthermore, the space in the skull is tightly packed with cells and cerebrospinal fluid, leaving no room for blood that might result from an injury or fluid accumulation due to tissue infection or tumors. Any of these conditions will increase the pressure within the skull and will also increase the extent of the injury to the nervous tissue.

Although there is no mechanism for replacing cells that have died, the prognosis is not totally bleak. There are cells in the brain that can, in the event of disease or injury, assume the responsibilities of the dead cells. For example, a person who has lost the capacity to speak following a stroke may be retaught to speak using cells that previously did not perform that function.

Among the problems with which the nervous system must cope, there are many things that can go wrong at the synapse of a neuron. The cell may produce too little or too much neurotransmitter. It is possible that the neurotransmitter may not be released on cue or that, if it is released, the postsynaptic cells will not have the appropriate receptors. There also may be no mechanism for removal of the neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft. These are only a few of the problems that can interfere with communication between different neurons or between neurons and other effectors. As science learns more about the communication system of neurons, efforts to correct these problems will intensify. Already there are many drugs available that can alter activity at the synapse. Correcting these errors can lead to methods for the treatment of mental diseases.

Someday it may be possible to transplant healthy neurons from one person to another. This procedure may permit physicians to prevent total paralysis in a person who has suffered a broken neck or total loss of motor function in an individual who suffers from Parkinson’s disease. In 1990, normal neurons were grown in tissue culture for the first time. Such scientific breakthroughs will lead to more and better treatments for individuals who suffer from diseases of the nervous system.

Bibliography

Afifi, Adel K., and Ronald A. Bergman. Functional Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas. 2d ed. New York: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill, 2005.

"Autonomic Nervous System Disorders." MedlinePlus, April 17, 2013.

Barondes, Samuel H. Molecules and Mental Illness. 2d ed. New York: Scientific American, 1999.

Bear, Mark F., Barry W. Connors, and Michael A. Paradiso. Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain. 3d ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

Bloom, Floyd E., M. Flint Beal, and David J. Kupfer, eds. The Dana Guide to Brain Health: A Practical Family Reference from Medical Experts. New York: Dana Press, 2006.

Goldman, Steven A. "Biology of the Nervous System." Merck Manual Home Health Handbook, November 2007.

McCance, Kathryn L., and Sue M. Huether. Pathophysiology: The Biologic Basis for Disease in Adults and Children. 6th ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier, 2010.

McLendon, Roger E., Marc K. Rosenblum, and Darell D. Bigner, eds. Russell and Rubinstein’s Pathology of Tumors of the Nervous System. 7th ed. 2 vols. London: Hodder Arnold, 2006.

"Neurologic Diseases." MedlinePlus, July 4, 2013.

Nicholls, John G., et al. From Neuron to Brain. 5th ed. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer, 2012.

Underwood, J. C. E., and S. S. Cross, eds. General and Systematic Pathology. 5th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2009.

Woolsey, Thomas A., Joseph Hanaway, and Mokhtar H. Gado. The Brain Atlas: A Visual Guide to the Human Central Nervous System. 3d ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2007.

Could you explain the DSM-5's section on substance-related and addictive disorders in laymen's terms?

In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-5 (DSM-V), there have been several changes related to diagnosing substance use. There were previously two categories to diagnose substance use — substance abuse and substance dependence, as it was thought that substance abuse was the first phase people went through, followed by substance dependence. Research now suggests the substance abuse phase can be very severe, so these two separate categories have now been combined into one, called Substance Use Disorder. This diagnosis requires 2-3 symptoms from a list of 11, while the older diagnosis of substance abuse only required one symptom. With the exception of caffeine, each substance is classified as a separate disorder. 

In addition, Gambling Disorder has been added to the section called Addictive Disorders, as it is now recognized as similar to substance disorders with regard to its cognitive origins, clinical presentation, physiology, comorbidity, and treatment. Internet Gaming Disorder is still in Section III of the DSM-V, the section for disorders that require further research. Caffeine use disorder is not a diagnosis in the DSM-V, though there is research that discontinued use can result in withdrawal symptoms. It is also in Section III, marked for future research.

What does the term "special needs" mean?

The term special needs refers to individuals who require assistance for an array of disabilities or developmental delays in behavioral, cognitive, emotional, physical, scholastic, or social skills. These disabilities can affect many aspects of people's lives, such as how they behavior in certain situations, develop physically and mentally, interact with others, learn, and take care of themselves. Individuals with special needs typically require some type of specialized care, including medication, therapy, social skills instruction, assisted living, or special education. Many can manage their care on their own, but some require assistance with certain aspects of their lives.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau in 2010, 19 percent of the U.S. population had a disability that impacted daily living. Many governmental and nongovernmental organizations exist to provide services and programs for those with disabilities. The United States has several laws in place to protect the rights of those with special needs.

Types of Special Needs

Special needs can be classified as physical or mental disabilities. People with special needs can have more than one disability. For instance, a blind person can also have bipolar disorder.

Physical Disabilities

Physical disabilities affect a person physically or medically. They can affect a person's ability to move or function normally. The following are examples of physical disabilities:

• Blindness, or visual impairment: This affects a person's ability to see.




• 
  Chronic illnesses: These can affect an individual's ability to perform everyday activities. Examples include allergies, arthritis, asthma, diabetes, and epilepsy.




• 
  Congenital disorders: These occur at birth. Examples include deformities of limbs, missing limbs, cleft lip, clubfoot, and spine disorders.




• Deafness, or hearing impairment: This affects a person's ability to hear.




• Orthopedic, or movement impediments: These affect a person's ability to move. They can be caused by congenital anomalies, disease or illness, accidents, or other conditions such as cerebral palsy.




• Traumatic brain injury (TBI): This is an injury to the brain usually caused by external forces, such as a severe blow to the head. This physical condition can impair not only motor abilities but also cognitive functions such as the ability to think, speak, remember, and solve problems. TBI can also affect psychosocial behaviors.

Mental Disabilities

Mental disabilities affect behavior, cognitive skills, emotions, learning, and social interactions. The following are examples of mental disabilities:

• Autism spectrum disorder (ASD): This affects verbal and nonverbal communication skills and social interaction.




• Bipolar disorder: This causes an individual to suffer from lows and highs such as periods of depression followed by periods of mania.




• Depression: This causes a person severe sadness and feelings of hopelessness usually affecting activities once enjoyed.




• Dementia, including Alzheimer's disease: This affects the aging population and usually alters mental function and behavior.




• Down syndrome: This genetic condition causes individuals to have a lower than normal intelligence, which can result in other mental and physical disabilities.




• 
  Learning disorders: These affect a person's ability to think, speak, and learn and can affect social skills. Examples include dysgraphia (writing difficulties), dyslexia (reading difficulties), and dyscalculia (arithmetic difficulties).




• Manias: These conditions affect a person's behavior in extreme ways and can cause impulsive behaviors. Examples include pyromania, or the impulse to start fires.




• 
  Phobias: People with phobias attach unnatural fear to certain objects or situations. People who have arachnophobia are afraid of spiders.




• Schizophrenia: This affects people's thought processes and ability to function normally. They may experience delusions or hallucinations, situations that they believe are true but are not real, and exhibit strange behavior.

Americans with Disabilities Act

The U.S. government in 1990 signed the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) to protect those with special needs against discrimination in public and private spaces such as work, school, transportation, and more. The law is divided into five parts. The first part deals with employment and states that employers must provide the same opportunities and benefits to individuals with special needs as those without disabilities. The law also says that employers must provide accommodations to disabled individuals, as long as the accommodations do not impose a financial hardship to the employer.

The next section targets state and local government services. It maintains that both types of government services and activities must be accessible for those with special needs. The third part deals with public and private places. These must ensure that commercial facilities can be accessed by those with disabilities. This includes communicating with people who have vision, hearing, and speech disabilities.

The fourth section is for telephone and Internet companies. They must provide services such as telecommunications relay services and closed captioning to those with hearing, speech, and visual disabilities. The last part deals with topics not already covered by the ADA such as state immunity, retaliation, attorneys' fees, relationship to other laws, and more.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) protects the educational rights of students with disabilities. It ensures students receive
special education
, the instruction and support provided to students with disabilities. IDEA mandates that all U.S. public schools provide special education services with specific guidelines to ensure students with special needs receive an education on par with that of their peers.

Until 1975, many children with special needs did not have access to an education. Congress enacted the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) to ensure children with disabilities received a free public education equal to that of their peers. Schools received federal funding to evaluate students and develop learning programs for them. Under EHA, parents also received support services from schools. Over the years, more services were added to ensure students received transition care after school ended. The act's name was later changed to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.

Bibliography

"Categories of Disability Under IDEA." Center for Parent Information and Resources. Center for Parent Information and Resources. Web. 18 Mar. 2015. http://www.parentcenterhub.org/repository/categories/

"The History of Special Education." Teach.com. Teach.com. Web. 18 Mar. 2015. http://teach.com/the-history-of-special-education

Kelly, Evelyn. "Disabilities." Diseases and Disorders, Vol. 1. Tarrytown: Marshall Cavendish, 2008. Print.

"Nearly 1 in 5 People Have a Disability in the U.S., Census Bureau Reports." U.S. Census Bureau. U.S. Census Bureau. 25 July 2012. Web. 18 Mar. 2015. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/miscellaneous/cb12-134.html

Parsons, Jacqueline P. "Special Needs." Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development, Vol. 3. Ed. Sam Goldstein and Jack A. Naglieri. New York: Springer, 2011. 1422–23. Print.

"Types of Disabilities." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web. 18 Mar. 2015. http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/disabilityandhealth/types.html

"What Is the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)." ADA National Network. U.S. Department of Education, National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research. Web. 18 Mar. 2015. https://adata.org/learn-about-ada

How much energy does a pair of 800 W hair straighteners transfer every second?

As I understand, a pair of hair straighteners is one thing, not two. It is marked as 800 W, which indicates their power consumption. W means Watt, a unity of power named after James Watt, a Scottish inventor who made great improvements to a steam engine.

By definition, power is the work over time, or the speed of performing work. Also, it may be defined as the speed of using energy. The unit for energy is Joule, named after an English physicist James Joule. Thus a power of 800 W means 800 Joules used during one second.

Because a conversion of electric energy into heat energy is performed almost without a loss of energy, we may state that a pair of hair straighteners transfers 800 Joules of energy every second.

In Holes by Louis Sachar, what did X-Ray ask Stanley to do next time he found something? What was his reasoning behind this?

X-Ray tells Stanley to give him the tube because he has been there longest and deserves a day off.

As unofficial leader, X-Ray seems to have a lot of power over the group.  For example, he chooses a special shovel that he thinks will make it easier to dig a hole.

[The shovels] all looked the same to Stanley, although X-Ray had his own special shovel, which no one else was allowed to use. X-Ray claimed it was shorter than the others, but if it was, it was only by a fraction of an inch. (Ch. 7) 

X-Ray chooses this shovel because the boys have to dig a hole each day that is as deep and wide as the shovel.  He figures that a smaller shovel results in a smaller hole.  Since the shovels are five feet long, any little bit helps.  The boys are supposedly digging to “build character,” but they also have to turn in anything they find.  If they find something good, they get a day off from digging holes. 

One day, Stanley does find something.  It is a fossil of a little fish.  He is told that the warden is not interested in fossils.  Then Stanley notices that X-Ray is watching him.  He pulls Stanley aside. 

"Say, listen," said X-Ray. "If you find something else, give it to me, okay?"

Stanley wasn't sure what to say. X-Ray was clearly the leader of the group, and Stanley didn't want to get on his bad side. (Ch. 11) 

X-Ray tells him that he has been at Camp Green Lake for almost a year, and hasn’t found anything.  He also claims that his “eyesight's not so good.”  He does not believe Stanley deserves a day off when he has only been there for a few days.  Stanley reluctantly agrees to X-Ray's request. 

Stanley does find something else.  It is a gold lipstick tube with the letters K.B. on it.  He doesn’t want to give it to X-Ray, but X-Ray spots him with it as Stanley is wondering if it is interesting enough for the warden.  X-Ray takes it, and Stanley suggests that X-Ray wait until the next day to turn it in since he is almost done with the day’s hole. 

The next day, X-Ray waits awhile, then gives the tube to Mr. Pedanski.  He gets the day off and an extra shower.  The warden comes out to see where it was found.  She looks around in the dirt, and then tells all of the boys to start digging where X-Ray said the tube was found.  Of course, they are digging in the wrong place, but only Stanley knows that.

What words help create the atmosphere at the beginning of "The Monkey's Paw"?

I think we can agree that The Monkey's Paw is a pretty spooky/creepy story. So let's read over the first chunk of it and look for words that give us a spooky or uneasy feeling. 

I find that atmosphere can be a difficult concept to grasp. What helps me when it comes to atmosphere or tone is to imagine a different word in place of the word that is actually there in the story. So for each atmospheric word we go over, I'll try to show how another word would have created a different atmosphere or tone in the story.

Without, the night was cold and wet, 

In the first line, we've got two adjectives that begin to set up the atmosphere of the story for us. Something that is cold and wet is unfriendly, uncomfortable, and makes us feel uneasy. Alternatively, if it was a warm and star-filled night that would create quite a different scene!

Okay, let's find three more words that set up the atmosphere/tone.

Later, when Sergeant-Major Morris is asked about the monkey's paw, he claims that the story about it is:

"Nothing," said the soldier hastily. "Leastways, nothing worth hearing."

He said this hastily. We often do things hastily when we don't really want to do them. If Sergeant-Major Morris had said the words warmly or laughingly we would have a much different idea of how he feels about the monkey's paw. Since he gives his answer hastily, we can guess that he doesn't want to talk about the monkey's paw.

Finally Morris does start to talk about it. When Herbert tells Morris to take his three wishes, Morris says:

"I have," he said quietly, and his blotchy face whitened.

Again, Morris is not speaking of the monkey's paw loudly or proudly. He is speaking quietly. Speaking quietly is often associated with fear or shame. This adds to the mystery and fear around the money's paw.

The fact that Morris's face whitens is also telling. People usually go pale when they are scared. If his face had turned red, we might infer that Morris became angry. His pale face adds to the mysteriousness and fear of the monkey's paw and adds to the spooky atmosphere of the story.

I hope this helped!

What are three facts for "All Summer in a Day"?

Fact 1:  It has been raining on Venus for seven years. 

Can you imagine living in a place where the sun never comes out?  That is the situation on Venus in Bradbury’s science fiction story “All Summer in a Day.”  It has been raining for so long that it seems like it will never stop. 

It had been raining for seven years; thousands upon thousands of days compounded and filled from one end to the other with rain, with the drum and gush of water, with the sweet crystal fall of showers and the concussion of storms so heavy they were tidal waves come over the islands. 

The people of Venus know that the sun will soon come out.  As long as it has been raining, they have missed the sun.  Most of them are transplants from Earth.  The adults remember the sun, but the children do not. 

Fact 2:  The children in Margot’s class do not remember ever seeing the sun. 

Most of the children in Margot’s class are nine years old, so they were toddlers when the sun last came out.  Naturally they do not remember it.  Due to this fact, they are obsessed with the sun.  They can’t wait for it to come out, so they can see it for the first time. 

[They] had been on Venus all their lives, and they had been only two years old when last the sun came out and had long since forgotten the color and heat of it and the way it really was. 

In school, they study the sun.  They write poems about it, and stories.  Their teacher encourages their enthusiasm.  She doesn’t seem to realize that one of the children does not fit in. 

Fact 3:  The children bully Margot because she came from Earth and does not fit in. 

Margot does not play games with the other children.  She avoids them, and they bully her.  She is a frail, timid girl.  The children of Venus are jealous of her because she came from Earth and has seen the sun.  She also has a chance to go back.  

There was talk that her father and mother were taking her back to Earth next year; it seemed vital to her that they do so .... And so, the children hated her for all these reasons of big and little consequence. They hated her pale snow face, her waiting silence, her thinness, and her possible future. 

On the day the sun comes out, the children lock Margot in a closet as a gag.  Then the sun emerges, and they forget about her.  When they realize that she missed the sun, they are ashamed at what they have done.

What volume in milliliters of a 10% (m/v) NaOH solution contains 45 g NaOH?

While preparing solutions, we often use terms such as m/m or w/w, v/v, m/v, etc. m/v stands for mass by volume, that is, solute is measured in terms of mass, while the solvent is measured in terms of volume. 

A 100% m/v solution (prepared in water) contains 1 g per ml or 1 kg per l. This is because the density of water is about 1 g per ml or 1 kg per l. 

A 10% m/v solution would then mean 1 g per 10 ml.

Using unitary method, 1 g is in 10 ml (for 10% solution).

Then, 45 g would be in 10 ml x 45 g / 1 g = 450 ml.

Thus, 450 ml of a 10% m/v solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) will contain 45 g NaOH.

Hope this helps. 

What are Mormons?

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (sometimes called LDS Church or Mormonism) is a sect of Christianity founded by the Prophet Joseph Smith in the 19th century. People who are members of the LDS Church are called Mormons. 

Mormons are similar to other Christian denominations in the fact that they believe in Jesus Christ as the Savior. Their major divergence from other sects of Christianity is that they include the Book of Mormon in Scripture alongside the Bible. The Book of Mormon holds that Jesus Christ visited the Americas long before any European explorers and ministered there, establishing a peaceful society. Members of the LDS Church believe that a prophet named Mormon (hence the name of the Church) recorded this occurrence on golden plates and his son later buried them in a hill in the state of New York. In 1823, Joseph Smith found these plates in the hillside and translated them to English and founded the Church. The Book of Mormon is believed to have been a revelation of new information concerning Christ's actions in the Americas.

Mormons also differ in some of their social behaviors compared to other Christian sects and the greater population. They abstain from alcohol, cigarettes, caffeinated beverages, and illegal drugs. Modest dress is also favored by Mormons, and though this is encouraged in most faiths, Mormons (especially women) feel quite strongly that dressing modestly is a duty. 

Though the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints was founded in New York and flourished in the Western United States, the faith has spread around the world. Outside of the United States, the nations with the most members of the LDS Church are Mexico, Brazil, Chile, and Peru. 

Mae and Angus Tuck were accustomed to change, nevertheless these latest changes upset them. Why?

Angus and Mae Tuck are accustomed to change happening around them, because they have each lived for more than a century.  They are immortal, which means that they do not change, but they see large changes in the world around them.  Additionally, because of their immortality, Angus and Mae Tuck have to move to a new home about every twenty years.  Otherwise people get suspicious.  

"But they can't stay on in any one place for long, you know. None of us can. People get to wondering." She sighed. "We been in this house about as long as we dare, going on twenty years."

Change doesn't typically bother the Tucks, because the changes exist around them.  This time though, the changes directly impact the Tuck family and their secret. Winnie discovers Jesse drinking from the spring, and she wants to drink too.  He fumbles for an explanation as to why she shouldn't drink, but he can't come up with anything.  Luckily, Mae and Miles show up.  Together the three Tucks "kidnap" Winnie.  The Tuck family is upset for two reasons.  Number one, their spring has been discovered.  Number two, it has been discovered by a child, which makes things more difficult.  

"This is awful!" said Jesse. "Can't you do something, Ma? The poor little tad."

"We ought to've had some better plan than this," said Miles.

"That's the truth," said Mae helplessly. "The dear Lord knows there's been time enough to think of one, and it had to happen sooner or later. We been plain bone lucky it hasn't before now. But I never expected it'd be a child!"

The discovery of their spring and their secret is only compounded when the man in the yellow suit announces his intentions to market and sell the spring water to the highest bidder.  The Tucks, Angus especially, know the dangers of this possibility.  

In the book Foxfire: Confessions of a Girl Gang by Joyce Carol Oates, what is an example of anti-communism?

On page 6 of Foxfire: Confessions of a Girl Gang, a local politician that the narrator, Maddy Wirtz, calls "Congressman X" shows up at her high school and gives a speech that is anti-communist in its themes. Maddy recalls part of his speech in a sarcastic way as "American way of life free enterprise blah blah" (page 6). The politician later refers to the United States as "God-ordained" and to the idea that American ideals of life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness will win out "against all enemies" (page 6). Though the politician does not refer to who these enemies are, in the 1950s, they were understood to be communists, mainly in the Soviet Union. The speaker also discusses the idea that if the students work hard and have faith, they can achieve anything they want. This is the classic message of the value of American capitalism (in contrast to the evils of communism), but the message rings hollow to Maddy and her friends, who are from the working class. 

Did Jesus claim to be the son of God?

The answer to this question is a little complicated. Christians are taught to believe Jesus is the Messiah, meaning the Son of God. This is the foundation of the Christian faith; without belief that Jesus is the Son of God, Christianity ceases to exist. In the Gospel of Mark, we read about Jesus's trial before the Sanhedrin. During his trial, the high priests tried to get Jesus to say that he was the Son of God so they could charge him with blasphemy or heresy. This is described in Mark 14: 60-62:

Then the high priest stood up before them and asked Jesus, “Are you not going to answer? What is this testimony that these men are bringing against you?” But Jesus remained silent and gave no answer.

Again the high priest asked him, “Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?”

“I am,” said Jesus. “And you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven.”

In Mark's Gospel, Jesus affirms he is the Son of God to the Sanhedrin, even though he knows he will be put to death.

What is the role of alcoholism in Farewell, My Lovely?

Raymond Chandler, who was a notoriously heavy drinker, used liquor for various purposes in his novels, perhaps nowhere as much as in Farewell, My Lovely. When Marlowe goes to see Jessie Florian at her run-down home in Central Los Angeles, he brings along a pint bottle of bonded bourbon. She is obviously an alcoholic but can't always afford to buy a bottle. When Marlowe produces the best-quality bourbon:

The woman's eyes became fixed in an incredulous stare.

"You ain't no copper," she said softly. "No copper ever bought a drink of that stuff. What's the gag, mister?"

Marlowe lets her drink most of the pint bottle while he is trying to pump her for information. At one point she sets her empty whiskey glass on top of the card he gave her. Later Marlowe will find his card with the whiskey stain on the body of Lin Marriott, and it will lead the detective to deduce that Jessie Florian was getting paid off to keep silent about the identity of Helen Grayle, the former Velma Valento whom Moose Malloy is trying to find--and who is very comfortably married to a wealthy old man and definitely doesn't want to be found by Moose or anybody else..

Later Marlowe meets Helen Grayle at her mansion and they end up getting drunk together. She seems like a soul mate in at least one respect. She likes liquor as much as he does. She wants to have an affair with Marlowe, but their date doesn't come off until near the end of the novel, where he has set a trap to expose her as Velma to Moose Malloy.

In Chapter 25, Marlowe wakes up in a locked room in a sanitarium which appears to specialize in treating alcoholics. He was slugged over the head by two Bay City cops who checked him into the sanitarium, apparently as a warning to stay away from Bay City and to stop associating with Mrs. Grayle. The treatment for alcoholics appears to be to give them liquor laced with something that will make them retch.

I took a long untidy drink. I put the bottle down again, with infinite care. I tried to lick underneath my chin.

The whiskey had a funny taste. While I was realizing that it had a funny taste I saw a washbowl jammed into the corner of the wall. I made it. I just made it. Dizzy Dean never threw anything harder.

Farewell, My Lovely is Chandler's best novel, but it helped to give him the reputation of being a writer whose plots were nearly impossible to follow. Marlowe never explains how he got involved in the case in the first place. There is no fee involved, except for $100 he collects from Lin Marriott. In the end, Marlowe is still drinking as heavily as Anne Riordan will allow as he discusses the complex case at her Bay City home.

I finished my drink and got the thirsty look on my face again. She ignored it.

Chandler had such a drinking problem that he was probably writing from personal experience when he described the sanitarium where Marlowe was being kept a prisoner until he broke out. His hero Marlowe has the same bad habit. In Chandler's best-known novel, The Big Sleep, Marlowe buys a pint of whiskey to keep him company while he is keeping an eye on Arthur Gwynn Geiger's pornographic book store.

I struggled into a trench coat and made a dash for the nearest drugstore and bought myself a pint of whiskey. Back in the car I used enough of it to keep warm and interested.

Philip Marlowe seems to have played the role-model for many fictional private eyes who came after him. It was expected of a man in that profession to live on whiskey and cigarettes. Some of the characters he encounters in his adventures in The Big Sleep, Farewell, My Lovely, The High Window, The Lady in the Lake, and The Long Goodbye have even worse habits. 

What did the animals in George Orwell's Animal Farm do to Mr. Jones and his men?

Mr. Jones's increased drinking, along with the irresponsibility of his men, led to the animals' neglect. One day, the hungry animals got into the grain supplies so they could eat. Mr. Jones and his men came in with whips to drive the animals from the food. Instead of being cowed, the animals rebelled. They fought back and Boxer accidentally killed a hand. This frightened the rest of the men sufficiently that the animals were able to drive Mr. Jones and the rest of his crew off the farm. Mrs. Jones also saw what was happening and fled. After this episode, known to the animals as the Rebellion, the animals established Animal Farm. It's important to note that, while Old Major planted the idea of freedom into the minds of the animals, a spontaneous event led to the animals' revolt. Later, the men try to retake the farm, but the animals use military tactics studied by Snowball to win the battle once again.

What are side effects? How do they affect cancer patients?

General side effects from drugs: All drugs, whether prescription or over-the-counter (OTC), can cause side effects ranging in duration from acute (transient) to chronic (long-term) and in intensity from mild to life-threatening. Whether or not a person experiences drug-related side effects depends on a number of factors, including individual differences in physiologic makeup. All prescription and OTC drugs have known, documented (labeled) side effects. Those of prescription drugs are listed on each medication’s package insert (PI). The PI for each marketed drug must be approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and must include comprehensive efficacy data, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data (information on the way the body absorbs, distributes, and metabolizes the drug), dosage and administration data, and safety data including contraindications (a listing of known conditions that may preclude safe usage), warnings (a listing of serious side effects), precautions (a listing of potential concerns involving drug interactions, laboratory test interactions, carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, impairment of fertility, pregnancy, teratogenicity, use by nursing mothers, pediatric use, geriatric use, adverse reactions, and an assessment of potential for drug abuse and dependence), signs and symptoms indicative of overdose, and treatment recommendations in the event of overdose.

In general, the most commonly experienced drug-related side effects involve the gastrointestinal system (including anorexia, constipation, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting). Other commonly experienced side effects involve the nervous system (including fatigue, headache, and insomnia). The Physicians’ Desk Reference (PDR), a commercially published, annually updated reference book, is a compendium of PIs. It is available to the public in original format, in layterm format, and in e-book format. An online version is also available to medical professionals.

Drug interactions: Drug-related side effects may occur due to any of the following types of interaction: one medication with another medication (a “drug-drug interaction”), one therapy with another therapy (a “concurrent therapy interaction”), and a medication with a certain food type (a “drug-food interaction”).

Drug-drug interactions. Concomitant use of certain medications can result in either a reduction of or an increase in the effects of either or both drugs, thereby increasing the incidence or severity of side effects. For example, antidiarrheal drugs taken with tranquilizers can increase the sedative effect; anticoagulants with antacids can decrease absorption of the anticoagulant and increase bleeding; diuretics with decongestants can increase hypertension; and antihistamines with antitussives (cough medications) can increase drowsiness.

Concurrent therapy interactions.
Concurrent therapy interactions can occur when two or more different types of treatment are used simultaneously for the same indication (to treat the same symptom). For example, combined treatment with chemotherapy and radiation therapy, as is administered for many types of cancer, can result in a decrease in neutrophils (white blood cells) as well as other types of blood cells. When administered to those with diabetes, the resultant decrease in cell count could increase the risk of infection.

In addition to adverse drug interactions, however, the possibility exists that a drug-drug interaction may have a positive synergistic effect. In such cases, either the efficacy of the concomitant drugs is greater than that of each drug individually, or the side effects associated with the concomitant drugs are fewer or less severe than those associated with either drug individually.

Drug-food interactions. The presence in the gut of certain types of foods may affect the bioavailability and safety profiles of an orally administered drug by interfering with its ADMET profile. ADMET stands for the following properties:

• absorption into the circulatory system





• distribution to organs and tissues





• metabolism of the parent compound into metabolites





• excretion of the parent compound and metabolites, usually via urine and feces





• toxicity (harmfulness) of the parent compound and metabolites

For example, an enzyme present in grapefruit may inhibit drug metabolism, resulting in the presence of more parent compound in the circulatory system than would otherwise be there. This could increase in the incidence or severity of side effects caused by drugs in the following drug classes: analgesics, antiarrhythmics, antibiotics, anticoagulants, anticonvulsants, antidepressants, antihypertensives, antitussives, and chemotherapy agents. Certain foods may also block drug absorption if taken within a certain interval before or after a drug dose. For example, ingestion of a dairy product shortly before or after taking the antibiotic tetracycline can result in the drug’s reduced efficacy.

Obversely, the systemic presence of certain types of drugs may affect nutrient absorption, nutrient metabolism, or appetite. The magnitude of a drug-food effect, however, is dependent upon such variables as drug dosage and route of administration; duration of the interval between medication ingestion and food ingestion; and the age, weight, gender, and health status of the person taking the medication.

Unintentional overdosage. Toxicity can occur as the result of an unintentional overdose either from taking more than the correct dose at any one time or from taking the correct dose more often than prescribed or recommended. Side effects of acute toxicity include blurred vision, dizziness, headache, loss of muscle coordination, nausea, and vomiting. For certain antihypertensive drugs, dosages only slightly higher than the recommended therapeutic dose can cause bradycardia (slow heartbeat), hypotension, or vomiting.

Since the route of excretion for most drugs is renal (through kidney metabolism), hepatic (through liver metabolism), or both, overdosage can result in renal or hepatic toxicity. An overdosage of analgesics (painkillers) is the most prevalent cause of acute hepatoxicity (liver failure) in the United States.

Toxicity can result not only from drug exposure but also from radiation exposure. Such toxicity can be minimized by limiting the volume of tissue irradiated.

Drug allergies: Certain drugs can cause allergic reactions, whereby the immune system launches a histamine response to rid the body of the drug. The resultant adverse events can range in intensity from life-threatening to mild and include anaphylactic symptoms (apnea, bronchoconstriction, cyanosis, and loss of consciousness), anxiety, confusion, diarrhea, dizziness, hives and itching, lung congestion, mouth and throat edema, nausea, rash, and tachycardia (rapid heartbeat).

The most common trigger for allergic reactions is antibiotics in the penicillin family. Others include anticonvulsants, barbiturates, insulin, iodine (present in radiographic contrast dyes), and sulfa drugs.

Photoallergies and phototoxicities: Photoallergy and phototoxicity are two types of photosensitivity that can be caused by prescription or over-the-counter drugs. Occurrences can be either acute and isolated, or chronic.

Photoallergies can occur following the topical administration of certain medications that undergo structural change when exposed to the ultraviolet wavelengths of sunlight, resulting in the production of antibodies that cause the photosensitivity. Symptoms include incidence of an eczema-type rash a few days after treatment.

Phototoxicity can occur following topical, oral, or injected administration of certain medications. These medications absorb ultraviolet wavelengths of sunlight and then distribute them transdermally (through absorption by the skin), resulting in cell death. Symptoms occur a few days after treatment and can last up to twenty years after the treatment’s cessation.

Drugs that cause photosensitivity can exacerbate existing skin conditions and may precipitate or exacerbate certain autoimmune disorders, such as lupus. Drugs that most commonly cause photosensitivity are in the following drug classes: antianxiety medications, antibiotics, anticholesterol medications, antidepressants, antiepileptic medications, antifungals, antihistamines, antihypertensives, diuretics, neuroleptic medications, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs), and vaccinations.

Side effects of chemotherapy:
Chemotherapy drugs are often among the most toxic, given that their function is to destroy or otherwise mitigate tumor tissue. Hence, these agents often have strong side effects that are managed by other drugs. Among the side effects of chemotherapy are alopecia (hair loss), anemia, anorexia, anxiety disorders, bradycardia, congestive heart failure, constipation, decreased fertility, depression, diarrhea, dyspnea (shortness of breath), fatigue, febrile neutropenia, heart arrhythmias, hypertension, incontinence, insomnia, lymphedema, mucositis (mouth sores), nausea, peripheral neuropathy (nerve damage), pulmonary infections due to a compromised immune system, renal (kidney) damage (sometimes requiring dialysis), skin and nail changes, and vomiting.

Other procedures, therapies, and treatments: Diagnostic procedures, and non-drug-related therapies or treatments, such as surgery and radiation therapy, can also cause side effects.

Diagnostic procedures. Imaging procedures are among the most common diagnostic procedures. For example, a patient undergoing computed tomography (CT) scan with ingestion or injection of contrast medium may undergo a reaction to the contrast dye. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may induce headache or nausea resulting from the noise of the machine or, in cases where contrast is used, injection site pain. Nuclear scans, including positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) scans, may cause fever or (rarely) tissue damage.

Nonpharmaceutic therapies or treatments. Side effects may also result from non-drug-related therapies or treatments, including acupuncture, blood product transfusions, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, metabolic therapy, plasmapheresis (for prevention of potential side effects), radiation therapy, surgery (including bone marrow, organ, or peripheral blood stem cell transplantation), and whole-body heat therapy. For cancer patients, toxic side effects may occur from radiation exposure, but risk is minimized by limiting the volume of tissue irradiated.

Nutritional supplements. All vitamins and other nutritional supplements can cause side effects. Hypervitaminosis, or toxicity due to the cellular storage of an overabundance of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), is the primary cause of nutritionally related side effects. For example, acute vitamin A toxicity can cause alopecia, blurry vision, bone calcification or inflammation. Symptoms of chronic vitamin A toxicity include alopecia, fatigue, dizziness, drowsiness, nausea, kidney damage, liver damage, elevated cholesterol, and prostate cancer. Toxic doses of mineral supplements can occur with excessive amounts of iron and zinc. Herbal supplements can cause side effects as well; dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), valerian, and yohimbe are only a few examples of herbals that can have toxic and sometimes life-threatening side effects. Herbal supplements can also negatively interact with prescription preparations like anesthesia, anticoagulants, and beta- blockers.

One reason that nutritional supplements can be particularly dangerous concerns the way they are regulated: Manufacturers of supplements are not required to test those supplements for either safety or efficacy prior to marketing them. Unless a manufacturer makes specific claims that a supplement can treat, cure, or prevent a specific disease, that manufacturer does not need to prove to the FDA that those claims are true, provide quality assurance that the supplement actually contains what the label states that it contains, or provide quality control to ensure that the supplement is contaminant-free.

Diseases and conditions: Having a specific disease or condition may predispose an individual to experience side effects. Moreover, disease-related physiologic changes may cause pharmacodynamic anomalies and resultant reduction in drug efficacy or increase in incidence of drug-related adverse events.

Cancer’s side effects include bone metastasis, resulting in pain, fracture, and resultant hypercalcemia due to calcium from damaged bone being released into the bloodstream. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia causes alterations in the immune system, resulting lysis (dissolution) of red blood cells. Retinoblastoma results in glaucoma, eye pain, and vision loss.

A comorbid condition a concurrent condition that is unrelated to the primary disease may also predispose an individual to experience side effects and precipitate disease-related physiologic changes that may cause pharmacodynamic anomalies and resultant reduction in drug efficacy or increase in incidence of drug-related adverse events. In the case of cancer, a variety of comorbidities have side effects that mitigate treatment.

Some comorbid conditions may predate the primary disease, while others develop after onset of the primary disease. For example, cancer treatment may be compromised by comorbidities such as compromised cardiac or lung function (which makes the patient a poor surgical risk and a poor risk for concomitant chemotherapy and radiation therapy); Alzheimer’s disease (which makes the patient a poor risk for brain irradiation to counteract brain metastasis); and diabetes, hypertension, renal problems, or congestive heart failure (all of which interfere with the healing process). Cancers that affect comorbid conditions, on the other hand, include small-cell lung cancer (SCLC), which may cause Lambert-Eaton syndrome (LEMS) and resultant muscle weakness.

Special populations: Drug therapy used by those in certain subpopulations geriatric, pediatric, and adult females requires increased vigilance given the possibility of increased incidence of drug side effects at dosages that would otherwise be considered therapeutic.

Geriatric populations. Clinically significant age-associated differences in a drug’s efficacy profile or safety profile can occur in the elderly, who tend to take more medications, which increases the potential for drug reactions and drug-drug interactions. The elderly also have a decreased metabolic rate, which increases both a drug’s mean residence time in the body and the resultant potential for toxicity. Often, these drug-related side effects which can include fatigue, weight loss, and loss of balance are attributed to natural aging changes, signs or symptoms of underlying diseases, and an existing or newly acquired medical condition rather than to the drugs themselves. Therefore, dosing both by body weight and by metabolic rate is an important consideration in the elderly population.

Pediatric populations. Drug-related side effects are of great concern regarding those in the pediatric population, in which drugs can have a significant impact on growth, development, and maturation at many levels: behavioral, cognitive, immunological, physiological (organ systems), physical, sexual, and skeletomuscular.

Additional concerns include the possibility of teratogenicity (genetic mutations) or of reductions in body weight gain. Also of concern is the possibility that, because of differences in developing systems as opposed to mature, adult systems, drug-related adverse events or drug interactions may not be immediately identifiable but rather may be manifested at a later state of growth, development, or maturation.

Women. The risk of drug-related side effects is sometimes gender-dependent. Hormonal differences, including cyclic hormonal variations as well as physiologic differences, may cause women to be at greater risk for side effects than men. The tendency for women both to weigh less and to have a higher percentage of body fat also predisposes them to the possibility of additional side effects related to toxicity. With respect to body fat, a certain amount of drug is often stored in adipose tissue for later release, thereby resulting in an amount of drug present systemically that exceeds the intended therapeutic dose, given the cumulative effect of the administered dose combined with release of previously stored drug. Another concern for women is the possibility of impairment of fertility and the possibility of maternal or fetal risk during pregnancy. Therefore, dosing by body weight is an important consideration in managing a drug’s safety margin for women.

Lifestyle: Lifestyle choices can either increase or decrease the likelihood of the incidence of adverse events. Certain lifestyle choices, moreover, are associated with both negative and positive side effects. An example of the latter is caffeine consumption (via chocolate, certain soda drinks, coffee, tea): Positive effects include bronchodilation (an effective asthma treatment), decreased fatigue, and increased alertness; negative effects can include dizziness, impairment of fine motor control, increased excretion of calcium (contributing to osteoporosis), increased respiratory rate, insomnia, and tachycardia.

Negative lifestyle choices include smoking and alcohol or narcotic consumption. The negative side effects associated with smoking include cardiopulmonary adverse events, increased incidence of certain forms of cancer, and increased incidence of complications following breast reconstruction surgery. The negative side effects associated with alcohol or narcotic consumption include hypertension and hepatic adverse events, including an increased risk of acute liver failure resulting from acetaminophen hepatotoxicity.

Positive lifestyle choices include healthy eating habits, optimal weight maintenance, and regular exercise. The positive side effects of these choices may include an overall improvement in general health, a decrease in blood pressure, a decrease in cholesterol levels (LDL and triglycerides), a reduction in heart attack risk, and a reduction in stroke risk.

Beneficial side effects: Although the term “side effects” has an inherently negative connotation, not all side effects are undesirable, unwanted, or deleterious to one’s health. In certain instances, a side effect can actually be desirable. In addition to beneficial side effects from positive lifestyle choices, unintended beneficial side effects have been associated with certain drugs. This often results in their off-label (unindicated) use for their efficacy in treating conditions for which they were not originally developed. Examples include aspirin, which in addition to being used as an analgesic has a beneficial side effect as an anticoagulant in helping to prevent heart attacks. Similarly, DMSO (approved for treatment of interstitial cystitis) can improve the efficacy of certain chemotherapy drugs, and tamoxifen (used to treat breast cancer) may be useful in preventing breast cancer and also decreases blood cholesterol levels. It should be noted, however, that these drugs can be associated with negative side effects as well.

Cukier, Daniel, et al. Coping with Chemotherapy and Radiation Therapy. 4th ed. New York: McGraw, 2004. Print.

Dicato, Mario. Side Effects of Medical Cancer Therapy: Prevention and Treatment. New York: Springer, 2013. Print.

Galloway, D. “Treating Patients with Cancer Requires Looking beyond the Tumor.” OncoLog 49.7/8 (2004). Print.

Kelvin, Joanne, and Leslie Tyson. One Hundred Questions and Answers about Cancer Symptoms and Cancer Treatment Side Effects. 2nd ed. Sudbury: Jones, 2011. Print.

Physician’s Desk Reference, 2014. 68th ed. Montvale: PDR, 2013. Print.

Is Ferdinand presented as a one dimensional lover in The Tempest?

Ferdinand appears in several scenes and is a big part of the story. He is also definitely not a dynamic or a round character in the way that, say, Prospero is. A dynamic character is a character who goes through an important change during the course of the story (Ebenezer Scrooge is a good example, as are most main characters). Similarly, a round character is someone who is more fully developed and has a complex personality. Again, this is important for main characters, but can be less so for side characters. 

Ferdinand doesn't undergo any changes of character through the play; while he does fall in love with Miranda, this hardly seems out of character for him. This makes him a static character (the opposite of dynamic). He also has a pretty cardboard cutout type personality. Unlike the round character of the tragic hero, who has several heroic qualities and a fatal flaw, Ferdinand seems to have a pretty simple, straight-forward personality. He is a flat character because he is just as he seems on the surface: kind, genuine, and quick to fall in love. There just isn't much more to him than that. 

For a deeper explanation of flat vs round characters, check out the links below!

What are themes and poetic elements in Mrs. Benjamin Pantier, Benjamin Pantier, Hamilton Greene, Chase Henry, and Elsa Wertman?

Benjamin Pantier

Theme of the poem: A formerly ambitious attorney is defeated by life and ends up a lonely alcoholic with no other companion but his dog. He loved a woman, his wife, whom he accuses of "[snaring his] soul," or making him feel small.

Metaphors: "Down the gray road" indicates the path toward death. Benjamin mentions all of the "friends, children, men, and women" who have passed "one by one out of life." "In the morning of life" indicates his youth -- the time in which he knew "aspiration and saw glory."

Imagery: "Snared my soul / With a snare which bled me to death" is a powerful image. A snare is a device with a loop that is used to trap animals. This image contributes to Benjamin's sense of his own helplessness in the face of his wife's supposed manipulations.

Alliteration/Consonance: "Then she, who survives me, snared my soul..." This line is alliterative, emphasizing the "s" sound. The result is like that of a hissing snake, which is a parallel Edgar Lee Masters may have wanted to draw to depict Benjamin's opinion of his wife.

Mrs. Benjamin Pantier

Theme of the poem: A woman dissatisfied with her husband, who she felt was beneath her. There is, too, an admission that her husband could not meet her sexual needs, either because she was too disgusted by him, or she simply desired more than one man.

Symbolism: "Whiskey and onions" are contrasted with Mrs. Pantier's "delicate tastes." Onions sauteed in whiskey might go on a hamburger, for example -- common food, unsuited to Mrs. Pantier's refined palate. This gustatory symbol indicates one of the ways in which Mrs. Pantier finds her husband's tastes unsuitable to her own.

Allusion: Though the reference is more direct than allusion generally permits, the references to Wordworth's "Ode: On Imitations of Immortality from Recollections in Early Childhood" and William Knox's "Mortality" are important. The "rhythm" of the "Ode" runs through Mrs. Pantier's ears, while her husband repeats bits of "that common thing" ["Mortality"] "from morning till night." The Wordsworth poem is a romantic paean to the glory of life and youth, spoken by a narrator on his deathbed. The Knox poem is more cynical and envisions both life and death as unremarkable. Each person's poetic preference is an indication of his or her personality and outlook on life, both of which are incompatible.

Idiom: "Marital relation" is, arguably, more of a euphemism than an idiom -- that is, it is a milder phrase than "sexual relations." However, it could apply as an idiom in that the phrase has a meaning that, according to Merriam-Webster's, "cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements."

Chase Henry

Theme of the poem: The town drunkard -- infamous in life -- is, ironically, "honored" in death by being haphazardly buried beside the town banker and the banker's wife. The point is that one's reputation and position in life are largely owed to chance.

Symbolism: The banker Nicholas and his wife Priscilla symbolize the well-respected upper-class to which Chase did not belong. They were probably the sort of people who would have shunned him.

Idiom: "Cross-currents."

Assonance: "When I died the priest denied me burial / In holy ground. / The which redounded to my good fortune." There is repetition of the long "i" sound in "died" and "denied" creating a bit of rhyme. There is the same pattern with the uses of "ground" and "redounded."

Hamilton Greene

Theme of the poem: A man who, unlike many of the characters in the volume, believes he had a charmed life: good parents, a good lineage, and professional success. Of course, this is undermined by Elsa Wertman's previous revelation about Hamilton's father, Thomas, and our understanding that she is Hamilton's birth mother. Hamilton is the embodiment of a secret.

The other poetic devices you've mentioned are not present here. However, you could argue that, when talking about the traits he inherited from his parents, those traits are respectively representative of what is deemed feminine ("vivacity, fancy, language") and masculine ("will, judgment, logic"). "Will," in light of Thomas Greene forcing himself on Elsa, has both a positive and negative meaning here.

Elsa Wertman

Theme of the poem: Elsa's pain is that of a vulnerable young woman who may have been raped, was impregnated as a result, and, for the rest of her life, bears the shame and secrecy of all that resulted from that encounter.

Imagery: "Blue-eyed, rosy, happy, and strong" emphasize Elsa's former innocence and her sense of fortitude, which was taken from her as a result of what was probably rape. 

What school did Robert “Bob” Sheldon go to in The Outsiders?

S.E. Hinton never reveals the name of the high school that Robert "Bob" Sheldon attends in the novel The Outsiders. Bob Sheldon was Cherry Valance's Soc boyfriend who died after Johnny stabbed him out of self-defense. In Chapter 11, Ponyboy is looking through Sodapop's old high school yearbook and comes across Bob's sophomore picture. The reader knows that Bob attended the same high school as the Curtis brothers, but the specific title of the high school is never given.

In the mid-1960's Hinton attended Will Rogers High School located in Tulsa, Oklahoma, which is the assumed setting of the novel. The Outsiders was inspired by two rival gangs who continually battle throughout Hinton's hometown. The reader can assume that Bob Sheldon attended Will Rogers High School, which was Susan Hinton's alma mater because the setting of the novel was based on her experience in high school.

When Anne and the family first go into hiding what is Anne afraid of the most?

Anne is afraid that their hiding place will be discovered.  They are above a business, and the only thing between them and the business is a hidden door behind a bookcase.  They have to be very quiet during the day so no one will hear them. 

The fear is a realistic one.  One time the tenants of the Secret Annex were not warned that a carpenter was coming to refill the fire extinguishers in the offices below. They were not being quiet at the time, because they were not expecting anyone, and then they heard hammering from below.  Anne says the carpenter put his tools right by their bookcase, and they all “turned white with fear.” 

I was so scared I nearly fainted at the thought of this total stranger managing to discover our wonderful hiding place. Just when I thought my days were numbered, we heard Mr. Kleiman's voice saying, "Open up, it's me." (Tuesday, October 20, 1942) 

Apparently the bookcase door lock got stuck and no one was able to warn them.  This incident is an example of how the family was always living in fear that someone would discover them.  They knew that if they were found out they would be sent to a concentration camp and likely death would result.  The same fate would likely befall anyone who helped them.

How were the Australian prisoners of war treated by the Japanese?

In general, the Japanese had a strong disdain for prisoners of war.  Culturally speaking, the Japanese did not believe in surrender or capture, so they looked down on the prisoners of war that were under their care.  During World War II, the Japanese were notorious for their brutal treatment of prisoners of war, regardless of their origins.  Over 22,000 Australian prisoners were captured during the war.  Eight thousand died under the supervision of the Japanese. Most died of malnutrition and were treated with brutality and malice.  The Japanese also used Australian prisoners of war to build rail lines in different locations throughout their Pacific Empire.  Over a thousand prisoners of war perished on ships that were accidentally torpedoed by the Allies.  This happened because the vessels were unmarked and the Allies did not realize prisoners were on board.  

What is the effect of the quote "I have bought the mansion of love but not possessed it" in Romeo and Juliet?

This quote is from Juliet's soliloquy in Act Three, Scene 2. She is waiting for Romeo to come and spend the night with her so they can consummate their marriage. By this statement, she is saying she has married Romeo, but not fully yet made her marriage and her union with him whole. Of course, this soliloquy is full of dramatic irony. The audience knows what Juliet does not: Romeo has just complicated his marriage by killing Tybalt. This line demonstrates several things to the audience. First, it underscores Juliet's powerful love for her new husband and her strong sexual desire for him. In context, the audience will realize that even though the young couple does consummate their marriage, Juliet will never fully enjoy the "mansion of love" because she will not be able to live and grow old with Romeo. This sad reality was revealed in the play's Prologue, and events in the previous scene have pushed the plot toward this tragic conclusion. 

Why might ice on a car windshield disappear as you drive even without the use of a heater?

The process you are asking about is called sublimation, which is when water changes state from solid to gas without first becoming a liquid. Certain conditions make it more likely for sublimation to occur. Sunlight, low relative humidity, and dry wind are all conditions that are catalysts for ice changing to air. Sublimation cannot occur without heat produced by energy.

There are a number of factors that can cause the ice on the windshield to sublime. There are energy sources in a car that may create heat. These sources include body heat and the energy created by the engine. The intense wind created by the movement of the car against the air also creates energy. On a dry day, this wind will be even more effective in the process. Even if sublimation does not occur, evaporation may take place. The wind may melt the ice into small droplets of water that are simply blown off by the force of the wind around the car.

What is a problem and solution in Number the Stars by Lois Lowry?

One problem is that the Rosens are Jewish, and the solution is for Henrik to smuggle them to Sweden.

The story is set during World War II in Denmark.  Denmark is a very small country, so it could not do much to stop the Nazi occupation.  This did not mean that Denmark did not fight back.  The Resistance helped get Jewish people to safety so they would not be captured by the Nazis and sent to concentration camps or killed.

Annemarie’s friend Ellen is Jewish.  Annemarie is old enough to understand that the Nazis are targeting Jews, and that soon it will not be safe to be Jewish in Denmark.  She is aware that Sweden is still free, and that Ellen has to get to Sweden to be safe. 

"Oh, Ellen," she went on. "You will love it there. It is where my grandparents lived, where Mama and Uncle Henrik grew up. It is so beautiful—right on the water. You can stand at the edge of the meadow and look across to Sweden!" (Ch. 6) 

Although everyone is affected by the war, Annemarie is aware that the situation is more serious for Jews.  She only vaguely understands the movements of the Resistance.  Uncle Henrik and her father talk about fishing, and he says that her mother is going to bring Henrik cigarettes.  Annemarie knows there are no cigarettes, and it is Ellen that her mother is going to bring.  Henrik will smuggle her to Sweden. 

For Annemarie, the knowledge that her friend in danger is confusing and depressing. 

Annemarie felt a surge of sadness; the bond of their friendship had not broken, but it was as if Ellen had moved now into a different world, the world of her own family and whatever lay ahead for them. (Ch. 10) 

She doesn’t fully comprehend how Ellen and the Rosens will be rescued at first.  However, she does contribute to the Resistance effort by playing messenger, because she is young and no one will suspect her.  Annemarie learns that she can be brave because she has to be.

Who were the literary heroes during the Age of Enlightenment? I'm supposed to name two heroes of this time period. As I understand it, Daniel...

Yes, you are absolutely on the right track!

The Age of Enlightenment refers to the time period when literature turned toward the exploration of much different themes than it had previously covered, including that of the natural state of man, the nature of civilization, social upheaval, and shifts in personal status.  

The Enlightenment aimed to celebrate ideas and reasoning, with a surge of writers who used satire to attack the previously held beliefs or institutional practices of the eighteenth century. That is where Jonathan Swift enters the scene (as you mentioned!) with Gulliver's Travel, which took a witty look at the travels of surgeon Lemuel Gulliver and examined themes of the individual versus society, the importance of self-awareness, and the roles that power and moral correctness play in people's social lives. Gulliver's Travels was a product of the Enlightenment (again, as a function of the rise of satire and the novel), even if the writing within it sometimes critiqued aspects of the Enlightenment--particularly the new conception of truth as a series of factual claims. So, yes, in that sense, Gulliver could be seen as an "anti-hero." He is educated, but gullible and lacks a sense of awareness about his own self and the world around him. 

The other character you pointed out--Daniel Defoe's titular character in Robinson Crusoe--is, on the other hand, a perfect representative of Enlightenment ideals. The book is told through a first person perspective, with Crusoe constructing his own world out of the materials available to him in the wild and attempting to civilize the "savages" he encounters. This book is widely considered the first English novel, and was an immediate success. 

So, yes, the answers you intend to give are correct. If you're interested in continuing to research this topic, you might also look into the realistic social novels of Samuel Richardson (particularly his epistolary work, Clarissa) and Tobias Smollett. 

Pliny the Younger, Letter 1.4: Could any part of the relationship between Pliny and his mother-in-law, Pompeia Celerina be described as patronage?

It is difficult to ascertain a sense of patronage from Pliny the Younger's Letter 1.4 alone. We know that Pliny's mother-in-law Pompeia Celerina was a wealthy woman in her own right, most likely being the daughter of a wealthy member of the Roman consulate--a consul was the highest elected political office in the Roman Republic--and in her first marriage, the wife of a proconsul (a governor appointed by the Senate) (Shelton, 2012, p. 259). We also know that she married at least twice, and it is equally likely that given her status, she married wealthy men. Pliny, himself being a consul appointed by Emperor Trajan, was wealthy, as well, and patron of the towns of Umbria after his uncle's (Pliny the Elder) death. One of his duties as patron would have been to travel to the estates in his region to make sure they were being managed well and profitably. It is possible that the visit to which Pliny refers in Letter 1.4 is in this line of duty. Pompeia lived in the region of Umbria, so it could be said that Pliny was her patron, and his letter to her contains some hints that this was true. First, Pliny writes "that some of my own property is scarcely so completely mine as is some of yours" and that he is "more thoroughly and attentively looked after by [Pompeia's] servants" than he is by his own. The first statement indicates that Pliny feels so at home at Pompeia's villas that it's as if he owns them, in which case, Pompeia would live there by his leave; the second indicates that her servants recognize his authority.

On the other hand, it is equally possible that Pompeia was Pliny's patron. According to Shelton (2012), "in-laws were expected to help finance a man's political career" (p. 261), and she also suggests that Pompeia had "sent a brief written message to the staffs of her villas, alerting them that Pliny had her approval to stay at them" (emphasis mine, p. 262). Pliny's Letter 1.4 also seems to support this: "My letters--for now there is no need for you to write--will have shown you how pleased I am, or rather the short letter will which I wrote long ago." This statement seems to indicate that Pompeia had indeed once written a letter to her staffs that Pliny was welcome anytime and that he no longer required a letter of consent each time he wished to visit. In addition, it was Pliny himself who chose the letters that were published; it is possible that he chose the publication of this letter, and the attention it would have brought to Pompeia, as a way to show his gratitude to her for her generous support (Shelton, 2012, p. 264).

From either perspective, it seems clear that Pliny and Pompeia shared a close relationship of mutual trust and affection for many years. 

What is the difference in the impact of art therapy and art?

The difference in the impact of art therapy and art is in the purpose of, and human reaction to, each.

The subject of the impact of art on individuals, populations, communities, and education has been and continues to be studied. In general, the impact of art is based on one’s emotional response to it, no matter the medium. It is believed that understanding and being involved in artistic endeavors such as music or painting enriches lives. For some, art impacts their understanding of history through works from pre-biblical times to contemporary work. Some believe that exposure to and participation in the arts is paramount to student learning, while others believe the arts simple cause people to express and react to beauty and pleasure that would not exist without artistic outlets.

On the other hand, the purpose of art therapy is to aid in the healing of individuals from social and emotional trauma. Art therapy is a distinct form of psychotherapy. It is a creative release, facilitated by an art therapist or psychologist, in both individual and group settings. People are encouraged to express their emotions through artistic creations in order to deal with life’s challenges, illnesses, and relationships.

Art therapy helps people resolve conflicts, improve interpersonal skills, manage problematic behaviors, reduce negative stress, and achieve personal insight. Art therapy also provides an opportunity to enjoy the life-affirming pleasures of art making.